MINGGU #2

THE HUMAN
INFORMATION
PROCESSING MODEL
LABORATORIUM PERANCANGAN SISTEM KERJA DAN ERGONOMI
TEKNIK INUSTRII
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

WHY COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS ???

Cognitive ergonomics has become increasingly important relative to
physical ergonomics because of several trends in industry and technology :
Growth in the service industry sector of the economy relative to the
manufacturing sector.
Increase use of mechanization and automation in physical tasks, requiring
workers to monitor and control processes that have previously performed
manually.
Increased use of technologically sophisticated equipment that is cognitively more
challenging to operate, maintain, and repair.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

WHAT IS COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS

???
COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS is concerned with the
capabilities and limitations of the HUMAN BRAIN
and SENSORY SYSTEM while performing activities
that have a significant information processing
content. Cognitive activities include reading, writing,
listening, speaking, thinking, learning, planning,
designing, calculating, problem solving, diagnosing,
decision making, and interacting with a computer.

COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS considers how the

HUMAN MIND PERCEIVES its environment
and PROCESS INFORMATION.

Next figure presents a useful model that reveal how

these cognitive function are performed.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

GENERIC MODEL OF HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

SYSTEM
CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

3 attention
resources
1 2 5

response response
perception
selection executio
sensory n
register
thought decision
making

working memory
4

long term memory

 CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

attention
resources
1

response response
perception
selection executio
sensory n
register
thought decision
making

working memory

long term memory

ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

1 SENSORY
A human receive stimuli fromREGISTER
sources of energy both external and internal the
body. Some of these stimuli are sensed by RECEPTORS [the body’s sensory organs]
:
▪ EXTEROCEPTORS [receptors that sense external stimuli]
Exteroceptors associated with the five human sense : vision, hearing, touch, smell,
and taste. The two most important exteroceptors are the eyes and ears for seeing
and hearing. It is estimated that about 80% of human information input is by
means of vision, and about 15% to 19% of the input is by means of hearing.
▪ PROPRIOCEPTORS [receptors that sense internal stimuli].
Proprioceptors are located in muscle, tendons, and joints in the
body
 CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

attention
resources
2

response response
perception
selection execution
sensory
register
thought decision
making

working memory

long term memory

ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

2 PERCEPTION
PERCEPTION refers to the stage of cognition in which the human becomes
aware of the sensation caused by the stimuli and interprets it in the light of his
or her experience and knowledge.
Some illustrations :
a. The operator of a production machine in a factory sees the blinking yellow
light suddenly switch on, indicating that the supply of raw material is
almost exhausted. The yellow light is the stimulus that is sensed. The
perception is the need to resupply more raw material to the machine.
b. The driver of a car hears the honking of the truck close behind her on an
interstate highway. The honking is the stimulus that is sensed. The
perception is that the truck is dangerously close.
c. The welder smell the odor garlic in the air. The odor is the stimulus that is
sensed. The perception is that acetylene is escaping from the container, with
the imminent danger of an explosion when combined with the oxygen in the
air.
d. The salesperson looks up and sees a customer waiting for service. The sight
of the customer is the stimulus that is sensed. The perception is the need to
provide the service.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF
2 PERCEPTION: Signal Detection Theory
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY (SOT), also referred to as the theory of signal
detection (TSO), is applicable to situations in which there are two
discrete states (signal and no signal) that cannot easily be
discriminated.
Examples would include detecting a cavity on a tooth x-ray, detecting
a blip on a radar screen, or detecting a warning buzzer in a noisy
factory.
CONCEPT OF NOISE. A central concept in SOT is that in any situation there is
noise that can interfere with the detection of a signal.
This noise can be generated externally from the person (e.g., noises in a
factory other than the warning buzzer, or electronic static and false
radar returns on a radar screen) and internally within the person (e.g.,
miscellaneous neural activity).
This noise varies over time, thus forming a distribution of intensity from
low to high. The shape of this distribution is assumed to be normal (bell-
shaped).
When a "signal" occurs, its intensity is added to that of the background
noise. At any given time a person needs to decide if the sensory input
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF
2 PERCEPTION: Signal Detection Theory
POSSIBLE OUTCOMES. Given that the person must say whether a
signal occurred or did not occur, and given that there are only two
possible states of reality (i.e., the signal did or did not occur), there are
four possible outcomes:
Hit: Saying there is a
signal when there is a
signal.
False alarm: Saying
there is a signal when
there is no signal.
Miss: Saying there is no
signal when there is a
signal.
Correct rejection: Saying
there is no signal when
there is no signal.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF
2 PERCEPTION: Signal Detection Theory
RESPONSE CRITERION. SOT postulates that a person sets a criterion level
such that whenever the level of sensory activity exceeds that criterion. the
person will say there is a signal present. When the activity level is below
the criterion, the person will say there is no signal.
beta is the ratio (signal to noise)
of the height of the two curves
at a given criterion point.

