MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONFLICT

IN CONFLICT-AFFECTED WATERSHEDS

IN THE PHILIPPINES: THE CASE

OF AGUSAN RIVER

BASIN

by

Haroun-Al-Rashid I. Jaji

A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the
Doctor of Philosophy Degree
State University of New York
College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Syracuse, New York
December 2011

Approved: Graduate Program in Environmental Science

___________________________________ ______________________________
Richard Smardon, Major Professor Hugh Canham, Chair
Examining Committee

___________________________________ ______________________________
Ruth Yanai, Director S. Scott Shannon, Dean
The Graduate School
© 2011
Copyright
H. I. Jaji
All rights reserved
 Acknowledgements

Alhamdulillah!

I would like to thank the following who significantly contributed to the success of my
academic endeavor at SUNY-ESF:

To my academic advisor, Professor Richard Smardon, not only for his mentoring and
guidance, but also for his wisdom and insights in getting my dissertation done.
To my committee members, Dr. Peter Angelo Castro, Dr. Delfin Ganapin, Jr., Dr. John
Ferrante and Dr. Jane Read for their willingness to be part of the committee and their
contribution to enriching the quality of my dissertation.
To the Philippine-American Educational Foundation headed by its Executive Director,
Dr. Esmeralda Cunanan and Senior Program Officer, Ms. Maria Angela Dizon, who
persistently monitored the progress of my program, the Fulbright Program, the Armed
Forces of the Philippines, the International Tropical Timber Organization, the
International Tropical Social Forestry Fund and the SUNY-ESF for the scholarships,
awards, and the financial assistance.

To the indigenous peoples, household farmers and security forces who participated in
this research, the representatives from various institutions and organizations who
granted me interviews, my SUNY-ESF and SU colleagues from the Philippines and the
research assistants who helped me in the data collection in the critical areas in the
Basin and in encoding the data collected.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my mother, Inah, my spouse,
Gong, and our two kids, Coy and May.

Magsukul!

iii
 Table of Contents

List of Tables .................................................................................................................. vii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. ix

List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... xi

List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. xii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... xix

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Study .......................................................................................... 1

1.2 Key Issues in the Basin ............................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Forest and Land Degradation ............................................................................ 3
1.2.2 Prime and Protected Lands Encroachment......................................................... 4
1.2.3 Land Tenure and Border Conflict ....................................................................... 4
1.2.4 Flooding Problems .............................................................................................. 5
1.2.5 Declining Water Quality....................................................................................... 6
1.2.6 Weak Governance .............................................................................................. 6
1.2.7 Absence of Basin-Wide Management ................................................................. 7
1.2.8 Security Issues .................................................................................................... 8
1.2.8.1 Presence of Insurgents as Informal Regulators ........................................... 8
1.2.8.2 Natural Resource Use Conflict ..................................................................... 8
1.2.8.3 Lack of Security of Environment Workers .................................................. 10
1.3 Rationale ................................................................................................................. 10
1.4 Review of Literature and Statement of the Hypothesis............................................ 12
1.5 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................ 30
1.6 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................... 30
1.7 Methodology and Organization of the Study ........................................................... 31
1.8 Scope and Delimitations of the Study...................................................................... 37
1.9 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 2. UNDERSTANDING COMPONENTS OF THE CASE STUDY: THE

AGUSAN RIVER BASIN.......................................................................... 40

2.1 Restatement of Purpose.......................................................................................... 40

2.2 Physical Setting ....................................................................................................... 40
2.2.1 Location, Land Characteristics and Climate ...................................................... 40
2.2.2 Topography, Slope and Elevation ..................................................................... 45
2.2.3 Natural Disasters............................................................................................... 49
2.2.4 Land Classification ............................................................................................ 51
2.2.5 Land Use and Cover ......................................................................................... 55
2.2.6 Mineral Resources ............................................................................................ 59

iv
 2.2.7 Water Resources ............................................................................................ 60
2.3 Socio-Economic Profile ........................................................................................... 64
2.3.1 Population ......................................................................................................... 64
2.3.2 Economy and Employment ............................................................................... 67
2.3.3 Poverty .............................................................................................................. 72
2.3.4 Education .......................................................................................................... 74
2.3.5 Health................................................................................................................ 76
2.3.6 Stakeholders in the Basin ................................................................................. 78
2.4 Synopsis .................................................................................................................. 84

CHAPTER 3. CONFLICT SITUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE AGUSAN RIVER

BASIN AND ITS PERIPHERY ................................................................ 86

3.1 Restatement of Purpose.......................................................................................... 86

3.2 Historical Perspective on Land Use......................................................................... 87
3.2.1 Colonial Period .................................................................................................. 87
3.2.2 Extractive Industries in the Early Post-War ....................................................... 88
3.2.3 Martial Law Period ............................................................................................ 89
3.3 Key Resource Management Policies....................................................................... 90
3.3.1 Revised Forestry Code ................................................................................... 90
3.3.2 Stewardship Contracts ..................................................................................... 91
3.3.3 Local Government Code .................................................................................. 92
3.3.4 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act......................................................................... 93
3.3.5 Mining Policies .................................................................................................. 94
3.3.5 Other Watershed Management Policies............................................................ 95
3.4 Indigenous Peoples in the Basin ............................................................................. 96
3.5 The Impact of the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act ................................................ 102
3.6 Communist Insurgency.......................................................................................... 106
3.7 Conflict Management and Resolution Outcomes .................................................. 110
3.7.1 Environmental Information Flow ...................................................................... 110
3.7.2 Conflict Resolution and Mechanisms in Indigenous Communities .................. 113
3.7.3 Underpinning Role of Civil Society Organizations ........................................... 116
3.7.4 Civil-Military Cooperation in the Basin............................................................. 121
3.8 Synopsis ................................................................................................................ 125

CHAPTER 4. ECOSYSTEM-BASED GOVERNANCE OF A CONFLICT-AFFECTED

ZONE .................................................................................................... 126

4.1 Restatement of Purpose........................................................................................ 126

4.2 Development Framework ...................................................................................... 126
4.3 Organizational Framework on Collaborative Management.................................... 132
4.3.1 Statistical Treatment of the Data ..................................................................... 141
4.3.2 Analysis of Environmental Knowledge and Perception ................................... 142
4.3.3 Test of Hypotheses ......................................................................................... 147
4.3.3.1 Workshop Results .................................................................................... 147
4.3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation of Survey Results ........................................... 153

v
4.4 Intervention Strategies .......................................................................................... 161
4.4.1 Institutional Reforms ....................................................................................... 161
4.4.2 Greater Participation in Governance ............................................................... 162
4.4.3 Enhance Conflict Resolution Mechanism ........................................................ 163
4.4.4 Information, Education and Communication Campaigns ................................ 164
4.4.5 Capacity Building ............................................................................................ 165

CHAPTER 5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............... 167

5.1 Restatement of Purpose........................................................................................ 167

5.2 Summary of the Study ........................................................................................... 167
5.3 Conclusions and Recommendations ..................................................................... 179
5.3.1 Institutional Framework and Arrangement ...................................................... 179
5.3.2 Balance of Power on Resource Control and Benefit Transfer ........................ 181
5.3.3 Multi-Faceted Intervention Approach .............................................................. 183
5.3.4 Security as Key Component in Natural Resource Management .................... 184
5.3.5 Further Studies and Research ........................................................................ 187
5.3.5.1 Detailed Mechanisms on Participation of Security Forces ....................... 187
5.3.5.2 Replicate Study at a Sub-Watershed Level .............................................. 188

Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 189

References .................................................................................................................. 195

Appendices ................................................................................................................. 203

Resume ....................................................................................................................... 229

vi
 List of Tables

Table No. Page

1.1 Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 39

2.1 Size of Land Area .............................................................................................. 42

2.2 List of Identified River Basins in the ARB .......................................................... 43

2.3 Land Area of Provinces by Slope ...................................................................... 47

2.4 Land Area of Sub-Watersheds by Slope ............................................................ 49

2.5 Land Classification ............................................................................................. 52

2.6 Land Use ............................................................................................................ 56

2.7 Monthly and Annual Rainfall of Sub-Watersheds .............................................. 61

2.8 Unit Water Consumption for Regions ................................................................ 62

2.9 Water Demand for Domestic, Municipal and Industrial Use .............................. 63

2.10 Water Analysis in the ARB ................................................................................. 64

2.11 Status of Irrigation Development as of December 2009 .................................... 64

2.12 Population, Land Area, and Density .................................................................. 65

2.13 Population Size by Municipality and Growth Rates in ARB, 1960-2007 ............. 66

2.14 Gross Regional Domestic Product 2005-2009 ................................................... 68

2.15 Per Capita Gross Regional Domestic Product 2005-2009 ................................ 68

2.16 Gross Value Added by Industry, Davao Region ................................................ 69

2.17 Gross Value Added by Industry, Caraga Region ............................................... 70

2.18 Household Population 15 Years Old and Over by Employment Status ............. 72

2.19 Annual Per Capita Poverty Thresholds and Incidences of Families ................... 73

2.20 Annual Per Capita Poverty Thresholds and Incidences of Population ............... 74

vii
2.21 Basic Literacy and Functional Literacy Rate of Population 10 years and
Over ................................................................................................................... 74

2.22 Net Participation and Cohort Survival Rate in Public and Private Elementary
Schools ............................................................................................................... 75

2.23 Net Participation and Cohort Survival Rate in Public and Private Secondary
Schools ............................................................................................................... 76

2.24 Morbidity (per 100,000 population) in 2004 ........................................................ 77

2.25 Ten Leading Causes of Morbidity and Morbidity for Caraga Region .................. 77

2.26 Ten Leading Causes of Morbidity and Morbidity for Davao Region .................... 78

3.1 Historiography of Land Use in the Philippines ................................................... 88

3.2 Population by Ethnicity in the ARB, 2000 ........................................................... 99

3.3 CADT Issued in Compostela Valley.................................................................. 105

3.4 CADT Issued in Agusan Del Norte and Agusan Del Sur .................................. 106

4.1 Response of Survey ......................................................................................... 140

4.2 Likert Scale Used in the Survey........................................................................ 141

4.3 Distribution of the Responses on the Definition of a Watershed ....................... 143

4.4 Perception towards the Environment by Respondents ..................................... 144

4.5 Factors Affecting the Respondents’ View on the Condition of the

Environment ..................................................................................................... 145

4.6 Perceptions on Degree of Collaboration by Respondents ............................... 154

4.7 Perceptions on Level of Involvement by Respondents ..................................... 156

4.8 Perceptions on Degree of Responsibility by Respondents .............................. 159

viii
 List of Figures

Figure No. Page

1.1 Proposed Watershed-Based Water Resource Management Framework .......... 14

1.2 Three Dimensions of Water Governance in the Philippines .............................. 15

1.3 Provincial Boundaries of ARB ............................................................................ 17

1.4 Organizational Structure of Mekong River Commission .................................... 20

1.5 Special Operations Framework of Security Forces in Counter-insurgency

Campaign ........................................................................................................... 25

1.6 Framework of Collaboration .............................................................................. 29

1.7 Sub-basin Map of ARB ...................................................................................... 35

2.1 Map of the Philippines ....................................................................................... 41

2.2 Physical Boundaries Map of ARB ...................................................................... 44

2.3 Elevation Map of ARB ....................................................................................... 46

2.4 Land Area of Provinces by Slope ....................................................................... 47

2.5 Slope Map of ARB ............................................................................................. 48

2.6 Land Classification of ARB ................................................................................ 53

2.7 Land Classification Map of ARB ......................................................................... 54

2.8 Land Use and Cover Map of ARB ...................................................................... 58

2.9 Population Census ............................................................................................. 65

2.10 Gross Value Added by Industry of Davao Region .............................................. 69

2.11 Gross Value Added by Industry of Caraga Region ............................................ 71

2.12 Cross-section of the Stakeholders of ARB ........................................................ 82

3.1 Environmental Information Flow in a Conflict-Affected River Basin ................. 112

4.1 Convergence Development Areas in Agusan del Sur ...................................... 130

ix
4.2 Sampling Sites.................................................................................................. 134

4.3 Respondents’ Response to Watershed Definition ........................................... 143

4.4 Factors that Affect Respondents’ View about the Environment ....................... 145

4.5 Framework of a Successful Watershed Management ..................................... 148

x
 List of Appendices

Appendix A Questionnaire for Farmers and Indigenous Peoples.............................. 203

Appendix B Questionnaire for Security Forces ......................................................... 207

Appendix C Semi-structured Questionnaire for Indigenous Peoples/Farmers .......... 211

Appendix D Semi-structured Questionnaire for Management Actors ....................... 213

Appendix E Semi-structured Questionnaire for Security Forces .............................. 214

Appendix F Results of the Survey ............................................................................ 215

Appendix G Approved Syracuse University Institutional Review Board Free-and-Prior-

Informed Consent Statement for Interviewees ....................................... 227

xi
 List of Acronyms

ACCORD - Army Concern on Community and Rural Development

A & D – Alienable and Disposable

ADB - Asian Development Bank

AFP - Armed Forces of the Philippines

ALPS - Army Literacy Patrol Systems

ANOVA - Analysis of Variance

ARB - Agusan River Basin

ARBGB – Agusan River Basin Governing Board

BFAR - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

BSWM - Bureau of Soils and Water Management

BWSA - Barangay Water System Association

CAA - Citizens Armed Forces Geographical Units (CAFGU) Active Auxiliary

CADC - Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim

CADT - Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title

CARP - Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program

CARES - Community Assistance and Rural Empowerment through Social Services

CBFMA - Community-Based Forest Management Agreement

CCPD - Caraga Conference for Peace and Development

CDA - Convergence Development Area

CENRO – Community Environment and Natural Resource Office

CGB - City Government of Butuan

CLT - Certificate of Land Transfer

xii
CLUP - Comprehensive Land Use Plan

CMO - Civil-Military Operations

CMO NCO - Civil-Military Operations Non-Commissioned Officer

CNI - Commission on National Integration

CSC - Certificate of Stewardship Contract

CSO - Civil Society Organization

CTIIEC – CTI International Engineering Company, Ltd.

DA - Department of Agriculture

DAO - Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order

DAR - Department of Agrarian Reform

DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources

DepEd - Department of Education

DF - Degree of Freedom

DND - Department of National Defense

DOE - Department of Energy

DOH - Department of Health

DOT - Department of Tourism

DPWH - Department of Public Works and Highways

EMB - Environmental Management Bureau

EO - Executive Order

FAO - Food and Agriculture Office

FTAA - Financial or Technical Assistance Agreement

FLGMA - Forest Land Grazing Management Agreement

xiii
FPIC –Free and Prior-Informed Consent

GAA - General Appropriations Act

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GIS - Geographic Information Systems

GOCC - Government-Owned and Controlled Corporation

GOP - Government of the Philippines

GPS - Global Positioning System

GRDP - Gross Regional Domestic Product

IEC - Information, Education and Communication

IFMA - Industrial Forest Management Agreement

IKS - Indigenous Knowledge Systems

IP - Indigenous People

IPRA – Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act

IPSP - Internal Peace and Security Plan

IRA – Internal Revenue Allocation

IRBM - Integrated River Basin Management

ISO - Internal Security Operations

ITDS - Integrated Territorial Defense System

IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management

JBIC - Japan Bank for International Cooperation

JC - Joint Committee

KPNEDPA - Kalikasan People’s Network for the Environment and the Defend
Patrimony! Alliance

LCM - Local Communist Movement

xiv
LGA - Local Government Agency

LGU - Local Government Unit

LGUMTP - Local Government Unit Management Training Project

LMDA - Lake Mainit Development Alliance

LPCD - Liters per capita per day

LWUA - Local Water Utilities Administration

MRB – Mekong River Basin

MRC – Mekong River Commission

MDB - Murray-Darling Basin

MDBA - Murray-Darling Basin Authority

MDC - Mineral Development Council

MDG - Millennium Development Goals

MENRO - Municipal Environment and Natural Resource Office

MGB - Mining and Geosciences Bureau

MINDA - Mindanao Development Authority

MIPCPD - Mindanao Indigenous Peoples Conference for Peace and Development

MOA - Memorandum of Agreement

MRC - Mekong River Commission

MTPDP - Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan

MWSS - Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage Systems

NCIP - National Commission on Indigenous Peoples

NDCC – National Disaster Coordinating Council

NDF - National Democratic Front

xv
NDSC - National Development Support Command

NEDA - National Economic and Development Authority

NGO – Non-Governmental Organization

NIA - National Irrigation Administration

NIPAS - National Integrated Protected Areas System

NLUC - National Land Use Committee

NPC - National Power Corporation

NPFP - National Physical Framework Planning

NSCB - National Statistical Coordination Board

NSDW - National Standards for Drinking Water

NSO - National Statistics Office

NWRB - National Water Resources Board

OCD – Office of Civil Defense

OG2 - Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence

OMACC - Office of Muslim Affairs and Cultural Communities

OSCC - Office for Southern Cultural Communities

PAFID - Philippine Association for Intercultural Development

PAWB - Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau

PANAMIN - Presidential Assistance on National Minorities

PCARRD - Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and Development

PD - Presidential Decree

PDI - Philippine Daily Inquirer

PDT – Peace and Development Team

xvi
PENRO - Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office

PGADN - Provincial Government of Agusan Del Norte

PGCV - Provincial Government of Compostela Valley

PGADS - Provincial Government of Agusan Del Sur

PHO - Provincial Health Office

PIA - Philippine Information Agency

PMA - Philippine Military Academy

PMO - Project Management Office

PMT- Project Management Team

PNP - Philippine National Police

PO - People’s Organization

PPFP - Provincial Physical Framework Plan

RA - Republic Act

RDC - Regional Development Council

RPFP - Regional Physical Framework Plan

RWSA - Rural Water System Association

SAFDZ - Strategic Agricultural and Fisheries Development Zone

SALT - Sloping Agricultural Land Technology

SIFMA - Socialized Industrial Forest Management Agreement

SUDECOR - Surigao Development Corporation

TLA - Timber License Agreement

TWG – Technical Working Group

xvii
UNDP - United Nations Development Program

USIP - United States Institute of Peace

WB - World Bank

WCI – Woodfields Consultants, Inc.

WD - Water District

xviii
Abstract
H. I. Jaji. Managing Natural Resources and Conflict in Conflict-Affected Watersheds in
the Philippines: The Case of Agusan River Basin, 232 pages, 38 tables, 25 figures,
2011

The study analyzes and describes the conflict and natural resource management in
Agusan River Basin (ARB) in the context of ecosystem-based management.
Specifically, it aims: (i) to describe the existing physical and socio-economic conditions
of the ARB; (ii) to determine and analyze the factors that influence the collaborative
partnerships among stakeholders of the ARB; (iii) to identify the existing governing and
institutional mechanisms of the natural resource management of the ARB; (iv) to
describe and analyze the conflict situation in the ARB; and (v) to recommend
management strategies and measures.

The researcher collected data through a six-month long fieldwork tour. First, the
researcher studied the policy documents to review and assess relevant existing policies
on natural resource and security management. Second, the researcher, using a
snowball sampling method, interviewed key informants and stakeholders involved in or
affected by collaborative partnerships in the ARB. Third, interviews using stratified
random sampling were conducted among migrant farmers, indigenous peoples and the
security forces who were deployed in the Basin. The survey questions seek to know the
respondents’ environmental knowledge, security perception, behavior towards the ARB,
and perception towards natural resource management. Finally, the researcher observed
and participated in the ARB management consultation workshop attended by key
management actors in Davao City.

The researcher used the documents review, descriptive-content analysis and

descriptive and inferential statistical treatment of data in analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data to provide a comprehensive assessment of the physical, socio-
economic and institutional profile of the ARB and its security situation. Major findings in
the study are: (i) imposed and incoherent policies breed conflict; (ii) lack of convergence
alters power dynamics; (iii) dysfunctional government agencies push stakeholders to
shop for alternative venues of cooperation; (iv) traditional conflict resolution
mechanisms should be optimally used; (v) security forces are potential partners in
natural resource management; and (vi) organization of the ARB Governing Board is
imperative for a collaborative framework management.

Keywords: watershed, institution, conflict, management, collaboration

H. I. Jaji
Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, December 2011
Richard C. Smardon, Ph.D.
Graduate Program in Environmental Science
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Syracuse, New York
Richard C. Smardon, Ph.D. ______________________________

xix
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Differences in the use of natural resources by people in many places have often caused

conflict within a society. This is increasing and intensifying in the Philippines and in a

majority of the rural areas, it has escalated to violence as manifested in the country’s

insurgency problem which is deeply rooted in the mismanagement of natural resources.

The dimension, level, and intensity of conflicts vary from one place to another. These

conflicts may have class dimensions where natural resource owners are pitted against

those who benefit from the productivity of natural resources, political dimensions which

may arise when the government tries to preserve control over public good and socio-

cultural dimensions because of “differences in gender, age, and ethnicity” (Buckles and

Rusnak 1999, 1-3). Conflicts over natural resources generally cause environmental

degradation, disrupt projects and undermine livelihoods (Asian Development Bank

(ADB) 2008).

In the Philippines, problems related to natural resources are exerting tremendous

pressure on society as a whole. The ADB (2008) in its report on the Integrated Natural

Resources and Environmental Management Sector Development Program of the

Philippines states that watersheds are indeed “vital resources for the well-being of the

society” (ADB 2008, 1). These watersheds, which are a source of livelihood for rural

communities, are continually degraded causing significant contribution to poverty,

inequality, and loss of livelihood (ADB 2008). The need to come up with an innovative

1
approach to address the deteriorating problem of natural resource management is

deemed imperative. Natural resource management through an integrated basin

approach is indeed necessary to address the multi-dimensional problems brought about

by human-environment interaction. This scenario is fairly exemplified by the Agusan

River Basin (ARB) which is the case under study.

Watersheds in the Basin are continually degraded but are being rehabilitated by

the government. Occurrence of floods in the area downstream is attributed to the

denudation of watersheds and the irrigation systems are also largely affected by heavy

siltation (ADB 2004). The ADB (2004) stressed that mining operations in the upstream

provinces of Compostela Valley and Agusan Del Sur are widespread and do not follow

standard guidelines on mining practice. The problems in the Basin are compounded by

rapid population growth, demands for raw materials both locally and internationally,

unsustainable agricultural practices, and inconsistencies in government policies (CTI

International Engineering Co., Ltd. (CTIIEC), Halcrow, and Woodfields Consultants, Inc.