As the criterion is shifted

to the right, we would say
that such a person is being
conservative.
On the other hand, as the
criterion is shifted to the
left, we would say such a
person was being risky.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF
2 PERCEPTION: Signal Detection Theory
SENSITIVITY. That is keenness or resolution of the sensory system.
Sensitivity is measured by the degree of separation between the two
distributions.
The sensitivity measure is called d' and corresponds to the separation of
the two distributions expressed in units of standard deviations (it is
assumed that the standard deviations of the two distributions are equal).

The greater the separation, the

greater the sensitivity and the
greater the d', In most
applications of SDT, d' ranges
between 0.5 and 2.0.
 CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

3 attention
resources

response response
perception
selection executio
sensory n
register
thought decision
making

working memory

long term memory

ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

3 ATTENTION
RESOURCES
ATTENTION RESOURCES occupy an important position in our model of human
information processing. Attention means keeping one’s mind on something. It
is involves mental concentration and readiness for such concentration.

In cognitive ergonomics, several types of attention can be distinguished :

, SELECTIVE ATTENTION, FOCUSED ATTENTION, DIVIDED ATTENTION,
and SUSTAINED ATTENTION.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

ATTENTION RESOURCES : SELECTIVE

3
ATTENTION
SELECTIVE ATTENTION refers to the situation in which a person is required
to monitor multiple sources of information in order to perceive irregularities
or opportunities.
Some examples :
a. A pilot scanning the airplane’s instrument panel, looking for readings
that would explain the panel’s erratic behavior.
b. A driver periodically checking the gauges and dials on the dashboard while
watching the road ahead
c. A football quarterback watching the opposing team’s defensive line for
weaknesses that might be exploited in the next play.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

3 ATTENTION RESOURCES : FOCUSED

ATTENTION
As in selective attention, task involving FOCUSED ATTENTION force the individual
to cope with multiple input channels, but the difference is that the person must
focus on only one channel for a sustained period of time and exclude all of the
other stimuli.
The person attends to the one stimulus [or a small number of stimuli] and is not
distracted by the others, which can be considered as noise.
Some Examples :
a. Having a concentration with one friend in a crowded room full of people who
are also talking
b. Having a concentration with two friends in a crowded room full of people
who are also talking
c. Reading a book in an airport lobby while other activities are going on in the
area
d. A fighter pilot landing his air plane on the deck of an aircraft carrier during
rough seas
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

3 ATTENTION RESOURCES : DIVIDED

ATTENTION
There are again multiple stimuli present, but the difference here is that
multiple tasks must be performed together.
The term TIME-SHARING is sometimes used for this type of situation
Some examples :
a. Driving a car while having a conversation with the passenger in the car
b. Driving a car while talking to someone on a cell phone
c. A machine operator attending several machines in a machine cluster
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

3 ATTENTION RESOURCES : SUSTAINED

ATTENTION
SUSTAINED ATTENTION a. k. a vigilance, involves a situation in which an
individual must watch for signal of interest over a relatively long period of time,
and it is important to avoid missing the signal.
Some example :
a. An inspector looking for defective products moving along conveyor line
on their way to packaging
b. A radar operator on a U.S. Navy cruiser monitoring a radar screen for
incoming enemy aircraft of missiles.
c. A security guards observing a bank of TV monitors showing scenes of various
locations in a building and looking out of intruders.
d. A parent waiting up for a teenage son on his first night out with the family car
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

3 ATTENTION RESOURCES : LACK OF ATTENTION &

BOREDOM
LACK OF ATTENTION means not concentrating on the task.
It results in a diminished state of readiness to perform the task. It is usually caused
by BOREDOM – the state of being weary and restless due to lack of interest.
Factors that lead to boredom :
a. short cycle times
b. low requirement for body movement
c. warm environment
d. lack of contact with coworkers
e. low motivation
f. low lighting levels in workplace.
 CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

attention
resources

response response
perception
selection executio
sensory n
register
thought decision
making

working memory
4

long term memory

ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

MEMORY : WORKING
4
MEMORY
WORKING MEMORY is a term for both the short – term store of whatever
information is currently active in central processing, and also for a kind of
“workbench” of consciousness in which we compare, evaluate, and transform
a cognitive representation [temporary “workbench” of the mind].
Examples of working memory :
a. Looking up a phone number and then holding it in working memory until we
have completed dialing the number
b. A nurse rehearsing the instructions given by the doctor until they can be
executed,
c. The use of working memory to “hold” the subsums while we multiply two two-
digit number together.
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