(WCI) 2008; Provincial Government of Agusan Del Norte (PGADN), Provincial

Government of Agusan Del Sur (PGADS) and Provincial Government of Compostela

Valley (PGCV) 2010).

Despite the abundance of natural resources in the Basin, the optimum use of

such resources to bring about much needed socio-economic development is far from

being realized. ADB (2004) stressed that the insufficiency of water supply during dry

season that badly affects agricultural production. On the other hand, during the wet

season recurrent overflow of the river inflicts damage to lives, properties, agricultural

and infrastructure facilities. Mining activities barely contribute to the improvement of

2
living conditions of the rural populace. The appalling conditions of both the conflict

situation and natural resources in the ARB require efficient management to address

problems of food and security, water scarcity and pollution, and the degradation of the

watersheds and ecosystems in the Basin. The desired objective is to optimize the

sustainable economic benefits and social welfare with equity for all populations living in

the Basin (ADB 2004).

1.2 Key Issues in the Basin

1.2.1 Forest and Land Degradation

Natural resource degradation is caused by population pressure, unsustainable farming

practices and illegal activities. Timber poaching and shifting cultivation in the uplands

largely caused the degradation of forest and land in the Basin (City Government of

Butuan (CGB) 2010). Illegal extraction of both forest and land resources underpin this

deleterious condition. The small-scale mining industry in the uplands, particularly in

Mount Diwata and in the upstream region, and the rapid denudation of forest lands are

serious conditions that require attention to arrest their disastrous ramifications.

Irresponsible mining practices, particularly the use of explosives and dangerous

chemicals, pose hazards both to those involved in mining and the peripheral

communities (PGCV 2010). Small-scale mining activities are largely responsible for the

opening up of lands causing landslides and flashfloods. Loss of forest cover not only

causes drought and floods that could damage crops, properties and lives but also

3
affects the microclimate condition in a way that is detrimental to biodiversity in the Basin

(PGADN 2010).

1.2.2 Prime and Protected Lands Encroachment

The increasing population pressure has greatly impacted the land use in prime and

protected lands. Prime agricultural lands are converted into residential, industrial and

other non-agricultural use. More people migrate from urban to rural areas since they

depend largely on natural resources for their livelihood. This contributes to forest loss

as more forestlands are converted for agricultural use. Irrational use will ultimately lead

to degradation of the environment because of forest denudation, soil erosion and low

productivity of agricultural lands (PGADN 2010). Mining areas in the Basin are located

in forestlands and protected areas, but mining exploration and development are

considered as development priority areas for economic reasons (PGADS 2010). Such

conditions make socio-economic and environmental undertakings difficult to harmonize

since protected areas are highly indispensable to the development of rural communities

(PGCV 2010).

1.2.3 Land Tenure and Border Conflict

Confusion reigns in land tenure and land use in the Basin. Management actors would

agree about the inconsistency of actual land use and the current classification schemes

4
(Cariño 2009). 1 The prevailing conflict over land use tenure is primarily caused by

overlapping provisions issued by the government. Boundary conflict between

municipalities and provinces has caused problems in mining revenue (CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008). Similarly, conflict is also generated because of overlapping rights

between large- and small-scale miners (PGCV 2010). The lingering interests of

influential business entities also hinder implementation of government programs and

can eventually lead to the privatization of the communal lands of indigenous peoples

(IPs). Its ramification is deleterious to indigenous communities and could further

radicalize the indigenous peoples (IPs) (Madrigal et al 2005).

1.2.4 Flooding Problems

Continuing increase in the siltation of the Agusan River and its tributaries, low basin run-

off, excessive erosion and the poor drainage systems in many settlements largely

contribute to the flooding in the Basin. The inherently low elevation in some areas,

irresponsible mining activities, deforestation and unsustainable farming practices in the

uplands are the main factors that cause flood occurrence (PGCV 2010). These

conditions pose serious risk to life, property and livelihood particularly in the upstream

and downstream areas of the Basin. However, flooding is considered essential to the

ways of life of many communities in the midstream, particularly in the Agusan Marsh

which basically serves as a catch basin for waters from the neighboring provinces. In

the area upstream where most mining activities take place, flashfloods and landslides

1
The author of this draft article discourages using it for citation but the researcher finds most of
her arguments are valid.

5
frequently occur. Navigation has also become difficult in some waterways in the river

systems, and this is compounded by “dumping of domestic and commercial solid

wastes into the bodies of water” (CGB 2010, chap. 6, 9-10).

1.2.5 Declining Water Quality

Population pressure, intensive irrigation, mining, and logging activities are the main

factors that contribute to the increasing scarcity of water and the deterioration of its

quality (PGADN 2010). Public health issues related to water are causing serious

problems because of an increasing number of incidents. Mining activities contribute to

water pollution; small-scale miners are deemed largely responsible because of their

failure to comply with safety standards. Deforestation, which is fairly attributed to

logging activities and to unsustainable farming practices in the Basin, causes the

waterways and river channels to deteriorate because of increasing siltation and

sedimentation with higher erosion rates. Land productivity and loss of biodiversity are

also among the problems resulting from degradation (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008,

vol 6). The indiscriminate dumping of domestic and commercial garbage also

contributes to the pollution of these water bodies, making the availability of potable

water more difficult (CGB 2010).

1.2.6 Weak Governance

6
Illegal activities in the Basin continue to thrive, as manifested by the presence of

settlements in protected areas, slash-and-burn or kaingin farming, and illegal extraction

of forest and mineral resources. CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) in their study of the

Basin cited that “environmental destruction could be attributed primarily to an

institutional defect” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol 6: 9-10). This is underpinned

by the lack of public awareness on livelihood-environment link as well as government’s

efforts in natural resource management. The policing efforts of the government leave

much to be desired because of issues on meager resources and commitment of field

personnel. Further, communities in the Basin and particularly in indigenous domains

feel the lack of control about the situation and less participation in local decision-

making. The management actors and other key stakeholders do not act in a cohesive

and coordinated manner in the Basin management (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

1.2.7 Absence of Basin-Wide Management

The present state of the Basin is characterized by poor planning, weak policy-making,

weak enforcement of laws, poor knowledge base, institutional fragmentation, and under-

utilization of natural resources (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI (2008) stress that there is a need to develop stakeholders’ participatory

framework and mechanisms, particularly for community involvement and accountability;

effective governance and political stability should also be promoted. Key stakeholders

in the Basin are aware about the impact of the Basin development decisions on the

environment and that this requires “tighter and more controlled linkages in diverse

7
sectoral Basin initiatives” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008), vol 5: 3-6). The

institutional arrangements in the ARB, according to CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008),

are characteristically fragmented, uncoordinated and un-integrated; therefore

institutional stakeholders see the need for an ARB authority.

1.2.8 Security Issues

1.2.8.1 Presence of Insurgents as Informal Regulators

In some parts of the uplands in the Basin, insurgents have placed shadow governments

and have gained control of remote villages and indigenous communities (Office of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, 4th Infantry Division (OG2 4ID) 2005). Members of

the indigenous tribes were duped and coerced by insurgents on the promise of

regaining eventual control over their domains (Madrigal et al 2005). The insurgents

have been in their domains for more than three decades now (Project Management

Team, 4th Infantry Division (PMT 4ID) 2007). The absence of security forces in some

areas and a lack of self defense leave some rural folk helpless as the insurgents

imposed their will on the rural communities (Madrigal et al 2005). The insurgents serve

as informal regulators in the Basin, collecting revolutionary taxes mainly from mining

and logging industries and enforcing compliance by threat and violence (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008; OG2 4ID 2010).

1.2.8.2 Natural Resource Use Conflict

8
Conflict over the use of natural resources is prevalent in some areas of the Basin

among indigenous communities, settlers and those in the extractive industries of logging

and mining. This involves issues of land tenure, mining claims, encroachment, and

unauthorized land sale among others, exacerbated by remote and inaccessible location

and poor government services. In some gold rush areas where mining is unregulated,

lawlessness is taken advantage of by insurgents and other armed groups (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008; OG2 4ID 2010). Indigenous communities are also used by

insurgents as guerilla bases for insurgents and armed groups providing refuge and food

for combatants (OG2 4ID 2010). Conflict impacts forests by disrupting the living

conditions of both indigenous and migrant communities, badly affecting their livelihood.

Indigenous peoples (IPs) whose livelihoods are central to the forests are forced to resort

to violence to “prevent the onslaught” against their natural resources and their way of

life (Madrigal et al 2005).

A news article about insurgents’ activities in Agong, (Agong, November 1,

2007), 2 the official newsletter of the Mindanao Indigenous Peoples Conference for

Peace and Development (MIPCPD), reported the assassination of approximately 318

tribal leaders since 1982. The MIPCPD has presented documents on atrocities

committed by the insurgents and urged the authorities to end the killings and acts of

terrorisms in their domains. The MIPCPD signed a memorandum of understanding

(MOU) with the security forces in Mindanao providing the IPs an enlistment quota of five

percent into the regular security force to help them defend their domains.

2
Agong is the official newsletter of the Mindanao Indigenous Peoples Conference for Peace and
Development (MIPCPD).

9
 1.2.8.3 Lack of Security of Environment Workers

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) (Philippine Daily

Inquirer (PDI), December 27, 2010) reports that forest workers, in the performance of

their duties, are threatened, intimidated and murdered by illegal loggers and miners who

have their own private security groups. A total of over 100 DENR employees have been

killed and injured since 1990, most of them in the Caraga region. A non-government

organization (NGO) named Kalikasan avers that a total of 40 environment workers who

were mostly engaged in anti-mining activism have been murdered in the last decade.

Skirmishes between security forces and the insurgents make it difficult for DENR

employees to carry out their functions, particularly in remote areas where armed

encounters usually take place.

1.3 Rationale

This study will determine and understand the underlying factors on natural resource and

conflict management in the Agusan River Basin (ARB) that could lead to develop

interventions and improved policy on the target audience -- the grassroots segment in

the ARB whose livelihoods are affected most. This shall serve as an input for the

Mindanao Development Authority (MINDA), 3 the government agency that promotes and

coordinates the active participation of all sectors to effect the socio-economic

3
The MINDA was created through Republic Act 9996 as an agency that integrates Mindanao’s
Agenda and effectively articulates these agenda to national government priorities and provides strategic
direction for Mindanao, among other functions of the agency (MINDA 2010).

10
development of Mindanao, 4 the local governments covered by the ARB and the Armed

Forces of the Philippines (AFP), among others. The MINDA has come-up with a timely

and relevant approach to achieve its development objectives by adopting an

ecosystem-based management system, particularly in areas involving multiple

provinces and regions (MINDA 2010). The local government units (LGUs) from the

provincial down to the village level may greatly benefit from the study, as it will provide a

novel and reinforcing framework for collaboration on the natural resource management

deemed crucial to rural development. The development activities of the security forces

in its effort to defeat the insurgency could be supplemented with development initiatives

coming from different sectors, firming up its involvement in the delivery of basic services

and development projects in the countryside and the subsequent accomplishment of its

mission. Other sectors from civil society, including NGOs, the academe, and people’s

organizations (POs), can clearly benefit from the inclusive participatory character of this

model of natural resource management, which addresses issues and concerns they

found difficult to address before.

The improved collaboration among stakeholders is expected to help in the

national development as this inclusive partnership aims to address the socio- economic

concerns of rural communities. It could also help strengthen the social fiber of a diverse

society that has been adversely affected and divided by colonization and the seemingly

exclusive policies of mainstream society. It could greatly contribute to national security

as other sectors that were marginalized before are enticed to participate in a new venue

of collaborative management. Further, public administration within the context of the

4
The Island of Mindanao is situated in the Southern part of the country with a land area of
roughly 35% of the entire Philippine archipelago (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

11
military institution could lead to a clearer understanding of how to address the root

causes of insurgency in the region and in the country in general.

1.4 Review of Literature and Statement of the Hypothesis

Buckles and Rusnak (1999) cite four reasons why conflicts occur. First, one’s action in

an environment has an effect on the other even though it is far off-site. Second, the

“shared social space among a wide range of actors where natural resources are

embedded create complex and unequal relations where those with greatest access

have great control and influence” (Buckles and Rusnak 1999, 3-5). Third, because of

increasing demand and unequal distribution, there is an expected scarcity of natural

resources which will be worsened by rapid environmental change. This is seconded by

the argument of population control advocates that such factors exacerbate poverty and

income inequality in many of the world’s least developed countries and translate into

grievances, increasing the risks of rebellion and societal conflict (United States Institute

of Peace (USIP) 2007). On the other hand, abundance may also induce conflict

because of corruption, economic stagnation, and violent conflict over access to

revenues. This is prevalent in developing countries where mineral resources have

encouraged and sustained rebel movements; the scarcity and abundance of natural

resources make countries more vulnerable to conflict (USIP 2007). Political instability

has adverse impacts on the governance structure and other infrastructures that depend

on it. Such conditions are worsened by population growth without resources to sustain,

environmental degradation, and natural resource inequality (USIP 2007). Finally,

12
natural resources are not just material resources but are also part of a particular way of

life. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2005) supports these premises by

stressing that conflicts arise because, among others, of imposed policies, lack of

harmony and coordination; poor identification of and inadequate consultation with

stakeholders, and uncoordinated planning.

Ganapin (1987, 306-308) in his dissertation about the Palawan Island Integrated

Environmental Program in the Philippines concluded that the “integration of

environmental considerations” is imperative in the development of the Island. He further

asserts that there should be a “conceptual framework on interrelationships between

development projects and the environment” from the very beginning. While

environmental components are not easy to integrate into development projects, this can

be remedied by its inclusion in “high level policy discussions at the beginning of the

project cycle”. It is also necessary to carry out “comprehensive environmental studies

before the identification of specific development projects” (Ganapin 1987, 311-312).

Francisco (2004) postulates that no national land use policy is one of the main

reasons of the abuse of watersheds in the country, which has led to chaotic conditions

in land use. Accordingly, managing through a watershed approach is a key strategy to

water resource management in the Philippines. Such an approach helps set priorities

for action and promotes cost-effective control policies, public participation and public-

private partnerships (Francisco 2004).

13
 Figure 1.1. Proposed Watershed-Based Water Resource Management Framework
(Source: Rola and Francisco 2004)

Figure 1.1 depicts the proposed watershed-based water resource management

framework for the country, which primarily consists of biophysical, legal-institutional,

economic, and sociopolitical frameworks deemed critical in managing water resources

at a watershed scale (Rola and Francisco 2004). Rola and Francisco (2004) further

affirm that institutional bodies are needed to govern the watershed unit for its water

resources and other environmental services and should have the local community

support. Communities and local government units are key factors in the success of

environmental initiatives, and institutional arrangements should be watershed-based

(Rola and Francisco 2004).

Malayang (2002) in his peer-reviewed paper on the model of water governance

in the Philippines put forward the idea that decisions and actions in water governance in

the Philippines are a result of a coming together of interests and powers of stakeholders

14
and institutions. These are influenced by a multiplicity of institutions and hierarchical

differences in authority and jurisdiction as well as in their mandates and sectoral

representation. The three-dimensions of water governance, as illustrated in Figure 1.2,

show that a governance space basically resulting from the interplay of the dimensions

on hierarchy, sectors and themes (Malayang 2002).

Figure 1.2. Three Dimensions of Water Governance in the Philippines (Source: Malayang 2002)

One of the main bases for regional clustering for development within a country is

the presence of natural geographic features like watersheds or river basins (Mercado

2002). Clustering based on landscape features has the advantage of a high level of fit in

managing the natural resources of the region using an ecosystem-based framework.

Other bases for a regional grouping are: (i) extent of economic interaction; (ii)

development level; and (iii) cultural and ethnic factors (Mercado 2002). The ARB,

however, involves two or more regional development groups. The Provinces of Agusan

15
del Norte and Agusan del Sur are in the Caraga Region while the Compostela Valley

Province belongs to the Davao Region. The Province of Bukidnon has a portion of land

within the Basin that falls under Northern Mindanao Region. The three other provinces

which have a geographic presence in the Basin are under the Caraga (Surigao del Sur)

and Davao (Davao Oriental and Davao del Norte) Regions (see Figure 1.3). The

Regional Development Councils (RDCs) were created based on a provision of the 1987

constitution that mandates that the President shall create RDCs for the decentralization

of administration and the acceleration of the economic and social growth in the region.

Membership is basically composed of the heads of LGUs, regional heads of

departments and other government offices and representatives from NGOs within the

regions (RDC Davao, 2009).

The challenges facing a region in managing natural resources at a watershed or

river basin level are not so difficult when the landscape falls entirely within that region.

However, the situation becomes more difficult if it goes beyond the physical borders of

the region. Environmental problems in an ecosystem that involves two or more political

entities are characterized by a lack of coordination (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Breaking down watersheds into sub-watersheds as planning units makes easier for the

LGUs to control and manage. Watersheds or river basins that cover more than a region

require a supra-regional body to sustain development. Institutionalizing the supra-

regional body is an imperative to compel the participation of LGU and National

Government Agencies (NGAs) within the ecosystem and provide a venue for other

stakeholders to get involved (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

16
 Figure 1.3. Provincial Boundaries of ARB (NEDA Caraga 2010)

Managing natural resources in the country on an ecosystem basis is not a novel

idea. There have been a few river basin authorities that were organized earlier but

could not be sustained (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). In the Caraga region, the

Lake Mainit Development Alliance (LMDA) was formed through a Memorandum of

Agreement (MOA) in 1995. It involved the two provincial governments of Agusan del

Norte and Surigao del Norte and four municipalities each from the two provinces and

was recognized by Resolution Number 11 of the RDC of Caraga Region. It is an

17
ecosystem-based collaboration initiative that brings together NGOs, POs and key

members from the National Line Agencies (NLAs) of the Department of Environment

and Natural Resources (DENR), the National Economic and Development Agency

(NEDA), the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Tourism (DOT), the

Philippine Information Agency (PIA) and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

(BFAR). The main proponent of the alliance is one of the mayors in Lake Mainit

municipalities; it is motivated by frequent flooding in the periphery of the Lake and by

natural resource conflict resolution. The lake has been the unifying force of the alliance.

The main objectives are the conservation of aquatic resources in the lake, the protection

and management of the lake’s watershed and the collaboration of key stakeholders

including civil society organizations (CSOs) working toward its sustainable

development. The Board of Trustees of the LMDA is its policy making body. It is

composed of the Governors of the two provinces, the eight municipal mayors, the heads

of the NLAS and NGOs representatives. Much of the success of the LMDA to date is

fairly attributed to the leadership of the project management office (PMO). 5 Despite low

budget support, changing priorities of LGUs, and the difficulty in the harmonious

implementation of the Lake’s ordinances, the under-staffed PMO as the implementing

arm of LMDA continues to deliver much needed projects with technical assistance from

NLAs and LGUs staff. 6

There are few success stories of ecosystem-based management models in the

country. However, there are river basin organizations in the Asia-Pacific Region that

have been there for a long time and have had to face similar challenges for natural

5
The Project Director of the LMDA is a former councilor and vice-mayor of Mainit municipality
and the LMDA is a brainchild credited to him.
6
The Project Management Officer of LMDA in interview with the author. August 2010.

18
resource management during their nascent stages. One of these is the Mekong River

Basin (MRB) in Southeast Asia whose poverty-stricken riparian countries have different

and conflicting political, economic and social systems while the other one is the Murray

Darling Basin (MDB) in Australia whose socio-economic context favors integrated

natural resource management with few socio-cultural distinctions and wealthy federated

riparian states but scarce water resource that has to be managed sustainably (MDBA

2009).

The Mekong River cooperation dates back to 1957. The Mekong Committee was

initiated to conduct surveys to develop the basin plan that basically served as the

foundation for natural resource planning among the riparian nations of Cambodia, Laos,

Thailand and Vietnam in the Lower Mekong (Backer 2007; MRC 2003). The six

countries in the Basin, including the upstream nations of China and Myanmar, have

different political, economic and social systems and also have different needs and

priorities in the use of natural resources in the Basin which are “partly a result of their

different levels of economic development and bureaucratic consolidation”(Backer 2007,

37). The Mekong River Commission (MRC) was established in 1995 by an agreement

among the riparian nations in the Lower Mekong. It was brought about by the urgency

for collaborative management of water resources and sustainable development of the

Mekong River and “spells out areas of cooperation, institutional framework and general

proceedings” (Backer 2007, 33-34). Its development plan is designed to involve all the

stakeholders in the planning process (MRC 2003). Contentious issues in the MRB are

water withdrawal and withholding of water through dam construction in the upstream,

19
which are complicated during the dry season mainly because of a low water table

(Backer 2007).

Figure 1.4 shows the organizational structure of the MRC, which consists of the

three permanent bodies -- the Council, the Joint Committee (JC) and the Secretariat.

The Council is the policy decision-making body of the MRC and provides guidance for

the implementation of agreement. The JC is the implementation arm of the Council and

the Secretariat is its operational arm, providing technical and administrative services

with the Council supervising the activities of the Secretariat (MRC 2009).

Figure 1.4. Organizational Structure of Mekong River Commission (www.mrcmekong.org)

20
 Funding for MRC comes from the governments of the member countries and

foreign donors, with consultation carried out through meetings with the Donor

Consultative Group, while participatory process on water use take place through the

National Mekong Committee. China and Myanmar, which both have a geographic

presence in the upstream region as dialogue partners, have a data sharing agreement

about hydrological information. The name change to MRC manifests an organizational

dynamic moving from a humble beginning in the 50s as a post-colonial organization,

known as the Mekong Committee, formed to address the needs of the Lower Mekong to

full responsibility as a commission that caters to the changing conditions of the Mekong

River (MRC 2009).

The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), on the other hand, lies in the Southeastern part

of Australia and is the catchment areas of the Murray and Darling River Systems. The

Basin includes geographic portions of the states of Queensland, New South Wales,

Victoria, and South Australia and is the main freshwater source. The state governments

in the Basin exercise full sovereign powers over their natural resources and the

Commonwealth provides funds for natural resource management to the federal states.

The local governments with financial assistance from their States “provide and operate

water supply and sanitation infrastructure and are responsible for flood protection”

(Kemper, Dinar and Blomquist 2005, 8-9).

The socio-economic context of the Basin favors integrated resource

management with few socio-cultural distinctions and a relatively wealthy and

homogenous population. Irrigators are the most dominant stakeholders with 90% water

diversion and reform initiatives favor irrigation interests (Kemper, Dinar and Blomquist

21
2005). The Murray-Darling Basin Authority (MDBA) created in 2007 is the principal

agency of the Federal Commonwealth Government of Australia and manages the Basin

in an integrated and sustainable manner in conjunction with the Basin states and the

Australian Capital Territory (MDBA 2009). The Authority reports to the Australian

Government Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and

Communities. The Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council is composed of ministers

from the State and Commonwealth governments and a representative from the

Australian Capital Territory and acts in “an advisory role in the preparation of the Basin

Plan by the Authority” (Kemper, Dinar and Blomquist 2005, 9). Staff and operations are

funded under a cooperative agreement among the participating governments (Kemper,

Dinar and Blomquist 2005). The Water Act of 2007 requires the MDBA to prepare and

oversee a Basin Plan that provides for the integrated management of all the Basin’s

water resources. The Basin Plan provides the foundation for managing the Basin’s

water resources in a way that can be sustained through time and in the national interest

(MDBA 2009). The major challenge facing the MDBA is the restoration of the river

system to a healthy state for sustainable development (MDBA 2009). The plan seeks to

protect and restore key environmental assets and key ecosystems and also takes into

account the impact of this protection and restoration on individual communities,

industries, regions and the wider economy (MDBA 2009).

The DENR of the Caraga Region, in its assessment of the ARB in 2004,

concluded that it has no sustainable and integrated watershed management program

and there is a lack of involvement and coordination among management actors and

other stakeholders in the Basin management (DENR Caraga 2004). CTIIEC, Halcrow,

22
and WCI (2008) in its comprehensive assessment of the ARB for the purpose of

formulating a master plan determined that among the key issues of the ARB are

institutional fragmentation and uncoordinated basin initiatives which have caused

environmental degradation. The Agusan River traverses three autonomous provincial

LGUs, as many as 42 municipal LGUs, and one city under the administrative regions of

Davao and Caraga (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008; DENR Caraga 2004). CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI (2008) further asserts that the lack of coordination affect the

assignment of responsibility for execution among the agencies operating within the

Basin. The subsequent ramification of this disorganization exerts too much pressure on

the degradation of the ARB. Among the activities that cause destruction are

uncontrolled and unplanned cutting of trees, unregulated mining, and water bodies’

contamination (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Key participants in the ADB-sponsored study also opined that the lack of

resources is the main reason why it is difficult to police the Basin which is primarily

caused by the meager resources and the weak commitment of field personnel. Since

major decisions that impact the Basin emanate from the central government, the

communities in the Basin do not feel they are on top of the situation especially in

projects with limited local participation. Participants recommended information,

education and communication (IEC) campaigns for the dissemination of environmental

laws, the cause and effects of unsustainable activities and the long-term benefits for

communities of better management of the natural resources. They also cited the

importance of volunteerism and community organizing to sustain environmental

23
programs and saw the unity of government officials and communities as necessary in

natural resource management (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

The involvement of security forces deputized by the DENR to go after illegal

loggers in the Basin is very limited. The AFP’s potential to be a collaborative partner in

the development of the ARB has never been optimized. Security forces carrying out

civil-military operations (CMO) basically rely on the Strategy of Holistic Approach and

Reconciliation and Peace Negotiation. The Strategy of Holistic Approach which

mandates all government agencies to be involved in addressing the country’s

insurgency problem is embodied in Executive Order (EO) No. 21 dated 19 June 2001

(Madrigal 2006). Madrigal (2006) asserts that this is deemed necessary since the

“insurgents are involved in undermining various sectors of the society” Madrigal (2006,

6-7). Further, he asserts that as a countermeasure the government’s response to the

problem should also be multi-disciplinary, coordinated, and integrated. The EO further

mandates that an internal security system should be institutionalized at all levels of

bureaucracy, that collaborative relationships should be established and that “the

operations of existing government structures should be synchronized to achieve

synergy and efficiency” (Madrigal 2006, 6-7). On the other hand, Reconciliation and

Peace Negotiation is an open-arm policy of the government to encourage the insurgents

to “lay down their arms, go back to the folds of the law, join mainstream society, and

contribute to the economic development activities of the country”(Madrigal 2006, 6-7).

Security forces also have key instruments vital to peace and development in the

impoverished countryside such as literacy programs, community development, and an

integrated territorial defense system (ITDS) in its CMO.

24
 Figure 1.5. Special Operations Framework of Security Forces in
Counter-insurgency Campaign (Madrigal 2006)

Figure 1.5 shows the framework of the security forces through its Peace and

Development Teams in carrying out its counter-insurgency campaign in the villages or

barangays influenced by the insurgents. It integrates the operational processes of CMO

efforts employing its rural development tools of community development projects and

literacy programs like the Army Community Organizing for Rural Development

(ACCORD), Community Assistance and Rescue during Emergency Situation (CARES),

Army Literacy Patrol Systems (ALPS), and CMO pillars among others, and concentrates

its implementation in one target village. Linkage with other stakeholder institutions,

particularly local government units (LGUs), line government agencies (LGAs), NGOs,

25
and POs, is necessary to enhance the technical, organizational, and financial resources

available. This is designed to facilitate the implementation of delivery of projects and

services for barangay development. This will strengthen government control as well as

rebuild confidence as the partnership of the barangay residents through the

organizations established, the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), the government

and NGOs (Madrigal 2005).

Public participation in environmental planning is now widely accepted by policy

makers and stakeholders as important and necessary (Webler and Tuler 2001).

However, the definition of public participation varies from one group to another. While

in the past the term has been used to “refer to opportunities for providing comments at

public hearings or being a member of a social movement”, the meaning of public

participation has evolved and now refers to “a variety of procedures for enabling diverse

members of the public to be active participants in deliberations about preferred policy

options” (Webler and Tuler 2001, 30). The public continues to clamor for greater

involvement in more open, transparent processes, and from government agencies

seeking legitimacy and credibility (Webler and Tuler 2001).

Webler and Tuler (2001) in their study on process about public participation in

watershed planning from experienced watershed management planners and activists

found out that there are four factors to be considered in the public participation process.

First, the process should be credible and legitimate. This makes the policies more

implementable and widely accepted but the process should be open to the public.

Second, the process should be competent and information-driven, focusing on the

production of a competent action plan. Decision making should be justified by evidence

26
and participants should be engaged with information, particularly on enlightening the

public about the watershed and its problems. Third, the process should foster fair

democratic deliberation. People should be given representation and influence in

agenda-setting and over outcomes. Finally, the process should stress constructive

dialogue and education giving primary importance to outreach programs.

Castro and Nielsen (2001) suggest caution about the impact of co-management

as a way resolving conflict. While it creates promising management conditions to

resolving conflicts and processes of natural resource management among stakeholders,

it may also trigger new conflicts or “cause old ones to escalate” (Castro and Nielsen

2001, 230). This approach may have the capacity to empower stakeholders particularly

the usually marginalized sectors like IPs and farmers but it may also “result in the co-

optation or further marginalization of local interests” (Castro and Nielsen 2001, 230-

236). Sabatier el al (2005) also raised concerns about the representation and

effectiveness of the collaborative approach to watershed management. The

representation issue accordingly will take its toll on the relatively weaker parties in the

long term where time–consuming processes will eventually exclude stakeholders with

limited resources while effectiveness of this management approach questions the

feasibility of any agreement reached by different stakeholders in resolving issues that is

characterized as a “good political compromise but may not solve the pressing issues in

the watershed” (Sabatier et al 2005, 7-10). Sabatier et al (2005) also cite the importance

of trust in collaboration where democratic processes and participation of the citizens

and stakeholders play key roles. However, the collaborative approach should have the

ability “to find a permanent niche” as this “collaborative processes may threaten agency

27
autonomy and thus create an incentive for traditional agencies to usurp control of

collaborative outcomes” (Sabatier et al 2005, 11).

At the heart of natural resource-based conflict management, resolution and

processes is the collaborative management among stakeholders in the Basin. This

collaborative conceptual framework consists of six components (see Figure 1.5). The

first component is the bio-physical aspects of the watershed that basically include

among others, the demographic, agricultural, potable and wastewater, industrial, and

environmental profile of the ARB and the areas surrounding it (Rola and Francisco

2004). The second component is the economic component which considers the

“charging of full water price and defining of property rights to water use/access” (Rola,

and Francisco 2004, 21). The third component is the effort of the government agencies

involved in the management of the watershed. The fourth component is community

support, particularly for those whose livelihoods are affected most. The fifth component

is civil-military cooperation where security forces play a crucial role in the neutralization

of the insurgents and help implement development programs and policies in the

watershed. Finally, interests of other stakeholders are taken into consideration since

watershed management must be inclusive to succeed. The need to have a watershed

development authority in the ARB is necessary in order to have a single agency that

has the power, authority and accountability in natural resource planning and

implementation (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

28
 o

Figure 1.6. Framework of Collaboration

This study hypothesizes that appropriate inclusive collaboration among

stakeholders is the key to achieving the objectives of natural resource management of

the conflict-affected watershed. This hypothesis is further subdivided, positing that: (i)

inclusive participation of stakeholders will improve collaborative processes in natural

resource management of conflict-affected watersheds; (ii) some collaborative processes

work better than others in effective natural resource management in conflict-affected

29
watersheds; and (iii) increased responsibility of stakeholders will help achieve the

management objectives of natural resources of conflict-affected watersheds.

1.5 Statement of the Problem

1.5.1 What are the factors (organizational/cultural) that influence the collaborative

partnerships among stakeholders of the ARB?

1.5.2 What are the existing governing and institutional mechanisms of the natural

resource management of the ARB?

1.5.3 What form of development authority and/or process is imperative for the

success of natural resource management at a watershed level?

1.5.4 What appropriate strategies that include security measures are suitable for

interventions in the natural resource management that affects livelihoods most in the

ARB?

1.6 Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this study is to analyze and describe the conflict and natural resource

management in a watershed affected by conflict in the context of ecosystem-based

management. Specifically, it aims:

1. To describe the existing physical and socio-economic conditions of the ARB;

2. To determine and analyze the factors that influence the collaborative partnerships

among stakeholders of the ARB;

30
 3. To identify the existing governing and institutional mechanisms of the natural

resource management of the ARB;

4. To describe and analyze the conflict situation in the ARB; and

5. To recommend management strategies and measures.

1.7 Methodology and Organization of the Study

The researcher carried out his first field observation of the ARB back in 1999 when he

was deployed in the Caraga region as an intelligence operative of the Intelligence

Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP). His primary responsibility then

was to perform intelligence operations in support of the operational campaign and

security policies of the security agencies in the region. When the all-out war in Central

Mindanao that started in 2000 against the other formidable insurgent group of the Moro

Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) was terminated in 2003, 7 the 4th Infantry Division (4ID)

focused its security operations effort against the communist insurgents of the

Communist Party of the Philippines/New People’s Army/National Democratic Front

(CPP/NPA/NDF) (PMT 4ID 2007). The operational jurisdiction of the 4ID then consisted

of the three regions where the ARB is located. The researcher in 2003 was then

reassigned to 4ID under the operations branch from ISAFP. He was involved in a

series of formulation of campaign plans against the communist insurgents and

comprehensive studies undertaken by the 4ID about the priority guerilla fronts

dismantled in its operational jurisdiction. The policy studies focused on the campaign

strategies and conflict management processes employed by the tactical units as well as
7
The Philippine Government and the MILF agreed to resume the peace talks in 2003.

31
the conditions induced by other stakeholders that include the insurgents and the

grassroots stakeholders. While his formal fieldwork for the case study ran up to six

months, his wealth of knowledge and experience about the natural resource-based

conflict situation in the Caraga and Davao Regions dates back to more than a decade,

which help in the analysis and interpretation of the data collected. Meanwhile, the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is also undertaking the

Master Plan for the Agusan River Basin Project. The Asian Development Bank (ADB)

commissioned a set of consultants to do the study about the ARB project; this includes

the CTI Engineering International Co. Ltd (CTII) of Japan, Halcrow of the United

Kingdom and Woodfields Consultants Inc. of the Philippines (CTIEIC, Halcrow and WCI

2008). The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) is also making innovations in

addressing the complex security situation not only in Mindanao but in the entire country

as well through a multi-faceted approach that includes the socio-economic, political and

cultural components of the insurgency problem (Madrigal et al 2005).

The methodologies used in this study are inspired and influenced by the

combined system of methods developed by the 4ID and the ADB consultants. The data

collected by the researcher during his six-month long fieldwork can be organized into

four categories. First, the researcher did policy documents research in the National

Capital Region where both the central offices of the security forces and other

government agencies are located, to review and assess national policies on natural

resource and security management. Data collection for physical, socio-economic,

security and institutional profiling include, among others, gathering of data from

government statistics that include the latest 2010 census, aggregate data, and reports

32
and documents from the two regions of Caraga and Davao, the three provinces and one

city located in the ARB, and from the security forces within the ARB. Sources of

information are mainly taken from the Land Use and Development and Physical

Framework Plans of the provinces and the regions in the ARB, complemented by

available aggregate data from national/regional statistical offices and campaign plans

and key documents from security forces. Collection of geographic information systems

(GIS) data from various government and non-government institutions were given careful

consideration because of conflict and sensitivity issues.

Second, the researcher interviewed key informants and stakeholders involved in

or affected by collaborative partnerships about their understanding and experiences to

determine their needs and what management strategies and conflict management are

appropriate for the development of the ARB. He selected the participants in the

interviews using a snowball sampling method -- seeking out stakeholders, management

actors and key officials of security forces affected by the key issues in the Basin who

could provide a variety of different perspectives on the problem. Key informants during

the fieldwork included: (i) the Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines and his key

staff, (ii) key staff of the Eastern Mindanao Command, Armed Forces of the Philippines

and the 4th Infantry Division, Philippine Army, (iii) former top cadre of the Communist

Party of the Philippines/New People’s Army (CPP/NPA), (iv) staff of LGUs and

Provincial and Community Environmental Officers (PENROs/CENROs), (v) Operations

Chief of the Mindanao Development Authority in Davao City, (vi) Senior Vice President

of the Wood Industry Surigao Development Corporation (SUDECOR) based in Surigao

Del Sur province, and (vii) staff of NGOs, civil society organizations (CSOs), the

33
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), National Economic and

Development Authority (NEDA), DENR, National Irrigation Agency (NIA), and the

Project Management Office (PMO) of the Cotabato and Agusan River Basin

Development Project.

Third, the interviews were supplemented by a survey of the migrant farmers and

indigenous peoples (IPs) of Agusan Del Norte, Agusan Del Sur and Compostela Valley

provinces and of the security forces of the 26th Infantry Battalion, the 30th Infantry

Battalion and the 3rd Special Forces Battalion of the Philippine Army who were deployed

in the ARB. The sample size was determined by logistics and security issues as well as

the minimum size for a study that requires statistical analysis. A population sample of

100 for each stream in the Basin with at least 30 for the three stratified groups (Pacardo

et al 2000 from Bailey 1987). The population samples were at least 100 each (upstream

- 119, midstream – 132 and downstream – 104) for the three samples of the 17 sub-

watersheds of the ARB (see Figure 1.7) and the criteria included the following: (i) the

three sub-watersheds represent the upstream, midstream and downstream of the ARB;

(ii) each sub-watershed is representative of areas with key environmental issues; (iii)

there are significant indigenous communities in each sub-watershed; and (iv) the three

sub-watersheds are all conflict-affected. The survey included questions about the

respondents’ environmental knowledge and security perception; behavior towards the

ARB; and the perception towards natural resource management. The survey questions

are inspired by the studies undertaken by the 4ID and the Chesapeake Bay Program

(McClafferty 2002; PMT 4ID 2007).

34
 Figure 1.7. Sub-basin Map of Agusan River Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008)

Finally, the researcher observed and participated in the ARB management

consultation workshop attended by key management actors and hosted by the Asian

Development Bank (ADB) in Davao City and the stakeholders’ periodic meeting at the

Caraga Conference for Peace and Development (CCPD) in Butuan City.

35
 This case study adopts the six areas of presentation based on the 12 case

studies reviewed by Castro and Nielsen (2003) about natural resource conflict

management in Asia, Africa and the Americas. The six areas are: (i) key issues

addressed in the case study and its relevance to other natural resource- based conflict

situation; (ii) context describing the physical and socio-economic setting, natural

resources and stakeholders involved in the conflict and the role of institutions from local

to national level; (iii) conflict background and history elaborating on how the conflict

situation evolved and what the causes are; (iv) conflict management and resolution

processes discussing the different strategies, techniques and procedures of how the

conflict is managed or resolved; (v) conflict management and resolution outcomes

showing the results of the processes and how they impact the stakeholders; and (vi)

lessons learned from the case summarizing the implications of the case under study,

lessons about the policy framework, institutional structure and conflict management and

resolution (Castro and Nielsen 2003).

Chapter 1 as an introductory chapter identifies key issues in the management of

conflict and natural resources in the Basin. Chapter 2 describes the physical setting

and socio-economic conditions of the Basin that have relevance to watershed

management. Chapter 3 presents the background and history of the natural resource-

based conflict in the Basin and how it is managed or resolved among the stakeholders.

Chapter 4 lays out the ecosystem-based management in the Basin, which includes

among other things the institutional framework and the interventions necessary for

natural resource management. Finally, conclusions that include lessons learned about

the case under study and recommendations are summed up in the last chapter.

36
1.8 Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The study of the management of the conflict situation and natural resources in the ARB

is limited to river basin organization, watershed management with a focus on land and

forest management, and those whose livelihoods are affected most particularly -- the

migrant farmers and the IPs. Presently, there is no single coordinating development

agency for the ARB. The nearest coordinating entity is the Regional Development

Councils (RDCs) of the Davao and Caraga Regions. The diverse administrative

structures in the ARB necessitate a single, unified local environmental governance body

among and between its government and non-governmental institutions to address the

problem of uncoordinated, fragmented, and un-integrated institutional arrangements

(ADB 2004). The key issues in the Basin that should be urgently addressed are

unregulated water extraction, land use conflict, deforestation, improper cultivation of

hilly lands, poor solid and liquid waste management and limited government funding

and resources (ADB 2004). Institutional stakeholders according to the ADB (2004) see

the need for an ARB authority; the situation could be dramatically improved with a

single, unifying, coordinating and integrating institutional mechanism linking upstream

and downstream stakeholders into an organization that facilitates understanding and

commitments for the sustainable development of ARB (ADB 2004).

An ecosystem-based approach, be it on the river basin or sub-watershed level, is

logical in managing the natural resources in the Basin highlighting the interrelation of

the different ecosystems. Breaking the large ARB into smaller units, on the other hand,

makes it easy to identify issues and “do management planning” (ADB 2004, 205).

37
Managing issues within the ecosystem-based context cuts across political systems and

varying cultures, particularly affecting sensitive issues involving indigenous domain.

The study will not include management of flooding and water-related risks; water

resource development and water quality management. Management of flooding and

water-related risks such as disaster mitigation measures is beyond the scope of the

study despite its importance to the Agusan Marsh which many IPs rely on for their

livelihood. Similarly, poor water quality is also not included, even if it is one of the most

serious environmental issues confronting the ARB and is considered a high priority for

action, as well as water resource development which addresses water supply projects,

sewage development, and irrigation development projects in the Basin (ADB 2004).

1.9 Limitations of the Study

The researcher faced a dilemma of having to exercise good judgment in divulging some

data that may undermine and compromise the information and operational security of

the security forces. Some data that should be revealed to clearly support some

arguments in the study were not disclosed to safeguard the interests of security forces.

The limited access of the researcher to insurgents greatly obstructed the presentation of

perspectives from the insurgents’ side and most of the data about the enemies of the

State were obtained from security agencies, other government agencies, and

individuals who are basically pro-government. The study is also limited by inconsistent,

out-of-date, and non-uniform data from different provincial governments and regional

38
agencies despite specific guidelines from the higher authority about the format and data
needed in their plans and programs.
Table 1.1. Research Methodology
Research Question
1. What are the factors
(organizational/cultural) that influence
the collaborative partnerships among
stakeholders of the Agusan River
Basin (ARB)?
2. What are the existing governing
and institutional mechanisms of the
natural resource management of the
ARB?
3. What form of development
authority is imperative in the success
of natural resource management at a
watershed level?
4. What appropriate management
strategies that include security forces
are suitable for interventions in the
sustainable development of the ARB?
Data Analysis Outcome
Descriptive Analysis, Comprehensive assessment of
Document Review, Content the physical, institutional and
Analysis and Stakeholder socio-economic profile of ARB;
Analysis Comprehensive assessment of
conflict situation of ARB.
Descriptive Analysis, Identify regulatory framework
Document Review, Content and mechanisms of natural
Analysis and Stakeholder resource management of the
Analysis ARB
Descriptive/Statistical Identify form of development
Analysis, Document authority suitable for the
Review, Content Analysis, sustainable management and
and Stakeholder Analysis development of ARB
Descriptive/Statistical Identify management strategies
Analysis, Document and interventions for the
Review, Content Analysis sustainable development of ARB
and Stakeholder Analysis
39
 CHAPTER 2. UNDERSTANDING COMPONENTS OF THE CASE STUDY:

THE AGUSAN RIVER BASIN

2.1 Restatement of Purpose

This chapter presents the existing physical and socio-economic conditions of the ARB.

It first illustrates the physical characteristics, key natural resources, and land use in the

Basin as the main components of the physical setting; it then describes the basic

demography, economic indicators and analysis of the stakeholders as the key

components of the socio-economic profile of the Basin. A synopsis at the end of the

chapter sums up the key factors that contribute to the conflict over natural resources in

the Basin.