4 MEMORY : LONG TERM

MEMORY
LONG TERM MEMORY involves the storage of information after it is no longer
active in working memory and then the retrieval of the information at a later point
in time.

working memory

temporary holding of information that is active

long term memory

re - activation of
information
 DISCUSSION #1

what can we do due to limitations

of working memory ???
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

ANSWER OF DISCUSSION #1
1. Minimize working memory load
2. Provide visual echos
3. Exploit chuncking
4. Minimize confuse ability
5. Exploit different working memory codes
6. Ordering of text and instructions
 DISCUSSION #2

what are some ways that we can design

the environment and systems within it so
that people do not have problems, errors,
accidents, and inconveniences due to poor
retrieval from long term memory ???
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

ANSWER OF DISCUSSION #2
1. Encourage regular use of information
2. Standardize
3. Use memory aids
4. Carefully design information to be remembered
5. Encourage active verbalization or production of information that is to be
recalled
6. Design information to be consistent with existing mental models and
population stereotypes
7. Design to support development of mental models.
 DISCUSSION #3

what are the difference loci, peg

word, keyword, organizational
scheme, additional systems???
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUE

A mnemonic adalah teknik atau alat seperti ritme atau sebuah gambar
yang digunakan secara umum untuk mengasosiasikan informasi yang
akan disimpan sebagai ingatan dan proses mengingat kembali informasi
sebagai memori
Terdapat 5 buah metode dalam teknik mnemonic yaitu metode loci,
metode peg word, metode key word, metode organizational schemes dan
metode additional system
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUE

MNEMONIC KARAKTERISTIK CONTOH

Loci Visualisasi TBR (to be Lampu taman : interior di
recalled) pada ikon-ikon garasi Welcome : Pintu depan
ruang atau tempat yang Softdrink : dapur
sering dilihat atau
diingat.
Peg Word Mengasosiasikan kata Istilah baru : Zrononk (lafal : zrahn-oak)
baru atau konsep baru Keyword: oak (pohon oak)
dengan daftar
kata-kata yang sudah
diketahui
Key Word Membentuk sebuah Bahasa rusia : Kacca (lafal: kassa) arti
jembatan interaktif : chasier
antara lafal kata dan Suara yang mirip (dlm Inggris) : caught ya
sebuah kata yang Dan ketika membayar tagihan : gotcha
familiar.
 ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUE

MNEMONIC KARAKTERISTIK CONTOH

Organizationa Menstrukturkan Daftar kata atau konsep disusun dalam
l Schemes beberapa kata yang hirarki yangterstruktur dan saling
memiliki hubungan arti terkait. Misal untuk mengingat nama
raja-raja, disusun berdasarkan silsilah
turun- temurun.
Additional Menggunakan awal POLKA ,untuk mengingat :
System karakter dari huruf P : Peg words
(akronim) atau prase O : Oragnizational Schemes
(akrostik) sebagai L : Loci
kunci dalam K : Key word
mengingat. A : Additional System
 CENTRAL
PERCEPTUAL ENCODING PROCESSING RESPONDING

attention
resources
5

response response
perception
selection execution
sensory
register
thought decision
making

working memory

long term memory

ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

5 RESPONSE SELECTION AND EXECUTION

RESPONSE SELECTION is the cognitive process of figuring out what actions to take.
RESPONSE EXECUTION means carrying out the action
ERGONOMI KOGNITIF

COMMON COGNITIVE
DECISION MAKING
TASK
DECISION MAKING is the cognitive operation in which a person makes a
judgment to select one alternative over other possible alternatives in order to
achieve some objective or satisfy some criteria.

PLANNING
PLANNING is the mental process of devising a detailed method for doing or
making something.

PROBLEM SOLVING
A problem is a question or issue that has been raised for solution or consideration.
The solution may require mathematical calculation, brainstorming, analysis,
diagnosis, evaluation of alternative, creative design work, or combination of these
cognitive activities. Problem solving requires attention resources directed at the
interaction between information stored in long term memory and operations
carried out in working memory. Most problem solving task engage all of the
functions in the human information processing cycle.
[thank you]