2.2 Physical Setting

2.2.1 Location, Land Characteristics and Climate

The ARB is situated in Southeast Asia specifically located in the northeastern part of the

Island of Mindanao in the Philippines, with the Agusan River mainly traversing the

regions of Davao and Caraga (see Figure 2.1). It is the third largest river basin in the

country with a river length of 350 kilometers and a total drainage area of 10,921 square

kilometers (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The Agusan River originates from

Mounts Mayo and Tagopo in the upstream province of Compostela Valley, cutting

40
across the midstream province of Agusan Del Sur and the downstream province of

Agusan Del Norte before emptying into the Bay of Butuan (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008). It is divided into three sub-basins on the basis of topographic features: the lower

reach, a flood-prone zone which is the area along the downstream reach from Amparo

in Agusan del Norte; the middle reach, which covers the reach between Amparo and

Santa Josefa in Agusan del Sur and the home of the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary

(inhabited by various endangered species); and the upper basin along the upstream

reach from Santa Josefa to Compostela Valley, where mining industries are present

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008) (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1. Map of the Philippines (Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008; mapsofworld.com)

The LGUs within the Basin are dominated by these three provinces. The lowest

official political unit in the Basin is the barangay or village. 8Because of their major roles

in natural resource use, the LGUs and the DENR are the main government

stakeholders in the Basin. A total of 30 of the 36 combined municipalities of the three

provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Compostela Valley fall within the

8
Some large villages are unofficially subdivided further into sub-villages or sitios.

41
Basin. The municipalities in Agusan del Norte and Butuan City cover most of the

downstream area of the Basin, while its midstream area is dominated by the

municipalities of Agusan del Sur and the upstream area by Compostela Valley (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The upstream Compostela Valley province has a total land

area of 4,666.93 square kilometers, representing 4.58% of Mindanao’s land area of

10,200 square kilometers that is roughly one-third of the country’s land area. Agusan

del Sur has a land area of 8,965.50 square kilometers or 8.79% of Mindanao while

Agusan del Norte and the City of Butuan have a total land area of 31,692.74 square

kilometers or 3.48% of Mindanao (PGADS 2010; PGADN 2010) (see Table 2.1). There

are actually seven provinces that fall within the ARB. Although the three provinces of

Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur and Compostela Valley dominate the Basin, the

provinces of Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte and Surigao del Sur cannot

be completely discounted in the ARB’s management despite its minimal geographic

presence within their borders (see Figure 2.2). The DENR is the primary government

agency leading the watershed management, and is assisted by the National Irrigation

Agency (NIA), the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM), the National

Power Corporation (NPC), the Water Districts (WDs) and the Local Government Units

(LGUs) (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Table 2.1. Size of Land Area

Area Size % Distribution % Distribution
(hectares) (Country) (Mindanao)
Philippines 30,000,000.00 100.00 -
Mindanao 10,199,886.00 33.99 100.00
Compostela Valley 466,930.00 1.56 4.58
Agusan Del Sur 896,550.00 2.99 8.79
Agusan Del Norte 273,024.00 0.91 2.68
Butuan City 81,662.00 0.27 0.80
Source: LGUs of Compostela Valley, Agusan Del Sur,
Agusan Del Norte and Butuan 2010

42
 There are three types of climates in the Basin and its periphery. A Type II climate

has no dry season with a very pronounced rainfall from November to January. The

seasons of a Type III climate are not very pronounced, but it is dry from November to

April and wet during the rest of the year. A Type IV climate has rainfall more or less

“evenly distributed throughout the year” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 68).

Climate Types II and IV mainly cut across the Basin. Specific climate identification is

very significant for the farmers and other stakeholders who grow crops in the Basin to

optimize production. The most prominent natural feature in the Basin is of course the

Agusan Marsh, which is situated in one of the 17 sub-basins in the whole Basin (see

Figure 2.2). Manat and Minor river basins are the biggest sub-basins in the Basin with

2,199.87 and 1,758.22 square kilometers, respectively (see Table 2.2). The viability of

the sub-basin as a basic planning unit for watershed management has been proposed

by some stakeholders (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Table 2.2. List of Identified River Basins in the ARB

Sub-basin Area
Item Percent
NWRB Name Local Name (Sq Km)
AGUSAN RIVER BASIN 11,936.55 100.00
1 Adgaoan RB Adgaoan 980.89 8.22
2 Agusan marsh Agusan Marsh 193.30 1.62
3 Bugabos RB Bugabos 170.55 1.43
4 Gibong RB Gibong 926.38 7.76
5 Haoan RB Ihaoan 746.35 6.25
6 Kasilan RB Kasilayan 376.89 3.16
7 Kayonan RB Umayam 725.97 6.08
8 Libang RB Libang 246.56 2.07
9 Logom-Baobo RB Logom-Baobo 291.20 2.44
10 Maasam RB Maasam 418.20 3.50
11 Manat or Upper Agusan RB Manat/Upper Agusan 1,758.22 14.73
12 Minor RB Lam-awan 2,199.87 18.43
13 Ojot RB Ojot 924.19 7.74
14 Simulao RB Simulao 978.38 8.20
15 Sulibao RB Sulibao 159.75 1.34
16 Taguibo RB Taguibo 75.72 0.63
17 Wawa-Andanon RB Wawa-Andanan 764.14 6.40
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

43
 9
Figure 2.2. Physical Boundaries Map of ARB

9
Source of shapefiles is NEDA Caraga (2008).

44
 2.2.2 Topography, Slope and Elevation

Most of the relatively flat lands are situated in the valley of the Basin. This is also where

an arterial road cuts across the entire Basin. The elevation in the upstream region

reaches more than 2000 meters above sea level and is situated in the eastern and

southern part of the Compostela Valley Province (PGCV 2010). The midstream

Province of Agusan del Sur has mountain ranges in the eastern and western sides with

a flatland forming part of the valley of the Basin (PGADS 2010). Flat and rolling terrain

dominates the downstream region of the Basin, with mountains at the northwestern and

southeastern fronts (PGADN 2010). Most of the flatland areas of Butuan City are

located in its alluvial plains (CGB 2010) (see Figure 2.3).

45
 10
Figure 2.3. Elevation Map of ARB

10
Source of shapefiles is NEDA Caraga (2008).

46
 An 18-30% slope dominates the Basin followed by 8-18% but in terms of

provincial slope the 30-50% slope dominates the landscape followed by 18-30% (see

Figures 2.4 and 2.5 and Tables 2.3 and 2.4). Much of the human settlement and

lowland agriculture can be found in areas with the 0-8% slope, while upland crops are

planted in areas with 8-18% slope. Since an 18% slope is the limit prescribed for

alienable and disposable (A&D) lands, slopes from 18-30% are dominated by

commercial tree plantation and orchard farming. CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008)

state that denuded portions in the areas with less than 18% slope or higher than 50%

slope are a priority for restoration since these areas are considered environmentally

critical. Vegetation is vital in these areas because of their high potential for erosion.

Table 2.3. Land Area of Provinces by Slope

Slope Range in Hectares
Province 0-3% 3-8% 8-18% 18-30% 30-50% > 50%
Compostela Valley 67,633.00 52,955.00 96,349.00 80,173.00 45,384.00 124,199.00
Agusan Del Sur 177,275.00 177,347.00 126,686.00 193,411.00 262,173.00 0
Agusan Del Norte 47,269.21 8,403.07 25,021.07 68,904.08 47,879.57 75,547.00
Source: LGUs of Compostela Valley, Agusan Del Sur, Agusan Del Norte and Butuan 2010

Figure 2.4. Land Area of Provinces by Slope

47
 11
Figure 2.5. Slope Map of ARB

11
Source of shapefiles is NEDA Caraga (2008).

48
 Table 2.4. Land Area of Sub-Watersheds by Slope

SLOPE
No Sub-basin Area (Ha) % 50 and
0-3 % 3-8 % 8-18 % 18-30 % 30-50 % above %
1 Adgaon 98,481 8 7335 7 12968 13 9955 1024292 25 9656 10 34281 35
2 Bugabos 17,055 1 140 1 268 2 4906 29 6441 38 4512 26 790 5
3 Gibong 92,638 8 17047 18 33701 36 15438 1715166 16 6879 7 4258 5
4 Haoan/Ihaoan 74,635 6 3334 4 21144 28 21381 2921756 29 6305 8 721 1
5 Kasilan 37,689 3 865 2 4385 12 5142 1424984 66 265 1 2051 5
6 Kayonan/Umayam 72,947 6 4735 6 4365 6 2623 4 11131 15 26928 37 23170 32
7 Libang 24,656 2 335 1 1698 7 3487 14 9165 37 5018 20 4954 20
8 Logom-Baobo 29,120 2 4027 14 7305 25 12307 42 2393 8 2694 9 116 0
9 Manat 175,822 15 53276 30 23552 13 22291 1331280 18 22009 13 23099 13
10 Maosam 41,820 4 920 2 2301 6 1914 5 6724 16 8771 21 21190 51
11 Ojot 92,419 8 3127 3 5659 6 16374 1830967 34 17234 19 19065 21
12 Simulao 97,838 8 17112 17 18546 19 21324 2226609 27 12513 13 1693 2
13 Solibao 15,975 1 1156 7 7423 46 894 6 4657 29 1105 7 740 5
14 Taguibo 7,572 1 852 11 1988 26 2885 38 1848 24
15 Wawa-Andanon 76,414 6 6298 8 6251 8 3842 5 25205 33 10401 14 24423 32
Agasan-Flood
16 219,244 18
Plain
17 Agusan Marsh 19,331 2
TOTAL 1,193,655 100 120560 10 149565 13 141877 12 242756 20 137176 11 162399 14
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

2.2.3 Natural Disasters

Earthquake and flooding are the main natural disasters in the Basin. Fault lines are

dispersed throughout the entire Basin but seismicity in the Basin usually has small

magnitudes and shallow depths and is considered relatively low (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008). The major earthquake fault line in the downstream region runs parallel to

the upstream region to Agusan del Sur. The City of Butuan is subject to “earthquakes

of tectonic origin with epicenters located along the structural lines of the Philippine Fault

Zone” (PGADN 2010, 38), which starts from Luzon in the northern part of the country

and ends in Davao Gulf down south (PGADN 2010). The intensity of earthquakes

varies from “perceptible to feeble shock (I-IV) to moderate and fairly strong shock” (CGB

49
2010, 23). The flood prone areas in the upstream region include the municipalities of

Compostela, Monkayo, Montevista, New Bataan, Nabunturan, Laak, and Pantukan; this

is basically due to inherent low elevation, clogging of waterways, and environmental

degradation caused by irresponsible mining and unsustainable farming practices in the

uplands (PGCV 2010). Areas within the periphery of the catch drainage of midstream

Agusan Marsh and along river banks are also prone to flooding while the low-lying

areas in the downstream and its urban and agricultural areas constitute the flood-prone

areas. River systems require physical infrastructure to address overflow during the

rainy season (CGB 2010).

The region is characterized by flat and rolling lands and mountainous areas. A

wet climate throughout the year, with peak rainfall occurring during the months of

November to February concurrent with the Northeast monsoon period, has oftentimes

triggered landslides and other mass movements in susceptible areas of the region.

Areas with a potential for rain-induced landslides are those from 30% to above 50%

slope, which include open canopy forest, closed canopy forest, agricultural areas and

built-up areas with low and moderate population density (NEDA Caraga 2005). Areas

within the 50% and above slope in the Basin are very susceptible to rain-induced

landslides. Almost half of the villages (113 of 237) in the upstream province are

considered prone to landslide, flood and earthquake (PGCV 2010) (see Figure 2.5).

The worst episodes of the El Niño phenomenon arrived in the country in 1982-83,

1992 and 1997(PGCV 2010). Their impacts included soil compression, salt-water

intrusion, and a high risk for forest fires. Food shortages were mainly caused by a

50
decline in grain production due to the water supply shortage (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008).

2.2.4 Land Classification

Land ownership in the country is basically classified into forestland and alienable and

disposable (A&D) land which is limited to not more than 18% slope. The A&D areas are

generally titled and privately owned by individuals. The LGUs regulate the use of A&D

areas through the provincial development physical framework and the comprehensive

land use plans. On the other hand, forest lands are generally owned by the State but

instruments on land tenure may be given to certain entities (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008). These instruments, which are classified by jurisdictional agency, include the

Community Based Forest Management Agreement (CBFMA), the Certificate of

Stewardship Contract (CSC), 12 the Timber License Agreement (TLA), 13 the Industrial

Forest Management Agreement (IFMA), 14 the Socialized Industrial Forest Management

Agreement (SIFMA), 15 and the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT).

12
CBFMA is defined as “a production sharing agreement designed to ensure that participating
communities enjoy the benefits of sustainable utilization, management and conservation of forestlands
and natural resources therein” while the Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC) “are contracts
awarded to individuals or families actually occupying or tilling portions of forest lands” (Cariño 2009)
13
TLA is defined as “a long term license executed by and between the Secretary of Environment
and Natural Resources on behalf of the government and the grantee for the harvesting and removal from
the public forest of timber and in appropriate cases also of other forest products“ (National Statistical
Coordination Board 2009 from Forest Management Bureau and International Tropical Timber
Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related Terms and Definitions 2006).
14
IFMA is defined as an “agreement entered into by DENR and a qualified person, to occupy and
process, in consideration of a specified rental, any forest land in the public domain in order to establish an
industrial forest plantation” (National Statistical Coordination Board 2009 from Forest Management
Bureau and International Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related Terms
and Definitions 2006).
15
SIFMA is defined as “an agreement entered into by and between a natural or juridical person
and the DENR wherein the latter grants to the former the right to develop, utilize and manage a small
tract of forestland, consistent with the principle of sustainable development” (National Statistical

51
 Areas that are planted with annual crops are targeted for boundary planting using

fruit trees or timber species (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Such forest

management agreements are designed for the sustainable management of the forest

resources in the Basin. However, the degradation of forests in the Basin continues and

cleared forest areas have given way to unsustainable farming practices, including

shifting cultivation systems and conversion to plantations (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008). The cultivated areas are dominated by rice and corn crops and are mostly

concentrated in the floodplains, which can be found in the middle reaches of the Basin.

Forest reserve is the most dominant landscape type in the entire Basin, followed by

A&D land, with the midstream Agusan Del Sur having the most, followed by Compostela

Valley in the upstream and Agusan Del Norte and Butuan City downstream. The three

provinces in the Basin have more land classified as timberland than A&D land.

Approximately 76% of Agusan del Sur is timberland while Compostela Valley has 67%

and Agusan del Norte has 77%. Butuan City has more than 50% of its land classified

as A&D (see Table 2.5 and Figure 2.6).

Table 2.5. Land Classification

City/Province A & D (hectares) Timberland (hectares)
Compostela Valley 153,097.00 313,596.00
Agusan Del Sur 216,043.00 680,507.00
Agusan Del Norte 61,938.00 211,086.00
Butuan City 38,258.00 32,542.00
Source: LGUs of Compostela Valley, Agusan Del Sur,
Agusan Del Norte and Butuan 2010

Coordination Board 2009 from Forest Management Bureau and International Tropical Timber
Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related Terms and Definitions 2006).

52
 Land Classification
1,000,000.00
900,000.00
800,000.00
700,000.00
600,000.00
500,000.00
400,000.00
300,000.00
200,000.00
100,000.00
0.00
Compostela Valley Agusan Del Sur Agusan Del Norte Butuan City
Alieanable and Disposable Timberland

Figure 2.6. Land Classification of ARB

There was a rapid removal of forest cover in the Basin when the country

embarked on massive extraction of forest resources after World War II. Two decades

later over 60% of the land was still covered with primary forest, but intensive logging

dominated the extractive industries in the Basin until the early 1990s ((CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008). The influx of logging and mining industries in the region altered the

landscape of the Basin. Shifting cultivation by that time was the main agricultural

practice of the IPs in the ARB with no replanting or selective logging adversely

impacting the forest resources in the Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). A typical

watershed has its population concentrated downstream, but in the Basin the population

is roughly the same in all streams with 35% of the total population each in the upstream

and midstream areas and the remaining 30% in the downstream area (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008) (see Figure 2.7).

53
 16
Figure 2.7. Land Classification Map of ARB

16
Source of shapefiles is NEDA Caraga (2008).

54
 2.2.5 Land Use and Cover

The A&D land is subdivided into settlement, agricultural and protected areas/other uses

while timberland is split into production and protection forests. Settlement is further

categorized into residential, institutional and commercial center while agriculture lands

are identified according to commodity planted, ranging from rice to cultivated crops and

fruits. Protected areas and other uses include fault lines, road rights of way and river

bank easements, among others. Timberland is classified into production and protection

forests. Production forest includes residual forest, plantation use, open and access

areas; protection forest or amenity forest consists of old growth forest outside protected

areas, mangroves, proclaimed watershed areas, areas with above 50% slope, and the

riparian zones (PGADN, PGADS, and PGCV 2010) (see Table 2.6).

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) classify land use in the Basin into four major

categories. These are agricultural lands, lands for settlements, forested lands and bare

lands. They further estimate that dense forest occupies 49 thousand hectares or 4.1%

of the total land area of 1.2 million hectares while open forest has a total area of roughly

285 thousand hectares or 23.8% of the land area of the Basin; they are priority for forest

rehabilitation/protection. On the other hand, wooded lands that are composed of

shrubs, fallow and grasslands have a total area of 450 thousand hectares or 37.6% of

the total land area of the Basin and are considered potential areas for restoration and

rehabilitation (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

55
 Table 2.6. Land Use
A&D Timberland
City/Province Settlement Agriculture Protected Area/ Production Protection
Other Use Forest Forest
Compostela Valley 12,407.00 140,691.00 - 165,674.00 147,922.00
Agusan Del Sur 898.47 118,686.50 28,524.21 436,619.00 243,888.00
Agusan Del Norte 4,416.61 69,950.35 88,659.53 117,188.76 81,785.14
Butuan City 1,938.00 47,580.00 4,279.00 19,431.70
Source: LGUs of Compostela Valley, Agusan Del Sur, Agusan Del Norte and Butuan 2010

Open forest and wooded lands still dominate the land cover in the Basin. 17

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) reported an increase from 1998-2003 in the

cultivated-annual from 5.5% to 14.59% and the cultivated-perennial from 11.66% to

12.32% (see Figure 2.8). The ramifications of extractive industry transform many

forested areas with grassland cover. This reduces the important role of the forests to

protect the environment and to control run-off and soil erosion (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008).

Compostela Valley has a total timberland of 314 thousand hectares with roughly

53% as production forest used for tree plantations and other activities covered by

tenurial agreements. Community-Based Forest Management Agreements (CBFMAs)

largely supply the raw materials needed by the wood processing industries while

Integrated Social Forestry is used for orchard establishment, particularly fruit trees.

Plantation crops dominate the agro-forestry product in the province (PGCV 2010). A

total of 141 thousand hectares is utilized for various agriculture and plantation crops

with high economic values despite having 30.41% of its total land area with an elevation

of at least 500 meters (PGCV 2010). Issues related to raw material supply, over-

17
The Land Use and Cover Map depicted by GIS in Figure 2.6 is close to reality land cover
classification.

56
regulation and potential harmful environmental effects are being raised as the province

embarks on a sustainable development of its wood industry (PGCV 2010).

Agusan del Sur utilizes 437 thousand hectares as production forest and 244

thousand hectares for protection forest. Land used for agriculture is 119 hectares,

dominated by rice, corn and coconuts. A total of 21 thousand hectares are utilized for

palm-oil tree plantation and more than four thousand hectares for rubber plantation.

The province reported an increase in protection area due to the people’s awareness

about the environment as well as enforcement of environmental laws and regulations

and the inclusion of buffer zones and protected watersheds. Subsequently, this has

caused a decrease in the land area for production forest, exacerbated by the expansion

of agricultural and commercial lands (PGADS 2010).

A total of 70 thousand hectares are devoted to croplands in Agusan del Norte.

The province reported a decline in the production of dipterocarps since the 1980s. The

shifting of forestry policies have led to the DENR issuing CBFMA and converting the

Timber Licensing Agreement (TLAs) to Integrated Forest Management Agreements

(IFMAs) (PGADN 2010). While the CBFMA is designed to involve communities in the

sustainable management of forest resources, those involved have failed to deliver

causing further decline in productivity (PGCV 2010). The City of Butuan expresses

concerns over timber poaching and unsustainable farming practices in its uplands,

which causes watershed degradation, higher erosion rates and loss of productivity

(CGB 2010) (see Table 2.6).

57
 18
Figure 2.8. Land Use and Cover Map of ARB

18
Source of shapefiles is NEDA Caraga (2008).

58
 2.2.6 Mineral Resources

Compostela Valley has the richest metallic resources in the Basin and is considered the

regional mineral hub. Its resources are “widely sought after by mining companies”

(PGCV 2010, 54). Gold deposits can be found in the Diwalwal Mineral Reservation,

which covers eight thousand hectares, while copper-gold reserves sit in the Pantukan

municipality. The presence of gold deposits in Monkayo, Pantukan, Maco, New Bataan

and Nabunturan municipalities of the province make it as important as the gold district

of the Davao region. Silver are also present in these six municipalities. Marble,

magnetite, manganese, silica, sand and gravel are also found in the province (PGCV

2010). Gold prospecting and small-scale mining sites are ubiquitous in the Basin.

Agusan del Sur has huge metallic deposits of gold in the municipalities of

Veruela and Bunawan with an estimated volume of 450 thousand metric tons, while 800

thousand metric tons of marble deposits can be found in Sibagat municipality and also

in Bunawan. Other non-metallic minerals such as limestone, sand and gravel are also

present. However, most of these minerals are found under timberland and mostly in

protected areas (PGADS 2010).

The mineral resources in Agusan del Norte are largely found outside the area

that falls within the Basin. These include metallic resources such as bauxite,

manganese, marbleized limestone and non-metallic resources that consist of limestone,

marble, guano, sand, gravel and construction materials. But there are a reported 75

thousand metric tons of copper and some manganese deposits in the downstream

municipality of Cabadbaran (PGADN 2010). There are “indications of the presence of

59
hydrocarbon or natural gas deposits in the coastal plains of Magallanes” as well as

“methaniferous gas emanations in the Agusan River mouth” (PGADN 2010, 46). In the

City of Butuan, presence of metallic resources has never been observed but limestone

and marble outcrops could be found between Magallanes and the City with sand and

gravel present in almost all the rivers (CGB 2010).

Mining activities in the Basin have helped in the upliftment of socio-economic

conditions in some communities; however, concerns have been raised about its socio-

environmental ramifications. Water pollution, floods and landslides are the main

environmental problems brought about by the mining industry. On the other hand,

violent conflict among small-scale miners and skirmishes between insurgents and the

security forces have become common in the periphery of the mining sites. Mining

rights, boundary conflicts between LGUs, and slow processing of mining permits are

among the many issues that should be dealt with (PGCV 2010).

2.2.7 Water Resources

The Agusan and Hijo Rivers are the two major river systems in Compostela Valley

along with 45 other rivers. The Naboc, Monkayo and Kingking Rivers play important

roles in provincial development because of the dependence on livelihoods of large

numbers of people. These three rivers also serve as drainage for wastes from mining

activities within their watersheds (PGCV 2010). Agusan del Sur has the Agusan Marsh

situated at the center of the province, serving as a catch basin for floodwaters

inundating the Agusan Valley. Twelve major rivers drain into the Agusan Marsh, then

60
through Agusan River and finally to Butuan Bay (PGADS 2010). Agusan del Norte has

nine major rivers while Butuan City has 17 major waterways that empty into Butuan Bay

(PGADN 2010; CGB 2010). Irrigation requirements are mostly filled from surface

waters while potable and domestic water needs are pumped out from ground water.

The rural populace in the villages get their potable water from creeks, rivers and

artesian wells. The continuing degradation of many watersheds in the Basin poses a

challenge to sustaining the water supply both for irrigation and domestic uses. Table

2.7 shows the monthly and annual rainfall data for the sub-watersheds in the Basin; the

data is basically derived from monthly isohyetal maps (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008).

Table 2.7. Monthly and Annual Rainfall of Sub-Watersheds

Rainfall, millimeters
Basin Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
1 Adgaoan 314 236 204 166 214 252 255 238 242 268 222 222 2,834
2 Bugabos 266 192 145 108 122 173 169 138 169 214 185 185 2,066
3 Gibong 514 383 312 226 185 201 201 153 179 245 300 300 3,199
4 Haoan 335 260 228 196 228 250 254 234 237 252 232 232 2,939
5 Kasilan 347 253 213 167 198 233 234 211 225 256 226 226 2,789
Kayonan-
6 276 214 190 165 227 267 270 261 258 278 215 215 2,835
Umayam
7 Libang 280 192 156 126 169 214 215 191 214 245 196 196 2,394
Logom-
8 423 313 267 218 223 233 246 213 215 233 252 252 3,089
Baobo
9 Maasam 252 178 150 128 186 237 238 221 236 260 195 195 2,478
10 Manat 587 393 330 251 187 198 195 154 163 194 307 308 3,268
11 Minor 412 304 247 185 174 201 202 165 188 233 253 253 2,817
12 Ojot 232 153 121 98 139 195 191 164 199 228 168 168 2,057
13 Simulao 588 418 349 266 218 225 228 182 191 221 318 317 3,520
14 Sulibao 562 414 345 253 220 214 235 183 200 248 309 309 3,491
15 Taguibo 499 400 314 220 140 163 165 115 150 203 326 326 3,021
Wawa-
16 681 375 297 211 152 178 174 129 156 218 305 305 2,982
Andanan
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

61
 In a study by CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) made by interviewing key

informants from selected water districts, it was found that the unit water consumption

per capita in the Basin ranges from 97 to 136 liters per capita per day (lpcd). Tables 2.8

shows the projected water consumption for regions until 2020 (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008). While there was data on the number of permits issued for industrial use,

computation for the total volume of water consumption has proven to be very difficult.

“[T]he industrial water demand is estimated by assuming that at 5%, 8% and 10% of

domestic and municipal water demand for 2005, 2010 and 2020, respectively” (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IV, chap 4, 6). On the other hand, demand on agricultural

water is based mainly on the irrigation needs for a particular crop using a rate of 1.5

liters/second/hectare while environmental protection demand for environmental flow is

estimated to be 10% of the 80% of the flow duration curve (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008).

Table 2.8. Unit Water Consumption for Regions

19
Level I, Level II, & Level III (Unit : lpcd)
Year Region Level I Level II Level III
Davao 21 62 103
2005
Caraga 21 63 106
Davao 21 64 106
2010
Caraga 23 68 113
Davao 22 66 110
2020
Caraga 25 75 125
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

Water demand as computed by CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) consists of

municipal water, industrial water, agricultural water and the environmental flow, which is

19
Level I - a point source; Level II - a piped system with community faucets; Level III service is a
full waterworks system (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 91).

62
roughly 10% of the dependable flow. Water balance is computed by simply deducting

the water available. Tables 2.9 and 2.10 show the water demand and water balance

analysis for the entire basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). While the growing

demand for “service levels, per capita consumption, and manufacturing growth”

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIA, 98) can be supplied until 2020, the projected

balance could be largely disrupted by development in irrigation and could create

shortages as early as 2012 when irrigation demands are factored in (CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008). Davao region has yet to develop roughly 50% of its potential irrigable

area of 150 thousand hectares; while Caraga region has only developed one-third of

its162 thousand hectares of potential irrigable area (see Table 2.11).

Table 2.9. Water Demand for Domestic, Municipal and Industrial Use
Municipality 2005 2010 2020 Municipality 2005 2010 2020
Compostela Valley Agusan Del Sur
Compostela 541 1077 2505 Bayugan 980 1557 3139
Laak 578 1027 2509 Bunawan 448 708 1310
Mabini 299 413 903 Esperanza 507 918 1963
Maco 634 802 1812 La Paz 206 281 805
Maragusan 434 515 1289 Loreto 341 661 1383
Mawab 299 413 903 Prosperidad 903 1403 3438
Monkayo 745 1405 3132 Rosario 663 871 1714
Montevista 330 542 1192 San Francisco 1305 1884 3352
Nabunturan 557 915 1911 San Luis 278 538 1149
New Bataan 452 652 1346 Sibagat 483 744 1358
Pantukan 610 1084 2385 Sta. Josefa 292 614 1393
Agusan Del Norte Talacogon 445 713 1361
Buenavista 563 921 1825 Trento 456 910 2066
Cabadbaran 619 817 1214 Veruela 412 804 2146
Las Nieves 298 445 1060 Butuan City
Magallanes 422 491 665 Butuan City 4506 7338 11090
Nasipit 563 921 1825
RT Romualdez 191 287 534
Butuan City 4506 7338 11090 Unit – 1,000 cubic meters
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

63
 Table 2.10. Water Analysis in the ARB (Unit: MCM)
Industrial &
Municipal Water
Name of Sub Available Commercial Water Excess Water
Demand
Basin Water Demand
2005 2010 2020 2005 2010 2020 2005 2010 2020
Wawa 851.47 2.04 2.88 5.28 0.16 0.24 0.47 849.27 848.35 845.72
Gibong 473.04 5.52 7.08 12.12 0.48 0.7 1.37 467.04 465.26 459.55
Simulao 441.51 2.28 3.36 5.88 0.08 0.12 0.24 439.15 438.03 435.39
Upper Agusan 454.12 5.76 6.84 10.56 0.27 0.39 0.77 448.09 446.89 442.79
Manat 138.76 1.8 2.04 2.88 0.12 0.17 0.33 136.84 136.55 135.55
Boabo 44.15 0.84 1.32 2.28 0.05 0.07 0.13 43.26 42.76 41.74
Logum 50.46 0.96 1.44 2.64 0.03 0.05 0.09 49.47 48.97 47.73
Ihaoan 220.75 0.84 1.2 2.28 0.08 0.11 0.22 219.83 219.44 218.25
Umayam 315.36 0.48 0.72 1.32 0.01 0.02 0.03 314.87 314.62 314.01
Adgaoan 378.43 0.36 0.48 0.96 0.01 0.01 0.01 378.06 377.94 377.46
Kasilayan 378.43 0.6 0.96 1.68 0.02 0.03 0.06 377.81 377.44 376.69
Maasam 441.5 0.6 0.6 1.08 0.001 0.01 0.02 440.89 440.89 440.4
Libang 283.82 0.72 0.72 1.44 0.01 0.01 0.02 283.09 283.09 282.36
Ojot 756.86 0.72 0.96 1.8 0.01 0.01 0.01 756.13 755.89 755.05
Bugabus 145.06 2.4 3 5.64 0.02 0.1 0.19 142.64 141.96 139.23
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008

Table 2.11. Status of Irrigation Development as of December 2009 (in hectares)

Region Potential Service Area Irrigation
Irrigable Development
Total National Communal Private
Area (in %)
Philippines 3,126,340 1,538,937 763,977 557,631 217,329 49.2
Davao 149,610 75,525 33,971 15,639 25,915 50.5
Caraga 162,300 54,462 29,427 21,719 3,316 33.6
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

2.3 Socio-Economic Profile

2.3.1 Population

The province of Compostela Valley has a total population of 637,366 based on the

latest census of 2007, registering an increase of 57,122 since 2000 with an annual

growth rate of 1.72%. Agusan del Sur has a total of 609,447 with an increase of 50,153

and an annual growth rate of 1.19% while Agusan del Norte has 309,338 people, up

64
23,768 from the 2000 population census with an annual growth rate of 1.11%. Butuan

City has a total population of 298,378 with an increase of 31,099 and an annual growth

rate of 2.8%. The annual growth rate of the three provinces is below the national rate of

2.31%; however, the regional center of Caraga, Butuan City, is expected to be higher

than the national average. It has the highest density in the region, 365 persons per

square kilometer, while Compostela Valley has 142 and Agusan Del Norte with 113.

Agusan del Sur is the sparsest with a density of 68 persons per square kilometer (see

Tables 2.12 and 2.13 and Figure 2.9).

Table 2.12. Population, Land Area, and Density

Land Area Density
Province/City Population
(sq km (persons/sq km)
1995 2000 2007 2007
Compostela Valley 520,110 580,244 637,366 4,479.8 142
Agusan Del Sur 514,736 559,294 609,447 9,989.5 68
Agusan Del Norte 267,411 285,570 309,338 2,730.2 113
Butuan City 247,074 267,279 298,378 816.6 365
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

Population Census
700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
Compostela Valley Agusan Del Sur Agusan Del Norte Butuan City
1995 2000 2007

Figure 2.9. Population Census

65
 Table 2.13. Population Size by Municipality and Growth Rates in ARB, 1960-2007

Municipalities in the Total Municipal Population by Census

Agusan River Basin 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007
Province: Agusan del Norte
Municipality Buenavista 17,927 24,753 31,531 39,331 50,612 53,059
Butuan City 177,333 131,094 172,489 227,829 267,279 298,378
Las Nieves 4,262 6,782 10,757 15,409 21,530 25,203
Magallanes Nd 7,377 15,994 16,211 19,895 20,930
RT Romualdez Nd Nd Nd 10,490 13,359 14,976
Cabadbaran 26,216 34,729 42,695 46,370 55,006 61,564
Nasipit 14,996 23,306 29,905 34,084 35,817 38,096
Province: Agusan del Sur
Municipality Bayugan Nd 37,816 56,367 78,725 93,623 95,032
Bunawan 11,423 8,656 12,719 21,105 26,704 35,757
Esperanza 31,825 21,051 25,257 36,139 44,151 57,659
La Paz 5,746 7,971 14,389 16,144 20,880 25,214
Loreto 6,248 13,057 18,781 21,133 31,365 35,549
Prosperidad 12,438 23,328 33,824 51,189 70,815 75,390
Rosario Nd 7,885 12,443 25,436 28,675 31,293
San Francisco 16,535 17,636 27,153 43,878 56,968 56,968
San Luis Nd 7,531 12,793 18,521 25,901 30,424
Santa Josefa 1,687 3,601 6,604 11,392 22,730 24,972
Sibagat Nd Nd Nd 24,004 28,685 30,074
Talacogon 4,861 7,719 11,452 21,655 30,879 33,093
Trento Nd 11,815 19,257 31,313 41,696 46,247
Veruela 2,914 6,626 13,991 20,129 36,222 36,862
Province: Compostela Valley
Municipality Compostela 20,444 17,159 30,538 53,546 61,667 69,849
Laak Nd Nd 31,581 35,895 59,450 66,607
Mawab 7,818 13,537 20,960 28,072 32,003 34,656
Maco Nd 29,693 41,017 55,991 65,181 70,906
Maragusan Nd Nd 20,220 40,982 45,937 51,547
Monkayo 16,062 24,597 37,571 58,239 85,830 90,971
Montevista Nd 11,945 20,626 29,789 33,225 35,192
Nabuntaran 21,860 27,689 37,292 53,410 60,543 67,365
New Bataan Nd 19,978 32,887 39,629 42,549 45,309
Pantukan 16,493 21,890 30,281 46,300 61,801 69,656
Totals: 417,088 569,221 871,374 1,252,340 1,570,978
Annual Population Growth (%) 3.16% 4.35% 3.69% 2.30%
Source: LGUs of Agusan Del Norte, Agusan Del Sur, Compostela Valley; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and
WCI 2008 from National Statistics Office 2009

The mining activity in Mount Diwata is the magnetic pull for migrants in the

municipality of Monkayo in Compostela Valley. It has a total population of 90,971 in

2007 with a density of 131 persons per square kilometer (PGCV 2010). Nabunturan

municipality, as the provincial administrative center, has a relatively high density as

66
does Compostela municipality, because of their flourishing economic activities (PGCV

2010). Although Agusan del Sur has the highest population in the Basin, it has the

smallest population density because of its huge land area which is the largest in the

Basin. Expanding urbanization in some municipalities of Agusan del Norte in the

periphery of Butuan City will likely happen in the next decade because of its proximity to

the regional center and because of flourishing industrial and other economic activities

(PGADN 2010). Cabadbaran City and the municipalities of Jabonga and Remedios T.

Romualdez are expected to dominate population growth in the province (PGADN 2010).

The rapid growth rate of Butuan City is attributed to its young population (CGB 2010).

The common perception of easy land acquisition and easy access to small-scale mining

attracts migrants to the Basin. Migration further increases the risk of further watershed

degradation, exposure to and control of endemic diseases, and land-based conflict with

the indigenous communities (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

2.3.2 Economy and Employment

The gross regional domestic products (GRDPs) of both Davao and Caraga regions

have continued to post a positive growth in the last five years. The economy of Davao

Region fares better than Caraga and its per capita income is relatively at par with the

national average. The GRDP of Davao in 2009 was 67,367 million pesos at constant

1985 prices, representing 4.70% of the total gross domestic product of the country

(which was 1.432 trillion pesos at constant 1985 prices). On the other hand, Caraga

has a GRDP of 18,958 million pesos at constant 1985 prices, equivalent to 1.32% of the

67
total GDP at constant 1985 prices. The 2009 per capita GRDP of Davao was 15,696

pesos in constant 1985 pesos, which is slightly higher than the per capita GDP of

15,528 pesos. Caraga’s per capita GRDP was 7,579 pesos in constant 1985 pesos or

roughly 50% of the national per capita GDP (see Tables 2.14 and 2.15).

Table 2.14. Gross Regional Domestic Product 2005-2009

(In million pesos at constant 1985 prices)
Region 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Philippines 1,211,452 1,276,156 1,366,625 1,417,087 1,432,115
Davao Region 55,455 57,878 61,677 63,928 67,367
Caraga Region 15,994 16,637 17,980 18,466 18,958
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

Table 2.15. Per Capita Gross Regional Domestic Product 2005-2009

(In constant 1985 pesos)
Region 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Philippines 14,209 14,673 15,406 15,666 15,528
Davao Region 13,795 14,161 14,847 15,139 15,696
Caraga Region 6,727 7,042 7,466 7,525 7,579
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

The service industry earned 27,744 million pesos at 1985 prices, contributing

41.18% to the 2009 GRDP of Davao. This was followed by the agriculture, fishery and

forestry industries, with 16,442 million pesos which is equivalent to 24.41% of GRDP,

while the manufacturing industry earned 13,631 million pesos or 20.23% of the GRDP

(see Table 2.16 and Figure 2.10). The agriculture and mining industries of Compostela

Valley are the driving forces of its economy. The province with its vast mineral lands is

considered the “mineral hub of Davao region” (PGCV 2010, 14), and its agricultural

economy relies heavily on its high value crops (PGCV 2010). From 2002-2007, the

province contributed roughly 277 million pesos or 23% of the total regional production

on mineral resources. In 2007, the province had overtaken Davao City with its 50%

68
contribution to the region’s total production (PGCV 2010). Rice as a staple crop topped

its agricultural production with a total of 54,464.79 metric tons harvested from 21,488

hectares of agricultural lands with two cropping seasons per year (PGCV 2010).

Table 2.16. Gross Value Added by Industry, Davao Region (in million pesos at 1985 prices)
Industry 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 % of 2009 GRDP
Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 15,249 15,721 16,044 16,362 16,442 24.41
Mining and Quarrying 2,625 2,087 2,287 2,089 2,151 3.19
Manufacturing 10,561 11,131 11,771 12,728 13,631 20.23
Construction 3,957 4,413 5,600 5,908 7.066 10.49
Electricity, Gas and Water 292 290 305 317 333 0.05
Service 22,770 24,236 25,670 26,524 27,744 41.18
Davao Region (GRDP) 55,455 57,878 61,677 63,928 67,367 100
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

Figure 2.10. Gross Value Added by Industry of Davao Region

Similarly in the Caraga region, the service industry had the highest gross value

added of 6,559 million pesos at 1985 prices, contributing 34.60% to the 2009 GRDP of

Caraga. Agriculture, fishery and forestry industries followed with 5,966 million pesos

69
equivalent to 31.63% of GRDP, but mining and quarrying came in third with 2,809

million pesos or 14.82% of the GRDP (see Table 2.17 and Figure 2.11). In 2007, the

agriculture and forestry sectors contributed heavily to the economy of Agusan del Sur

with rice production of 236,321 metric tons planted in 59,102 hectares, while corn

production was 77,439 metric tons in a planted area of 27,735 hectares (PGADS 2010).

A total of 16,113 hectares was planted with oil-palm trees (PGADS 2010). In 2009,

Agusan del Norte produced 81,444.98 metric tons of coconut covering 36,093.36

hectares; the total production of bananas was 43,924.92 metric tons over a planted area

of 7,207.50 hectares; and production of mangoes was 26,151.81 metric tons over an

area of 3,401.10 hectares (PGADN 2010).

Table 2.17. Gross Value Added by Industry, Caraga Region (in million pesos at 1985 prices)
Industry 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 % of 2009 GRDP
Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 6,168 6,194 6,377 6,298 5,966 31.63
Mining and Quarrying 426 1,057 1,861 2,131 2,809 14.82
Manufacturing 508 1,622 1,547 1,535 1,527 8.05
Construction 1,115 1,193 1,351 1,494 1,501 7.92
Electricity, Gas and Water 573 578 582 593 596 3.14
Service 5,786 5,993 6,262 6,416 6,559 34.60
Caraga Region (GRDP) 15,994 16,637 17,980 18,466 18,958 100
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

The total household population (15 years and up) for Davao region in 2009 was

2.735 million while Caraga region had 1.574 million with 70.4% and 65.9% in the labor

force, respectively. The employment rate for Davao was 95.1% with an unemployment

rate of 4.9% while Caraga had a 94.2% employment rate and a 5.8% unemployment

rate. However, 27.5% were underemployed in Davao and 27.0% in Caraga (see Table

2.18).

70
 Figure 2.11. Gross Value Added by Industry of Caraga Region

The slightly decreasing employment rate in Compostela Valley is fairly attributed

to “a shift in agricultural crops grown and technology” (PGCV 2010, 84). As rice and

coconut farms in the province shifted to banana plantations, workers were displaced

and laid off. On the other hand, the improving technology in mining operations reduced

employment opportunities in the mining industry (PGCV 2010). Agusan del Sur in 2005

had a total of 92,513 or 56.3% employed population in agriculture and 71,683 or 43.7%

for non-agricultural employment. While it had a relatively high employment rate, this

does not mean that the work force was in a better economic condition, because a lot of

them were employed as “seasonal workers with low wages” (PGADS 2010, 85-86). In

Agusan del Norte in 2007, the total number of employed people was 77,316 with the

service sector dominating at 42.54% or 33,882 employed followed by agriculture, fishery

and forestry at 39.11% or 30,239 employed, and the industry sector with 18.35% or

14,194 employed (PGADN 2010). Despite high employment in Agusan del Norte, the

71
poverty rate was still high because of seasonal jobs in some sectors (PGADN 2010).

Similarly in the City of Butuan, the service sector had more than 54% of workforce in

2000 and was expected to increase in number (PGADN 2010).

Table 2.18. Household Population 15 Years Old and Over by Employment Status
Employment Status Year Philippines Davao Region Caraga Region
Household population, 15 years old and over
Number(in thousands) 2005 54,388 2,550 1,515
2006 55,230 2,520 1,450
2007 56,565 2,597 1,485
2008 57,848 2,668 1,532
2009 59,237 2,735 1,574

Percent in the labor force 2005 64.7 72.6 67.4

2006 64.2 71.9 66.6
2007 64.0 70.9 66.3
2008 63.6 70.4 65.7
2009 64.0 70.4 65.9
Percent of labor force
Employment rate 2005 92.2 94.4 95.0
2006 92.0 94.4 94.5
2007 92.7 94.0 93.5
2008 92.6 95.3 94.4
2009 92.5 95.1 94.2

Unemployment rate 2005 7.8 5.6 5.0

2006 8.0 5.6 5.5
2007 7.3 6.0 6.5
2008 7.4 4.7 5.7
2009 7.5 4.9 5.8

Underemployment rate 2005 21.0 33.4 26.7

2006 22.6 32.7 24.9
2007 20.1 30.7 25.5
2008 19.3 25.8 25.9
2009 19.1 27.5 27.0
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

2.3.3 Poverty

Agusan del Sur in 2006 had the incidence of highest poverty with 48.7% of the 58,161

poor families in the province living below the annual per capita poverty threshold of

15,822 pesos. Compostela Valley had a 39.8% poverty incidence among its 54,153

72
poor families while Agusan del Norte had a 35.2% poverty incidence among 40,668

poor families with an annual per capita poverty threshold of 14,544 pesos and 13,986

pesos, respectively. The poverty incidence of the three provinces increased when

measured according to poverty incidence among poor individuals. Agusan del Sur had

a 56.2% poverty incidence among 334,069 poor individuals while Compostela Valley

had a 47.1% poverty incidence among 301,081 poor population and Agusan del Norte

had a 40% poverty incidence among 236,297 poor population (see Tables 2.19 and

2.20).

Settlements in the river town of Agusan del Sur account for most of the

households with income below the poverty threshold, primarily because of the “difficulty

in access to basic socio-economic services” (PGADS 2010, 140). In Agusan del Norte,

the most remote municipality of Lawan-lawan, a predominantly indigenous community,

had the highest incidence of poverty; its 10 poorest villages are also situated in remote

areas populated by indigenous peoples (IPs) (PGADN 2010). The poverty in

Compostela Valley is attributed to large family sizes, poor access to basic services, low

educational attainment and the insurgency situation, among other factors (PGCV 2010).

Table 2.19. Annual Per Capita Poverty Thresholds and Incidences of Families
2003 2006
Annual Per Number Poverty Annual Per Number Poverty
Capita of Poor Incidence Capita of Poor Incidence
Province
Poverty Families Among Poverty Families Among
Threshold (in Families (%) Threshold (in Families (%)
pesos) pesos)
Compostela
11,422 44,410 34.4 15,822 54,153 39.8
Valley
Agusan Del
12,150 59,815 52.8 14.544 58,161 48.7
Sur
Agusan Del
11,460 36,198 33.2 13,986 40,668 35.2
Norte
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

73
 Table 2.20. Annual Per Capita Poverty Thresholds and Incidences of Population
Province 2003 2006
Annual Per Number Poverty Annual Per Number Poverty
Capita of Poor Incidence Capita of Poor Incidence
Poverty Population Among Poverty Population Among
Threshold Population Threshold Population
(in pesos) (%) (in pesos) (%)
Compostela
11,422 255,909 41.9 15,822 301,081 47.1
Valley
Agusan Del
12,150 337,889 60.3 14,544 334,069 56.2
Sur
Agusan Del
11,460 219,514 40.0 13,968 236,297 40.0
Norte
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

2.3.4 Education

The National Statistics Office (NSO) revealed that the 2003 basic literacy rate of the

population 10 years and over of Caraga Region is 94.6% which is slightly higher than

the national average of 94.3% and Davao has a basic literacy rate of 92.7%. The

functional literacy rate however is much lower than the basic literacy rate for Caraga in

2003 which was 84.6% and 82.2% for Davao; both regions had a lower rate than the

national average of 86.3%. In 2008, there was a slight increase in the functional literacy

rate for Caraga with 85.7% but a decrease in Davao with 81.7%. Both regions were still

below the national average rate of 86.4% in 2008 (see Table 2.21).

Table 2.21. Basic Literacy and Functional Literacy Rate of Population 10 years and Over
2003 Population Basic Literacy Functional Literacy 2008 Functional
Region
(in thousands) Rate (%) Rate (%) Literacy Rate (%)
Philippines 61,694 94.3 86.3 86.4
Davao Region 2,950 92.7 82.2 81.7
Caraga Region 1,635 94.6 84.6 85.7
Source: National Statistics Office 2009

74
 The Davao region had a net participation rate of 78% and a cohort survival rate

of 64.55% in public and private elementary schools in school year 2008-09 while the

Caraga region had 76.39% net participation rate and 73.53% cohort survival rate. Both

regions had a lower rate compared to the national average of 85.12% net participation

and 75.39% net cohort rates. Davao had an increasing rate from 2006-09 for both its

net participation and cohort survival rates but Caraga had a fluctuating rate for both its

net participation and cohort survival rates. The national averages for both net

participation and cohort survival rates also increased (see Table 2.22).

20 21
Table 2.22. Net Participation and Cohort Survival Rate
in Public and Private Elementary Schools
Net Participation Rate Net Cohort Rate
Region
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Philippines 83.22 84.84 85.12 73.43 75.26 75.39
Davao 75.89 77.38 78.00 59.15 67.33 64.55
Caraga 77.76 78.69 76.39 65.60 73.93 73.53
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

For secondary schools in school year 2008-09, Davao had a net participation

rate of 48.61% and a cohort survival rate of 76.94% while Caraga had 51.09% net

participation rate and 76.06% cohort survival rate. Both regions were below the national

average rates of 60.74% and 79.73%. Davao had fluctuating rates for both net

participation and cohort survival from 2006-09, while Caraga had an increasing rate in

net participation but had the same rate for cohort survival from 2007-09. The national

average had an increasing rate for net participation from 2006-09 but had a fluctuating

rate for the same period in cohort survival (see Table 2.23). Poverty is the main factor

20
NSO defines Net Participation Rate at the elementary level as the proportion of the number of
enrollees 7-12/6-11 years old to population 7-12/6-11 years old.
21
NSO defines Cohort Survival Rate at the elementary level as the proportion of the enrollees at
the beginning grade who reach the final grade at the end of the required number of years of study.

75
that hinders the success of children in their pursuit of their studies; some of them are

forced to quit their studies to “help their parents earn a living” (PGCV 2010, 184).

Conflict situations in rural areas and difficulty of access to high school facilities are

among the other reasons why both regions had low net participation and cohort survival

rates.

22 23
Table 2.23. Net Participation and Cohort Survival Rate
in Public and Private Secondary Schools
Net Participation Rate Net Cohort Rate
Region
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Philippines 58.59 60.26 60.74 77.33 79.91 79.73
Davao 47.84 49.12 48.61 68.44 76.09 76.94
Caraga 48.89 49.85 51.09 73.76 76.06 76.06
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board 2009

2.3.5 Health

Poor living conditions and very limited access to health care are the main factors of poor

health in the Basin. This is worsened by the presence of the endemic diseases such as

schistosomiasis, malaria, filariasis, and heterodiasis, among others, that are borne by

food, mosquito and water (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Water-related diseases

are among the causes of morbidity in the Basin with diarrhea, schistosomiasis, intestinal

parasitism, and malaria as the leading causes of illnesses in 2004. Acute respiratory

infection is the leading cause of morbidity with 554 per 100,000 population followed by

diarrhea and gastro-enteritis with 495, pneumonia with 260 and hypertensive diseases

with 255 per 100,000 population (see Table 2.24).

22
NSO defines Net Participation Rate at the secondary level as the proportion of the number of
enrollees 13-16 years old to population 13-16 years old.
23
NSO defines Cohort Survival Rate at the secondary level as the proportion of the enrollees at
the beginning year who reach the final year at the end of the required number of years of study.

76
 Table 2.24. Morbidity (per 100,000 population) in 2004
Agusan Agusan Compostela
Cause Average
del Norte del Sur Valley
Acute respiratory infection 375 818 470 554
Pneumonia 541 - 240 260
Intestinal parasitism - - 240 80
Diarrhea and gastro-enteritis 388 869 230 495
Hypertensive diseases 365 231 170 255
Tuberculosis 93 112 90 98
Schistosomiasis - 276 - 92
Malnutrition - - 80 27
Malaria 58 - - 19
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008 from Provincial Health Offices
in Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur and Compostela Valley

Caraga region in 2006 had recorded acute respiratory infection (3,772 per

100,000 population), pneumonia (681 per 100,000 population) and diarrhea (612 per

100,000 population) as its top three leading causes of morbidity. These infectious

diseases are fairly attributed to poor sanitation and lack of potable water supply (DOH

Caraga Region 2007). Hypertension cardio-vascular disease (97 per 100,000

population), pneumonia (36 per 100,000 population) and accidents of all forms (35 per

100,000 population) were the top three leading causes of mortality (see Table 2.25).

Table 2.25. Ten Leading Causes of Morbidity and Morbidity for Caraga Region
Leading Causes of Morbidity (2006) Leading Cause of Mortality (2006)
Causes Number Rate per Causes Number Rate per
100,000 100,000
1. Acute Respiratory Infection 1. Hypertension Cardio
86667 3772 2,250 97
with Bronchitis Vascular Disease
2. Pneumonias 15879 681 2. Pneumonias 829 36
3. Diarrheas 14250 612 3. Accident all forms 812 35
4. Accidents/Wounds/Injuries 12325 529 4. Cancer (all types) 796 34
5. Hypertension Cardio 5. Tuberculosis (all
12319 529 512 22
Vascular Disease forms)
6. Influenza 12310 528 6. Renal Diseases 356 15
7. Skin Diseases all forms 11997 515 7. Diabetes 299 13
8. Dental Problems 8968 385 8. Multiple Organ Failure 246 11
9. Liver & Gall Bladder
9. Genito-Urinary Diseases 8579 368 232 10
Diseases
10. Tuberculosis 4350 186 10. Bleeding Peptic Ulcer 200 9
Source: Center for Health Development of Caraga Region 2007

77
 Table 2.26. Ten Leading Causes of Morbidity and Morbidity for Davao Region
Leading Causes of Morbidity (2007) Leading Cause of Mortality (2007)
Causes Number Rate per Causes Number Rate per
100,000 100,000
1. Acute Upper 1. Cerebrovascular accident
43,445 1,045 2,410 58.0
Respiratory Infection
2. Acute Lower 2. Accident all forms
22,196 534 1,686 40.6
Respiratory Infection
3. Malignant neoplasm all
3. Pneumonias 19,789 476 1,663 40.0
forms
4. Diarrheas (all forms) 14,677 353 4. Pneumonias 1,587 38.2
5. Genitourinary system 5. Heart Diseases
11,603 279 1,433 34.5
diseases
6. Hypertensive 6. Diseases of the Digestive
11,295 272 902 21.7
Disease System
7. Diseases of arteries,
7. Tuberculosis 7,454 179 868 20.9
arterioles, and capillaries
8. Asthma 5,541 133 8. Hypertensive disease 825 19.8
9. Cerebrovascular 9. Diseases of genitourinary
5,134 124 809 19.5
accident system
10. Tuberculosis,
10. Septicemia 3,641 84 713 17.2
Respiratory
Source: Department of Health of Davao Region 2007

Davao region in 2007 had recorded a similar trend in morbidity with acute upper

respiratory infection (1,045 per 100,000 population) topping the list followed by acute

lower respiratory infection (534 per 100,000 population), pneumonia (476 per 100,000

population) and diarrhea (353 per 100,000 population). Cerebrovascular accidents (58

per 100,000 population), accidents of all forms (40.6 per 100,000 population) and

malignant neoplasm (40.6 per 100,000 population) were the top three leading causes of

mortality (see Table 2.26).

2.3.6 Stakeholders in the Basin

There is a prevailing conflict over the tenurial instruments set up by the government

over the years primarily caused by overlapping provisions. Certificates of Ancestral

78
Land/ Domain Title (CADC/CADT) given to indigenous communities by virtue of the

Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) are the key instruments on land tenure of the

indigenous community (Cariño 2009). CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) state that the

“issuance of CADT bestowed tenurial security empowering IPs to improve their

production system, strengthen their cultural heritage, integrate them into mainstream

society, participate in decision-making and obtain access to basic social services”

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008, vol IIIA, 218). However, there are also other

instruments like the leasehold agreements issued earlier by the government. Land

issues make it difficult for IPs to assert their rights over their land and natural resources

(Cariño 2009).

Approximately half a million hectares in Caraga region are used as community-

based forestry management agreement (CBFMAs) (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

The CBFMA was implemented in 1995 as the national strategy to achieve sustainable

forestry and social justice with the Certificate of Steward Contract (CSC) and the

Certificate of Ancestral Domain/Land Claim (CADC/CALC) as the instruments under the

program. On the other hand, the Integrated Forest Management Agreement (IFMA) is

an agreement for planting commercial trees entered by a private entity in a defined

contract area. It offers a 25-year tenure over the contracted area and is renewable for

another 25 years with favorable provisions for the residents (Cariño 2009). The

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) 24 Act of 1992 is designed for

biodiversity conservation and sustainable development with a partnership between the

24
NIPAS is “the classification and administration of all designated protected areas to maintain
essential ecological processes and life-support systems, to preserve genetic diversity, to ensure
sustainable use of resources found therein, and to maintain their natural conditions to the greatest extent
possible” (National Statistical Coordination Board 2009 from Philippine Housing and Urban Coordinating
Council).

79
government and other interested parties (Cariño 2009). Most government agencies

believe that there is a need for a uniting law to address the overlapping provisions of the

government (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) categorize the institutional stakeholders in the

Basin into government and non-government sectors. The government sector consists

of local government units (LGUs) from the provincial level down to the barangay or

village level and the national line agencies (NLAs) in the Caraga and Davao Regions

where the ARB is situated. The non-government sector includes academia, religious

organizations, NGOs, peoples’ organizations (POs), forest concessionaires, plantation

operators, irrigation associations (IAs), IPs and business entities (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008). In the past, civil society groups have had very limited impact on natural

resource management in the Basin due to local and national conditions and its inherent

weakness (Rood 2005). But management actors deem their role vital to the success of

natural resource management and they are indeed considered key stakeholders. The

categorization facilitates the selection of stakeholder groups and also has “a bearing in

strengthening their coordination” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 139). Some

of these stakeholders are non-traditional management actors but play crucial roles in

facilitating public participation and integrated natural resource planning as a mechanism

for mediating conflicts and policy making (Hafner, Schlarb and Pinili 1998; Madrigal et al

2005).

The stakes are primarily concentrated on the use and management of natural

resources in the ARB. The DENR is the government agency that regulates the

forestlands in the entire archipelago. With the varying anthropological activities in the

80
Basin, several government agencies provide services that are specialized and

complementary (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The Department of Public Works

and Highways (DPWH) carries out the design, construction, and maintenance of

national roads and bridges, and major flood control systems; the Department of

Agriculture (DA) for irrigation and farm inputs; the Department of Health (DOH) for basic

public health services; the Department of Education (DepEd) for education; the

Department of Energy (DOE) for energy requirements; the Department of Agrarian

Reform (DAR) for land tenure improvement and development of program beneficiaries

of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP); and the NCIP for the

concerns of IPs (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The Armed Forces of the

Philippines (AFP) and the Philippine National Police (PNP) are the main security forces

that deal with the law and order in the Basin; but when dealing with the insurgency

problem, which has existed for more than three decades in the Basin, the AFP is the

primary agency with the PNP in a supportive role (Madrigal et al 2005).

Non-government stakeholders are further classified by CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI (2008) as on-site and off-site stakeholders. On-site stakeholders reside and earn

their living in the Basin while the off-site stakeholders dwell or are based somewhere

else but make a living from the Basin. The former are mainly farming households and

IPs while the latter are dominated by corporations (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) further categorized the resource users by slope. The

flatlands are dominated by organized water users and fishers while the majority in the

lower slopes are corn and commercial crop growers and in the upper slopes are tree

planters and log producers. Large commercial crop areas are generally found in

81
corporate plantations such as those engaged in banana production in Agusan del Norte

and Compostela Valley, and palm oil cultivation in Agusan del Sur. Corporate

plantations consist of small landowners and corporations (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008). Small landowners are engaged in contract growing and usually lease land, while

corporations manage extensive plantations and have corporate headquarters in big

cities. Producers in the forestland are mostly holders of instruments on land tenure

issued by the DENR (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008) (see Figure 2.12). The armed

wing of the Communist party of the Philippines (CPP), the New People’s Army (NPA),

collects revolutionary taxes from corporations, mining operators, and commercial

establishments in the ARB and enforces compliance by force and intimidation. The

CPP/NPA is considered a terrorist organization by both the United States and European

Union governments (OG2 2005).

Institutional Stakeholders

Government Sector – LGUs and NLAs

Non-Government Sector - Academia, NGOs, POs,
Religious Organizations, Forest Concessionaires,
Plantation Operators, IAs, IPs and Business Entities

Upper Slope- Upper Slope-

Holders of Security
Instrument of forces and
Land Tenure Lower Slope- Lower Slope- Insurgents
Crop Growers Crop Growers
Flatlands – Water Users and Fishers

Figure 2.12. Cross-Section of Stakeholders in the ARB

The NEDA Caraga (2005) states that the indigenous peoples (IPs) in the ARB

include the Manobos, Mamanwa and Higaonon tribes that dwell in the lower and middle

sections of the Basin and the Mandaya and Mansaka tribes that dwell in the upper

82
section. Each group or tribe is recognizable by distinct traits and dialects. A majority of

the members of these IPs live below the poverty line despite being gifted with rich

natural resources and large tracts of land (Madrigal et al 2005). Their livelihood in the

ARB is mainly based on agriculture and forestry, and the improvement of their living

conditions relies on natural resource use. Further, NEDA Caraga (2005) asserts that

their traditional natural resource use and management system are continually disrupted

by external forces. The need to strengthen this system within the context of the

Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim/Title (CADC/CADT) area management is a

necessary component in upgrading natural resource management in the Basin (NEDA

Caraga 2005).

The ARB which crosses three provincial boundaries requires the provincial

governments and national line agencies whose activities are not in consonance with the

framework of river basin management to get involved; “government engagement is

deemed critical as river basin management inevitably involves regulatory and financial

measures that the non-government sector is not usually used to undertaking alone”

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 210). The land use groups’ concerns in the

ARB are important for environmental and socio-economic considerations. Municipalities

and provincial administrations have an “important role in developing and monitoring the

land use pattern of each municipality to increase production and income” (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008, Annex 2I, 1).

83
2.4 Synopsis

Major threats affecting the physical integrity of the ARB are primarily caused by

population pressure, unsustainable farming practices and illegal mining activities.

Shifting cultivation, small-scale mining industry in the uplands and the rapid denudation

of forest lands degrade the natural resources in the Basin. These also cause an

increasing scarcity of water and the deterioration of its quality, water pollution and public

health issues related to water. Increasing siltation and sedimentation in waterways and

river channels, low basin run-off, excessive erosion and the poor drainage systems

contribute to the flooding in the Basin. Conditions that threaten the Basin integrity also

causes drought and floods that could damage crops, properties and lives and affect the

hydrologic pattern and microclimate condition in the Basin and the neighboring regions

(CGB, PGADN, PGADN, and PGCV 2010; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

On the other hand, demographic factors are key components that contribute to

the conflict in the Basin. The abundance of natural resource and flourishing economic

activities in urbanizing and growth areas in the Basin attract unwanted migrants. The

increase in population growth by high birth rate and migration further increases not only

the risk of further degradation of natural resources in the Basin but also the land-based

conflict with the indigenous communities. The condition worsens the poverty situation

of the IPs and income inequality among natural resource users in the Basin and

increases the intensity of societal conflict. The insurgents capitalize on this chaotic

situation and further intensify the appalling conflict situation to attain their revolutionary

objectives. The poverty situation among the IPs is further aggravated by poor access to

84
basic services, low educational attainment, weakened traditional natural resource use

and management system and the insurgency situation. The conflict causes political

instability that has adverse impacts on natural resource management in the Basin

(CGB, PGADN, PGADN, and PGCV 2010; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008; Cariño

2009).

85
 CHAPTER 3. CONFLICT SITUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE AGUSAN

RIVER BASIN AND ITS PERIPHERY

3.1 Restatement of Purpose

This chapter presents the analysis and description of the factors that influence the

collaborative partnerships among stakeholders and the existing governing and

institutional mechanisms of the natural resource management in the Basin. It first

narrates the land use perspective based on historical processes and then enumerates

the key natural resource management policies in the Basin. The chapter describes

further the indigenous peoples (IPs) living in the Basin and the impact of Indigenous

Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) on the indigenous communities. It then analyzes the conflict

situation in the Basin and how the stakeholders try to resolve the conflict. It also

provides analysis of the stakeholders in natural resource management and illustrates

the interface of natural resource use and management in the Basin that links State

policies and customary laws of the indigenous communities. Discussed are the roles of

LGUs and IPs, among other key stakeholders, as well as non-traditional management

actors like NGOs and security forces in the natural resource management and

development of the Basin. It also accounts for the general conditions of the indigenous

communities and how they are exploited by the insurgents and practically neglected by

the government; furthermore, it uncovers the disconnect that persists in the present set-

up of the existing institutional arrangements of inter-agency collaboration. A synopsis

sums up the main factors that dominate the conflict situation in the Basin.

86
3.2 Historical Perspective on Land Use

3.2.1 Colonial Period

Land is the core issue in conflicts between the IPs and colonizers who unilaterally

impose their policies to control the natural resources in the country (Molintas 2004).

The Spanish came to the country in 1521, imposing the Regalian Doctrine and claiming

the lands as newly discovered and owned by the King of Spain. It had become the

foundation of Philippine laws on natural resources, from which subsequent laws were

based on up to the time of the American period (from 1898 to 1945) when it was used to

“legally justify natural resource control and exploitation” (Molintas 2004, 284). Other

laws that were introduced were the Land Registration Act No. 496 of 1902, the

Philippine Commission Act No. 178 of 1903 and the Mining Law of 1905, which were

designed to strengthen State control of land and explore mineral resources (Burton

2003). The Public Land Acts of 1913, 1919 and 1925 made all other areas of fertile

lands in Mindanao available to homesteaders and corporations, completely disregarding

the presence and the rights of the IPs in these areas (ADB 2002). The Japanese

disrupted the American colonization in 1941-45 but control over land was manifested

only in areas where the Japanese had “political control” particularly in key cities around

the country. Both the 1935 and 1987 constitutions reinforced the State’s control over

the public domain and denied the IPs the right to their lands (Molintas 2004). The

exclusive and “arrogant” policies of ruling mainstream societies forced the IPs to show a

resistant attitude toward them.

87
 Table 3.1. Historiography of Land Use in the Philippines

Trends Dates Events

Spanish Colonization 1521-1898 Spanish imposed the Regalian Doctrine on natural

resource control

American Colonization 1898-1945 Land Registration Act No. 496 of 1902, the Philippine
Commission Act No. 178 of 1903 and the Mining Law
of 1905 were introduced to strengthen state control of
land and explore mineral resources

Public Land Acts of 1913, 1919 and 1925 made all

other areas of fertile lands in Mindanao available to
homesteaders and corporations

Enactment of First Constitution 1935 State affirmed control over natural resources

Japanese Occupation 1941-1945 Disrupted the American colonization but control over
land manifest only in areas where the Japanese had
political control

Extractive Industries in the Early 1946-1980s State embarked on natural resource exploitation for
Post-war nation-building with logging and mining industries
dominating

Martial Law Period 1972-1981 Country was placed under martial law based on the
pretext of pressing security threats from a communist
insurgency and the Muslim separatist movement in
the southern part of the country

Communist insurgents exploited the issues on

poverty, land grabbing, and natural resource
exploitation to convince communities to join their
cause

Enactment of Second 1987 State reaffirmed control over natural resources

Constitution

3.2.2 Extractive Industries in the Early Post-War

When the Philippines was officially granted independence in 1946 by the Americans,

who succeeded the Spaniards in colonizing the country, the nation embarked on natural

resource exploitation to rebuild a country devastated by war and a people who were

generally disillusioned. The influx of logging and mining industries altered the

88
landscape of ancestral lands in the Basin. Plantation, logging, mining and energy

projects were the main development activities, which had become the IP’s primary

concern. Such a natural resources-based economy had an impact that is contrary to

the interest of the IPs and caused their rapid alienation from nature (Madrigal et al

2005). There was a rapid removal of forest cover in the Basin when the country

embarked on massive extraction of forest resources after World War II. Two decades

later over 60% of the land was still covered with primary forest but intensive logging

dominated the extractive industries in the Basin until the early 1990s (CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008).

3.2.3 Martial Law Period

The country was placed under then President Marcos’s firm grasp through the

proclamation of martial law in 1972 based on the pretext of pressing security threats

from a communist insurgency throughout the entire archipelago and the Muslim

separatist movement in the Southern part of the country (International Crisis Group

(ICG) 2011). But critics believed that it was simply designed to keep his power. The

local communist movement (LCM), which was founded in 1968, took advantage of the

IP’s discontent and dismay over the government’s hand in exploiting its natural

resources and in 1976, communist insurgents were able to expand their coverage in

Mindanao, exploiting the issues of poverty, land grabbing, natural resource exploitation

and disrespect of their culture and convincing large numbers in tribal communities to

join their cause in the process (PMT 4ID 2007). Many believed that the Marcos regime,

89
which placed the country under martial rule until 1981, had been largely responsible for

an intensification of the insurgency that peaked two years after Marcos was ousted from

power through a people’s revolution in 1986 (ICG 2011).

3.3 Key Natural Resource Management Policies

3.3.1 Revised Forestry Code

The Revised Forestry Code, which was enacted in 1975, serves as the basic governing

law in the management and utilization of forest resources and watersheds; it ensures

the non-privatization of watersheds as it prohibits it from being classified as alienable

and disposable (A&D) and “bans logging activities in critical watersheds” (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008, chap 4, 5). The Letter of Instruction 917 in 1979 declares

critical watersheds and proclaimed watershed reservations as wilderness areas with

clear prohibition of exploitation (Rola, Sumbalan and Suminguit 2004). Jensen (2003)

however asserts that the Code encouraged a highly centralized approach that did not

promote effective forest management at all. The law was circumvented through

patronage politics which perpetuated various forms of graft and corruption. Influential

businessmen gained control of forest resource utilization explaining the rampant illegal

logging practice in the country. The adoption of a zonation scheme as stipulated in the

Code, where a land with less than 18% of slope was considered an intensive

agricultural zone and the remaining land as a forest zone, also had adverse effects on

the land ownership of the IPs since most of them dwell in forest lands, subsequently

90
reducing them to squatters. The deforestation brought about by extractive activities,

however, forced the government to come up with provisions by devolving other

instruments on land tenure that involve farmers in forest resource management

(Baguinon 2000).

3.3.2 Stewardship Contracts

In its innovation to stop the deforestation in the mountainous regions of the country, the

government accorded the upland communities with the awarding of the Community-

Based Forest Resource Management (CBFRM) projects enjoining them as partners in

its forest resource management. Under CBFRM, ownership of forestlands can be made

through the Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC) which stipulates that the owner

can improve the land over a period of 25 years and renew stewardship for another 25

years (Baguinon 2000). The Forest Land Grazing Management Agreement (FLGMA) is

a production sharing agreement that applies in forest lands sub-classified as pasture

lands (Cariño 2009; Baguinon 2000). Ownership of forest lands was made possible

through the CSC also which allowed the owners to improve the land. CBFRM projects

were accorded to the upland communities to prevent slash-and-burn expansion by

allowing farmers to “log remaining second growth forests, reforest denuded hilly lands,

process forest products and participate in the wood and pulpwood industrial sector”

(Baguinon 2000, 395). It also underpinned the integration of traditional knowledge of IPs

into management practice which is highly favorable for forest resource management

(Guiang 2002). This helped uplift the socio-economic conditions of the IPs and enhance

91
the forest cover of the country. The commercial venture by the State utilizing forest

resources to generate capital and employment continued to create tension among IPs.

While it is promoting to conserve and protect the environment employing community

cooperation, the government also ventures into the commercialization of the forest

(Cariño 2009). Local and foreign capitalists establish forest plantations through the

IFMA. The intensity of production of forest products is expected to degrade the IPs’

domains and subsequently deny them the benefits from the forests (Cariño 2009). 25

3.3.3 Local Government Code

The Local Government Code enacted in 1991 aimed to transform local government

units (LGUs) into self-reliant communities and active partners in nation building by

giving them more responsibility and authority in the performance of corresponding

functions, responsibilities and obligations on the management of the environment and

natural resources (Catacutan and Duque 2006). Subsequently, DENR devolved its

functions to LGUs and created counterparts at the City or Municipal Environment and

Natural Resource Offices (CENRO/MENRO). LGUs with low-income municipalities

have encountered difficulties in performing their devolved functions and initiating local

natural resource management programs (Catacutan and Duque 2006). LGUs are also

granted the responsibility of developing surface and groundwater resources within their

political boundaries and “in some cases have been utilized as the legal basis for the

charging of user fees in resource use” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, 46-47). The

devolution of the regulation has also caused unsustainable extraction of natural

25
Cf chap. 2, n. 8-10.

92
resources and significant loss of biodiversity. Prevailing conditions of uncontrolled and

unplanned cutting of trees and unregulated mining threaten the integrity of many

ecosystems (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

3.3.4 Indigenous Peoples Rights Act

The IPRA enacted in 1997 is a comprehensive law that encompasses the rights of the

IPs to ancestral domains and lands; self-governance and empowerment; social justice

and human rights; and cultural integrity. It provided for the creation of the National

Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), the primary agency tasked to formulate

and implement policies, plans and programs to promote and protect the rights and well-

being of the IPs. The NCIP has jurisdiction over the processing and approval of

Certificate of Ancestral Domain/Land Title (CADT/CALT) (ADB 2002; Madrigal et al

2005). CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) state that the issuance of CADC/CALT

conferred upon the IPs their much-coveted tenurial security empowering them to

“improve their production system, strengthen their cultural heritage, integrate into

mainstream society, participate in decision-making and obtain access to basic social

services” (Halcrow, and WCI 2008, 218). This is in consonance with the 1987

constitution’s provision for the protection of the IP’s right to their ancestral domains

underpinned by the IPRA. However, this is in conflict with the other tenurial instruments

covering forestlands, giving private ownership as well as other forms of tenure issued by

the government before the passage of IPRA (ADB 2002; Cariño 2009).

93
 3.3.5 Mining Policies

The Mining Act of 1995 lays out a new system on natural resource exploration designed

to deal with issues of past mining regulations to clearly define mining rights, revenue

sharing, social and environmental responsibilities and the rights of the IPs who are the

most affected communities of the mining industry. The law, however, met stiff

opposition from various stakeholders because of the controversy that allows 100

percent foreign control over large-scale mining operations which dramatically altered the

previous ownership of 60% Filipino and 40% foreigner. This provision is embodied in

the Financial or Technical Assistance Agreement (FTAA) which allows “domestic and

foreign corporations for a maximum area of 81,000 hectares onshore or 324,000

hectares offshore; this agreement is valid for a period of 25 years and is renewable for

another 25-year period” (Fong-Sam 2010,1). This agreement “requires a minimum

authorized capital of Four Million Dollars (US$ 4,000,000) and a capital investment of

Fifty Million Dollars (US$ 50,000,000) for infrastructure and development in the contract

area” (Mineral Development Council (MDC) 2007, 19).

When then President Gloria Arroyo assumed power in 2001, she came up with a

Mineral Action Plan in 2004 to revitalize a mining industry slowed down by court cases

because of FTAA provisions, in order to entice large investments that would generate

growth and development (Stark, Li and Terasawa 2006). The accommodating regulation

as claimed by skeptics enabled corporations to explore and control huge mineral

resources (Kalikasan People’s Network for the Environment and the Defend Patrimony!

Alliance (KPNEDPA) 2008). However, some companies encountered challenges in

94
obtaining agreements because of bureaucratic red tape and corruption. Consequently,

some companies opted to apply for a small-scale mining permit since it only required

the approval of LGUs and companies to pay taxes directly to them albeit with smaller

areas of operation and limited production (KPNEDPA 2008). As an antidote to the

security concerns in some areas, the organization of the Investment Defense Force

(IDF) was mandated by the President to safeguard mining operations (KPNEDPA

2008).

3.3.6 Other Watershed Management Policies

The country has its own Agenda 21Plan based on the Rio Declaration in 1992 laying out

its strategies on sustainable development of its natural resources. Natural resource

management through the ecosystem–based approach highlights the importance of

watershed management stressing the significance of participatory decision-making and

local-level implementation consistent with the 1998 Strategy for Improved Watershed

Resources Management of the country (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The NIPAS

Act of 1992 also aimed for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development

through a partnership between the government and other interested parties (Cariño

2009). The twin objectives of the Act guarantees inter-generational “existence of all

native plants and animals through the establishment of a comprehensive system of

integrated protected areas within the classification of national parks” (CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008, 44). The Water Crisis Act of 1995 also stresses the significant role of

95
watershed management in dealing with the country’s pressing problems of water

resources.

3.4 Indigenous Peoples in the Basin

There are approximately 7.1 million IPs in Mindanao, representing 60.84% of the

estimated 11.78 million IPs in the entire Philippine archipelago. Other IPs in the country

are highly concentrated in the Cordillera region in the Northern Island of Luzon with

37.68%, but their presence in the central part of the country in the Visayas is minimal

with only 1.49% (Madrigal et al 2005 from NCIP 2005). The indigenous communities

are composed of 110 ethno-linguistic groups distinguished by their dialects and traits

and basically subsisting through swidden agriculture, hunting, fishing, and trading of

forest products and locally produced items (NCIP 2005). These IPs exercise

sovereignty over their respective territories, which are customarily respected by tribal

groups. They are recognized as the descendants of the original inhabitants who were

able to resist colonization that started with the arrival of the Spanish in 1521(Dunuan

2001; NCIP 2005). Their evasive resistance to the subjugation of colonizers, which

included control by the Americans in the first half of the 20th century and a short

occupation by the Japanese, enabled them to preserve ways of life that have survived

up to the present time (Madrigal et al 2005). Plantation agriculture and cash cropping in

their domains were developed as sources of commodities and raw materials needed by

colonizers (Stewart 1999). The persistent resistance of IPs against the mainstream

societies subsequently put them in a marginalized and neglected position among the

96
dominant tribes; they have developed a strong attachment to or dependence on the

land which they believe is their ancestral domain and they have also developed a

martial tradition to defend their domain (Madrigal et al 2005).

Historical interaction patterns of the IPs with mainstream society not only in the

Basin but in the country in general vary according to space and time. This is primarily

due to different conditions that have been experienced and imposed upon them by the

outsiders (Madrigal et al 2005). The United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

further asserts that indigenous peoples rely from the wisdom they have inherited from

their ancestors in order to survive or exercise their fundamental human rights. The ADB

(2002) has noted two significant characteristics of IPs: (i) descent from population

groups present in a given area, most often before modern states or territories were

created and before modern borders were defined; and (ii) maintenance of cultural

identities and social, economic, cultural, and political institutions separate from

mainstream or dominant societies and cultures. This definition is similar to that of the

United Nations’ where the country described as having “the distinction of being the first

Asian country that officially used the term indigenous peoples and granted full

recognition of their rights as embodied in the IPRA” (Madrigal et al 2005 from ADB

2002).

There are five dominant tribes living in the Basin which are recognizable by

distinct traits and dialects. These are the Higaonon, Mamanwa and Manobo tribes that

dwell in the lower and middle streams of the Basin and the Mandaya and Mansaka

tribes that live in the upper stream (NEDA Caraga 2005). 26 The Manobos occupy

lowlands and live along the national highway and river towns and are numerous along
26
Cf chap. 2, pp. 79-85.

97
the boundary of Agusan del Sur and Davao del Norte. The Higaonon tribe live on the

western side of Agusan del Sur, particularly in the municipality of Esperanza and the tri-

boundaries of Agusan del Sur, and the neighboring provinces of Bukidnon and Misamis

Oriental. The Mandayas and Mansakas can be found in Compostela Valley Province.

The Mamanwas dwell in the province of Agusan Del Norte and mostly in the

neighboring provinces of Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur (OG2 4ID 2005).

The massive migration of people from the central part of the country to the Basin

tilted the ethnic diversification in favor of the migrants. Migrants in 2000 averaged 64%

of the total population of the three provinces with Cebuano/Binisaya/Boholano (migrants

from Visayan-speaking provinces) dominating. The Manobo have the highest

percentage of population among the IPs with 6%, followed by Mandaya/Mansaka with

3% and Higaonon 1% (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008) (see Table 3.2). These

indigenous groups constitute a significant portion of the Basin inhabitants but they also

account for a majority of those living below the poverty line with 60%, despite being

gifted with rich natural resources and large tracts of land (Madrigal et al 2005). The

population in the indigenous domains continues to increase primarily due to a high birth

rate and immigration (DENR Caraga 2004). Their livelihood is mainly based on

agriculture and forestry and the improvement of their living conditions relies on natural

resource use which are exploited by “unscrupulous entrepreneurs”. Low agricultural

productivity, short supplies of staple foods and the insufficiency of food crops are the

main problems associated with the subsistence of these IPs (ADB 2002).

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 Table 3.2. Population by Ethnicity in the ARB, 2000
Agusan del Agusan del Sur Compostela Valley Total
Ethnicity
Norte (%) (%) (%) (%)
Cebuano/Binisaya/
62 55 74 64
Boholano
Manobo 1 16 - 6
Mananwa - - - -
Mandaya/Mansaka - - 9 3
Higaonon 1 2 - 1
Others 36 27 17 26
Total 100 100 100 100
Source: CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) from National Statistics Office

The impoverished condition of IPs as viewed from a development perspective is

not much of an issue for the IPs since they generally do not indulge in high

consumerism and cling more to the preservation of their customs, traditions and beliefs

(Madrigal et al 2005). The common needs and aspirations of the IPs are: being

respected as a people including respect for their culture, tradition, and their ancestral

domain, greater recognition and participation in governance, education, and better

economic security, infrastructure, and opportunities. The major causes of the IP’s

poverty and suffering, on the other hand, are their lack of physical security, inadequate

social infrastructure, lack of education and technical know-how, poor micro-financing,

and land tenure insecurity (ADB 2002; Madrigal et al 2005).

Tribal communities have relied on their traditional indigenous knowledge in the

utilization of their natural resources. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) are a part of

the many traditions of IPs and are considered valuable resources in development

(Reyes-Boquiren 2003). IPs in the Basin treasure their IKS, which even outsiders

believe are still beneficial not only for the community but for any society at large. This

wealth of knowledge ranges from medicine to agriculture. Some practices like swidden

agriculture, which the mainstream society deems harmful, are being promoted by the

99
IPs since it is beneficial to the semi-nomadic lifestyle within their domains (ADB 2002).

While there are laws that protect the intellectual property rights of the IPs similar to what

is experienced in developed nations, the recognition and compensation for traditional

knowledge gained from IPs is an issue to be dealt with (Smardon and Faust 2001).

Further, NEDA Caraga (2005) asserts that their traditional natural resource use and

management system is constantly disrupted by external forces. There is a need to

strengthen this system within the context of the CADC/CADT area management; this is

a necessary component in upgrading natural resource management in the Basin (NEDA

Caraga 2005).

The political institutions of IPs at a community level are generally centered on the

tribal chieftain. Inevitable development in the indigenous domains compels the IPs to

adapt to changing conditions in their society, which greatly affects their traditional

systems. The influences of their traditional leaders are diminishing as a large number of

members of the tribe prefer leadership that could help them adjust to the dynamic

environment that would improve their quality of life (Madrigal et al 2005). The power

structure in the community is analogous to a community power theory which is

hierarchical, with the social, economic and political life of the community being

dominated by a relatively small and homogenous group of influential people led by the

tribal chieftain and the council of elders (Wengert 1976). But the creeping influences of

outsiders create conditions for some tribal leaders in some indigenous communities to

be non-traditionalists. This causes a mixed power structure among different tribes ruled

by traditionalists and non-traditionalists. However, traditional leaders still dominate the

leadership of the overwhelming majority of the indigenous communities in the Basin

100
(Madrigal et al 2005). The decision-making structure is basically monolithic and

characterized by the “concept of power behind the throne” (Burke 1979). The council of

elders is the policy and decision maker within their ancestral domain and is represented

by the different sectoral land owners in the area. In cases where the issue is between

the state and the community, particularly on land use, the council of elders observes the

due process of the State law and enlists the services of a technical consultant who is

expected to be sincere in dealing with the IPs (Burton et al 2007; Madrigal et al 2005).

Winning over the tribal chieftain makes it easier to win over the support of the

entire community especially on proposed projects affecting their domain. The success

of projects necessitates the involvement of the indigenous community through the

chieftain, making them part of the development process and giving them a greater

influence in the decision-making structure (ADB 2002). Castro and Nielsen (2001)

assert that the efficiency in natural resource management will be enhanced with

increased stakeholder participation. Individuals and communities who have been

deprived for a long time will positively respond to an incentivized process (Castro and

Nielsen 2001).

According to Catacutan and Duque (2006) the IPs gained considerable rights

and control over their domain in the early 1990s as LGUs got involved in local

environmental governance. Francisco and Rola (2004) second the idea that without the

support of the local community members the effort to protect the watershed is expected

to fail. This is also supported by Contreras (2004b) who states that local communities

should be directly involved and their capacity be enhanced to perform their roles

functionally for natural resource management.

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3.5 The Impact of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act

Mindanao has been a contested area since the colonization era. As the geography of

the country was redrawn with its independence from the Americans, the new

independent republic continued the program of the Americans in assimilating IPs and

Muslim communities into mainstream society. The Commission of National Integration

(CNI) was created to implement the integration program, and later replaced by the

Presidential Assistance on National Minorities (PANAMIN) and again by the Office of

Muslim Affairs and Cultural Communities (OMACC) during the presidency of Marcos.

When Marcos was deposed in 1986, the Office for Southern Cultural Communities

(OSCC) was the agency in charge of the IP’s affairs in the southern part of the

archipelago that include the islands of Visayas, Palawan and Mindanao until the

enactment of the IPRA (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

The landmark passage of the IPRA and the subsequent creation of the NCIP

augur well for the much coveted aspirations of the IPs. Such policies and other

instrumentalities have been in place to improve the socio-economic and political status

of the IPs through greater participation in governance as well as better economic

opportunities and protection of their much coveted possession -- ancestral lands (ADB

2002; Molintas 2004). Among the rights and responsibilities of the IPs included in the

IPRA are: (i) the right to develop lands and natural resources inside their ancestral

domains; (ii) the right to safe and clean water; and (iii) a duty to maintain ecological

balance (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Key provisions include the requirement for

free-and-prior-informed consent of the tribe when dealing with others, and certification

102
by the NCIP, the final authority that has jurisdiction to issue CADC/CADT. However,

meager funding constrains the agency in carrying out its functions and has been the

primary reason for the low processing rate of CADT/CALT applications (ADB 2002).

Politically and economically disadvantaged rural groups like the IPs in the Basin find it

difficult to negotiate agreements with the State and other powerful stakeholders. They

encounter several challenges in dealing with the complex processes of the formal legal

system (Castro and Nielsen 2001). Big mining and agricultural companies take

advantage of the situation by facilitating the fast issuance of CADC/CADT in exchange

for concessions within their domain. Tribal leaders usually give in to the irresistible

temptation offered by business companies. Ironically, the large corporations whom the

IPs have accused of exploiting their natural resources are now the facilitators of titling

the land they want to acquire. 27

The IPRA has brought favorable conditions for the IPs and much was desired in

its implementation. Burton (2003) cited four impacts of the Act, among others, that

varies among the indigenous communities: (i) there is an increased awareness among

the general public including the civil society organizations brought about by the

legislation process; (ii) this led to the formation of organizations and alliances among

IPs from village to national level; (iii) it strengthened the bond of indigenous

communities in their quests to seek recognition and benefits from the Act; and (iv) it also

raised suspicion about the true intention of the law itself being bound by the Regalian

Doctrine and the creation of imaginary tribal identities to take advantage of the rights

and privileges provided by the law. Meager resources, limited skills of the NCIP staff

27 th
The key staff of the 4 Infantry Division and Eastern Mindanao Command in discussion with
the author. October 2010.

103
and complex political processes and compromises, among others, have greatly affected

the efficiency and performance of NCIP in carrying out its functions (ADB 2002). The

success of the partnership between the DENR and the NCIP in 2003 in harmonizing the

implementation of the IPRA and other laws and policies remains to be seen (Cariño

2009). Opposition from business interests who have established networks in the

government bureaucracy hinders the implementation of the IPRA. Skeptics are also

suspicious about the intention of the IPRA itself because of implementation problems

and the shift of easier access of mining and logging industries through the IPs. 28 There

is also concern about the extent of ancestral domain covered by the law. The

delineation of boundaries of the domain of the IPs also heightens the tension among IPs

themselves over natural resource control. The IPs fear that the government, in

promoting investors’ interest in their areas, will gradually lose their lands again.

Furthermore, the presence of armed insurgents in their domains threatens tribal

communities and restrains their freedom of movement to the point of oppressing the IPs

(Madrigal et al 2005). Since indigenous domains are mostly situated in mountainous

areas, the insurgents have capitalized on such strategic locations by establishing

guerilla bases in many indigenous communities (OG2 4ID 2005). The total hectares of

land issued through Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) in the provinces of

Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur is 211,885.12 hectares with 32,291 beneficiaries

while Compostela Valley had 264,655.41 hectares with 24,708 beneficiaries (see

Tables 3.3 and 3.4).

28
The Senior Vice-President of Surigao Development Corporation in discussion with the author.
October 2010.

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 Table 3.3. CADT Issued in Compostela Valley
CADT No./ Area Total Date
Tribes
Location (hectares) Beneficiaries Approved
R11-CADT-MON-0703-007 Mandaya, Manobo,
Municipality of Monkayo, Mangguangan and 30,468.23 2189 07/22/2003
Compostela Valley Dibabawon
R11-NEW-0204-019
Municipalities of New Bataan
Mandaya-Mansaka 92,413.87 8443 02/17/2004
and Maragusan, Compostella
Valley
R11-PAN-0908-076
Municipalities of Pantukan,
Mansaka 141,773.31 14076 09/02/2008
Maragusan, Maco, Mabini,
Mawab, Compostela Valley
Source: National Commission on Indigenous Peoples 2011

Table 3.4. CADT Issued in Agusan Del Norte and Agusan Del Sur
CADT No./ Area Total Date
Tribes
Location (hectares) Beneficiaries Approved
R13-TAL-0908-077 Talacogon, Agusan del
Manobo 13,969.20 3439 09/03/2008
Sur
R13-ROS-0908-078 Rosario, Agusan del Sur Manobo 22,554.85 3690 09/03/2008
R13-SLU-0908-079 Barangay Binicalan, San
Banwaon 25,895.05 2689 09/03/2008
Luis, Agusan del Sur
R13-VER-1108-089 Municipalities of Veruela
and Sta. Josefa, Agusan del Sur and
Manobo 30,453.77 5304 11/07/2008
Municipalities of Laak and Monkayo,
Compostela Valley
R13-LOR-1108-090 Barangay Poblacion and
Katipunan, Municipality of Loreto, Agusan del Manobo 5,020.01 2841 11/07/2008
Sur
R13-LAP-0609-117 Barangay Kasapa II,
Manobo 67,577.95 3000 06/18/2009
Lapaz, Agusan del Sur
R13-LAS-0609-118 Municipality Of Las
Nieves, Agusan del Norte and Gingoog City, Higaonon 9,546.64 1107 06/18/2009
Misamis Oriental
R13-BUT-0909-135 Anticala and portion of CADC
5,065.52 1444 09/23/2009
Pianing, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte 178
R13-BUN-0909-136 Municipality of
Manobo 29,830.52 8436 09/23/2009
Bunawan, Agusan del Sur
R13-ROS-1209-142 Barangay Novele,
Manobo 1,971.62 341 12/21/2009
Rosario, Agusan del Sur
Source: National Commission on Indigenous Peoples 2011

105
3.6 Communist Insurgency

The Local Communist Movement (LCM) in the Philippines was founded in 1968 by Jose

Maria Sison but it was exported to the Mindanao Island in 1976 (PMT 4ID 2007). The

basic twin strategies of the insurgents are: launching a protracted peoples’ war and

encircling the cities from the countryside. The insurgents buy time to develop the party

(CPP), its armed wing (NPA) and the united front (NDF) to match the strength of the

State and sap the resources of the government to create conditions in favor of the

insurgents 29 (Teodosio 1986; Corpus 1989). The main force of the revolutionary

movement are poor farmers and indigenous masses that are situated in remote

locations and are highly vulnerable to the message of the insurgents. The insurgency in

the country has lasted for more than four decades with no clear end in sight. The LCM

has capitalized on the discontent of the poor and marginalized sectors in the society,

particularly the poor farmers and the IPs. They convince them to join the insurgents’

cause through propaganda exploiting the vulnerability of these impoverished sectors. In

Mindanao, the insurgents were able to convince large numbers of poor farmers and

tribal communities to join their cause (Madrigal et al 2005; OG2 4ID 2005). Indigenous

insurgents, as estimated by security commanders on the ground, roughly composed the

majority of the rank-and-file of the movement with 60-80% of formidable guerrilla fronts

in the Basin. However, top positions in the movement are occupied by migrants or

settlers with the indigenous insurgents given limited authority. 30

29
CPP- Communist Party of the Philippines, NPA - New People’s Army, and NDF - National
Democratic Front.
30 rd
Commander of 3 Special Forces Battalion in discussion with the author. August 2010.

106
 The security situation in the country overall is manageable and under the control

of the government but the insurgents are gaining success in some areas (OG2 4ID and

OG2 10ID 2010). Violent conflict brought about by differences over the use of natural

resources is causing a major problem in the attainment of the development objectives

not only of the local and regional government but also of the national government. The

dimension, level and intensity of conflicts vary from one place to another but most of the

worse cases happen in the indigenous domains particularly in Mindanao. The socio-

cultural dimension of the conflict in the Basin is basically brought about by cultural and

ethnic differences where IPs are marginalized by mainstream society (Madrigal et al

2005). According to an article about the insurgents (PDI, December 27, 2010), the

number of fighters of the CPP and its armed component, the NPA, is down to 4700 in

2010 from its peak of 25,000 in 1988 two years after the downfall of Marcos. There are

at least six guerilla fronts in the Basin. The total strength of insurgents in Caraga region

is 428 armed fighters, while the Davao region has 801 (OG2 4ID and OG2 10ID 2010).

Local militias in their bailiwicks have served as force multipliers on top of the

reinforcement from other guerilla organizations outside of the Basin when offensives

against the government’s security forces are staged. It is widely considered as the most

potent security threat in the country compared to the separatist Moro Islamic Liberation

Front and the Al-Qaeda-linked terror group of Abu Sayyaf (OG2 4ID 2005).

Local insurgents exploit popular issues about natural resource grabs,

environmental issues, human rights violations, disrespect of their culture and

inadequate delivery of services by the government to gain the sympathy and support of

107
poor farmers and indigenous masses. 31 Such issues reinforce the displacement

frequently experienced by people in the countryside due to development projects and

armed engagement between the security forces and the insurgents. The communist

insurgents provide assistance by organizing the IPs and other settlers to revolt against

the government and advance their cause (Madrigal et al 2005). The remote location

and densely forested domains of indigenous communities are perfectly suited as the

locations for guerrilla bases. In some areas in the Basin, the insurgents have emplaced

shadow governments and have gained great influence over informal leaders of the rural

communities and over some elected political figures (OG2 4ID 2005; Madrigal et al

2005). Within the existing set-up, the governance effort of the local agencies leaves

much to be desired and government programs, particularly on natural resource

management, have proven to be difficult to implement.

Ironically, the largest amounts extorted by insurgents as part of their

revolutionary taxation system are from logging and mining industries. In 2010 in the

Caraga region, a total of 12.834 million pesos were extorted by the insurgents with

5.446 million pesos coming from mining companies,1.015 million pesos from logging

companies, 2.405 million pesos from agri-business companies, 2.09 million pesos from

construction companies, and 0.73 million pesos from commercial establishments (OG2

4ID 2010). Permit-to-campaign fees amounting to 1.095 million pesos were also

collected from politicians. In the Davao region, a total of 27.26 million pesos were

generated by the insurgents. Logging companies largely contributed with 10.66 million

pesos while mining companies gave 3.5 million pesos. Other logistical sources for

insurgents came from commercial establishments (6.17 million pesos), agri-business

31
Former top-ranked personality of the insurgents in discussion with the author, July 2010.

108
industries (3.93 million pesos), moneyed individuals (1.8 million pesos), transport and

construction companies (0.77 million pesos) and politicians (0.43 million pesos) (OG2

10ID 2010). The insurgents enforce regulations by threat, intimidation and burning of

equipment and other assets of business companies (OG2 4ID and OG2 10ID 2010).

Tidwell (1998), using his contingency theory, argues that the indigenous groups

in the Basin have behaved in this manner mainly because of external factors such as

the persistent aggressive policies of mainstream society. Many believe that these IPs

are peace-loving people but are forced to adopt violence to resist government policies

because their existence is being threatened (Madrigal et al 2005). The limited presence

of government in remote areas of the Basin and their receptivity to radical ideas

complement the favorable location of their domains as the insurgents’ guerilla bases.

The poverty-stricken condition of indigenous communities is primarily attributed to the

policy of mainstream society, which is characterized by discrimination, foreign

domination, and government neglect perpetrated for generations (Madrigal et al 2005).

Systematic exploitation of natural resources by logging and mining companies in

the indigenous domains convince indigenous communities to resort to violent resistance

against government policies. However, it is not their desire to supplant the existing

government or seek independence; rather, joining the revolutionary movement enables

them to prevent exploitation of their domains and to protect their interests. Belief in

communist ideology has never been the driving force of the IP’s support of the

communist movement (Madrigal et al 2005; OG2 4ID 2005). They are forced to resort

to armed struggle to attain their freedom and justice and to prevent further exploitation

of their domain. The resistance started with the purpose of preventing the government

109
from over-exploiting their natural resources and protecting their domains (Madrigal et al

2005). The violent conflict the IPs experience with the government strengthens their

identity and revives their tribal affiliation. This premise is concretized by the argument

of Dayton (2008) that identity could not be suppressed and violent conflict only

reinforces identity. The IPs are still mired in poverty and the influence of communist

insurgents still lingers in their domains. Social unrest in many parts of the IP’s domains

continues to thrive, and their resistance is considered one of the longest continuing

insurgencies in the world (OG2 4ID 2005). For more than four decades now, the

resolution of the conflict has yet to be achieved. Despite exhaustive efforts of the

government to come-up with a peace agreement with the communist insurgents, the

latter maintain a hard core stance of intent to overthrow the government. Rural people

acknowledge that the presence and influence of the insurgence exacerbates their poor

living conditions, restricting their movements and instilling a “collective fear in their

psyche” (Madrigal et al 2005).

3.7 Conflict Management and Resolution Outcomes

3.7.1 Environmental Information Flow

The environmental information flow in the Basin is driven by the interplay of socio-

economic systems and physical environment. The socio-economic sector consists of

the government and non-government stakeholders. The three main branches of the

government sector are the executive, legislative and judicial branches. The vertical

110
information flow in the executive branch emanates from the national to regional level

dominated by the NLAs and down to LGUs. LGUs comprised of the provincial and city

governments down to the barangay or village level. The main bureaucratic actor in the

natural resource management in the conflict-affected river basin is still the DENR with

the support of other related agencies that include the National Water Resource Board

(NWRB), the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Agrarian Reform

(DAR), the Department of Energy (DOE), the Department of Health (DOH), the

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), and the National Commission on

Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) while the Department of National Defense (DND) and the

Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) play a key role on disaster and

conflict management in the basin. Specifically, the agencies that support the DENR in

watershed management are the National Irrigation Agency (NIA), the Water Districts

(WDs), the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BWSM) and the National Power

Corporation (NPC) (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 197). The non-

government sector aside from the civil society organizations, environmental interest

groups and business entities also includes non-traditional stakeholders such as the

insurgents who rely heavily on the natural resources in the Basin to support their

revolutionary movement. The interface of the socio-economic systems and physical

environment are bonded by the land ownership and tenurial instruments regulated by

the government (Felleman 1997). On the other hand, the horizontal flow of

environmental information is driven by lateral engagement and interaction at different

levels with a dynamics that varies through time (see Figure 3.1).

111
 Executive Legislative Judicial
Congress Supreme Court

DENR NWRB DND

DOE,DA,
(NIA, DOH,DAR,
DILG
NPC,WD, Business
DPWH, Insurgents
BSWM) NCIP Entities

Environmental Interest
Groups

NGOs POs Academe

Central Religious Groups

Regional (NLAs, RDCs)

Tenurial Instruments

Local (LGUs)
Land Ownership

1- Lobby
2 - Faultfinding
3 - Legislation
4 - Implementation Time
5 - Feedback River
Physical Basin
Environment

Figure 3.1. Environmental Information Flow in a Conflict-Affected River Basin

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 3.7.2 Conflict Resolution and Mechanisms in Indigenous Communities

Despite the fact that a long period of resistance by the IPs to the domination of

mainstream society has proved to be costly, it enabled them to preserve their way of life

and it has been a key factor in their community development. Although the IPs are

often apprehensive and suspicious about the intentions of mainstream society, they see

the engagement with mainstream society as imperative in order to address tribal

concerns about protecting their lands, culture, and livelihoods, among others (PMT 4ID

2007). The engagement process is also vital to ensure peace and order in the society.

The IP communities are close-knit societies and have their own unique way of resolving

conflicts among members of the community, between tribal communities, and with other

social entities. The need to understand and respect the cultures, beliefs, and traditions

of the IPs is essential in conflict resolution and government and the security forces

should work through their existing culture and tribal mechanisms. While every tribe in

the Basin has its own characteristics and peculiarities, the engagement process and

conflict resolution mechanism generally applies across all these tribes, and approaches

should be carefully planned in order to win IP cooperation, particularly on natural

resource management (Madrigal 2006; Burton et al 2007).

Conflict in the indigenous domain in the Basin has become “inevitable part of a

system of growth and contributes maintenance, adjustment, or adaptation of social

relationships and social structure” (Burke 1979). Further, the identity of tribal groups is

preserved and maintained through conflict; conflict emerges in response to the way

scarce status, power and resources are allocated among the indigenous communities

113
(Burke 1979). Customary norms have evolved over time to address conflict in

indigenous domains where issues range from personal to tribal differences. Hostility

among groups has strengthened the unity of close-knit communities and developed

strong leaders needed to insure the group’s survival. Despite persistent incursions of

outside forces into the indigenous domains, tribal communities have preserved their

manner of conflict resolution, although it has been widely supplanted by a judiciary

process patterned on Western style (Madrigal et al 2005).

The IPs in the Basin are generally pacifists and their survival requires early

conflict resolution (Burton et al 2007). Conflict issues among members of the

community and between communities include breach of promise to marry, murder,

adultery, border and natural resource problems, and disrespect of customs and

traditions (Madrigal et al 2005; Burton et al 2007). Different tribes have different names

for their conflict resolution schemes but they generally function similarly. Tribal

communities strictly adhere to customary laws to maintain social order (Madrigal et al

2005). There is no concept of individual rights but there is a “fair indemnity through

payment for offenses committed” (Burton et al 2007). Crucial aspects of the judicial

process include the “swearing of an oath” and “trial by ordeal”; settlement of a case is

usually done by indemnification and the negotiated payment is usually in a material form

that may include livestock, antiques, or clothes (Burton et al 2007; ADB 2002). Conflicts

that lead to retaliation can disrupt the economic subsistence of the communities as

resources and time of the contending parties are committed to violent conflict (Burton et

al 2007).

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 The traditional decision-making process among IPs when resolving conflict is

considered valuable in promoting a good justice system in the tribal communities. In

areas where there is considerable heterogeneity, a peace and order council of any sort

should consider including the tribal chieftain or his representative as members. The

prevailing tradition of consulting a tribal chieftain only if a certain incident has already

transpired in the area is not healthy governance (Madrigal et al 2005; Burton et al

2007). In cases that involve conflicts of tribal people against non-tribal people, non-

traditional mechanisms of the village justice system under a local government code are

used to address the conflict situation (Burton et al 2007). These conflict resolution

techniques are basically characterized by win-win decision making and the use of trust

which are effective in problem solving and dispute resolution (Creighton 1983). The use

of rituals are also promoted in resolving conflicts as this form of restorative justice

system is essential in peace-building within the community, is relatively efficient and

costs less (Madrigal et al 2005). Issues of natural resource management are also

integrated into the conflict resolution of the community as well. The ritual assembly of

the tribal chieftains involves the discussion of pressing problems and customary laws

(ADB 2002), among other items, and is usually followed by a feast. Issues of land use

and management prevailing in the indigenous communities include: overlapping

boundaries, non-observance of free-and-prior-informed consent agreements in land use

in their domains, and the insurgents’ use of their domains as guerrilla bases disrupting

the peace and order and economic activities (ADB 2002; Tricom 2009).

State law prevails on cases at the state level and consultants should be hired in

cases that require technical expertise. Conflicts within the domain of the community are

115
usually resolved by the chieftain or datu but once the issues involved go beyond the

boundary of their domain they would involve the local government executive and the

tribal chieftain and in some cases the security forces. Sub-groups in the community are

also given the opportunity to voice their concerns to prevent intra-group conflict among

the members of the indigenous community. The IPs have argued that armed guards

should be institutionalized to protect their ancestral domains; they should be trained by

State security forces and be officially designated as deputized forest officers (Tricom

2009). Castro and Nielsen (2001) averred that participatory policies and mechanisms

that are in place could help address “both the immediate manifestations of conflict and

its underlying causes in an equitable and sustained manner” (Castro and Nielsen 2001,

230).

3.7.3 Underpinning Role of Civil Society Organizations

The Caraga Conference on Peace and Development (CCPD) started in 2005 as an

informal meeting between the security forces deployed in Caraga Region and the

religious sector. It was designed to mend the frictional relationship between the two

institutions to allow them to work together to address the pressing issues in the region.

They found along the way that some of the issues require the involvement of other

stakeholders from the government, private and non-profit organizations. The

collaborative partnership subsequently grew to a consortium of government agencies

and civil society organizations. The conference provided a collaborative forum among

the multiple stakeholders of peace and development in the region.

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 The Diocese of Butuan provided leadership for the newly established

collaborative institute formalizing its proper registration with the government. The

conference developed laws and regulations to be abided to by all participants. With the

current set-up, all issues are discussed in the conference and natural resource

management and security issues are at the forefront of the many agenda. Stakeholders

are ensured that they are invited to articulate and lobby their interests. The body then

decides and crafts a resolution to resolve any issue and forms a steering committee.

These committees are usually dominated by technical people from government

agencies whose functions are related to the issue raised. The committees also oversee

the implementation of the resolutions arrived at.

The conference was initiated in the regional center of Butuan City which is also

located in the province of Agusan del Norte. There are now two provincial branches in

Surigao Del Sur and Agusan del Sur; the remaining provincial branch of Surigao del

Norte has yet to be established. Provincial branches resolve issues at their level before

elevating it to the regional level if necessary. Military officers reassigned to other areas

in the country bring with them their Caraga experience and for the most part replicate

this collaborative management model. 32

The stakeholders according to the CCPD convenors are perceived to have full

trust in the collaborating groups. This is primarily due to the high profile of attendees at

the periodic meetings which consist of chiefs of government offices, high–rank officers

from security forces, NGO leaders, PO leaders and other private individuals from

business corporations. This encourages the participants to be optimistic about getting a

fair deal in any agenda that will be brought up. The CCPD uses external actors that
32
CCPD Secretariat in discussion with the author. July 2010.

117
include the Office of the President to provide funding support for the organization and

donations from other agencies. The key convenor from the security force was later

designated as the Chief of Staff of the AFP. He made an unprecedented move when he

involved the representatives of all stakeholders in crafting the 2011 Internal Peace and

Security Plan (IPSP) of the country. He believes that good natural resource

management is key to addressing the country’s insurgency problem. 33

The recipe for success in collaboration necessitates the following conditions: (i)

recognition by the parties that a conflict exists; (ii) desire of the parties to resolve the

conflict; (iii) willingness to resolve the conflict using a collaborative approach; and (iv)

willingness to depersonalize the conflict and to collectively work on issues and concerns

raised by the parties involved (Merchant 2011). The decision of the two sectors to

reconcile manifested a clear recognition of an existing inter-organizational conflict

situation. The new partnership together with other stakeholders expressed their

willingness not only to resolve conflict among agencies and organizations but to

address issues together. The collaborative mechanism of the CCPD transcends

barriers that hinder resolution of pressing issues. This condition enables the participants

to work in a coherent manner approaching the problem with a collective effort.

Collaboration based on information and knowledge sharing is a tremendous help

in resolving issues brought up in the conference. 34 Using in-depth interviews of

academic institutions, media groups, NGOs, and the Peace and Development

33
General Ricardo David, Jr., Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, in discussion with
the author. July 2010.
34
CCPD Secretariat in discussion with the author. July 2010.

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Advocates League, a study conducted by the Act for Peace Programme 35 and the

Research Institute for Mindanao Culture in 2006 showed that these civil society

organizations (CSOs) have very limited knowledge about the IPRA. The academe has

the competence in partnership building and networking but still lacks training, technically

qualified staff and skills on peace-building (Palma-Sealza 2006). The NGOs, on the

other hand, may have the capability in community development, project implementation

in conflict-affected areas, capacity building, partnership-building and advocacy, among

other things, but their communication skills and knowledge about the cultures in

Mindanao are limited (Palma-Sealza 2006). The indigenous communities adapt both

the strategies of citizen participation based on theories of community power (Burke

1979). The first strategy is recruiting influential individuals who can bestow power and

influence on the organization. This is illustrated by a Manobo community who recruited

and conferred the datu or chieftain title on the executive director of Tricom, an NGO that

promotes the rights of IPs in Caraga region. The NGO director is an outsider and a

former forester working with the DENR. The adopted Manobo chieftain now serves as

technical consultant on the development of their domain through the formulation of the

Ancestral Domain Sustainable Development and Protection Plan (ADSDPP). 36 The

second strategy is through the status of individuals themselves. Some government and

security officials try to win the support of the IPs in the implementation of government

programs by showing their sympathy toward the IP groups. The tribes in return confer

35
Act for Peace Programme is “a movement for peace advocacy in conflict affected-areas in
Mindanao” (Palma-Sealza 2006).
36
World Bank (2007, 13) states that the “ADSDPP embodies the goals and objectives as well as
policies and strategies of the IPs for the sustainable management and development of their ancestral
domain and all resources therein”. List and schedule of programs and projects toward the sustainable
development and protection of ancestral domains are included in the plan.

119
on them royal titles putting them both in a win-win situation. However, the association is

usually temporary in nature as government and security officials simply fade away once

the program is completed or they are reassigned somewhere else creating challenges

to the continuity of implementation.

NGOs like the Philippine Association for Intercultural Development (PAFID) and

Tricom, among others, facilitate mapping and delineation of indigenous domains and

expeditious processing of CADT/CALT but are sometimes derailed by appalling security

conditions. Big business companies pose a big threat to indigenous communities since

they can influence natural resource use in the indigenous domains by fast tracking the

titling of their lands. Many NGOs usually make compromise just to meet their desired

objectives even at the expense of the indigenous communities. While in the past some

NGOs were suspected of abetting the insurgents, the impact of civil society in counter-

insurgency efforts should not be taken lightly by the government agencies including the

security forces. Efforts of the NGOs, both local and international, POs, the religious

sector and the media are significant in improving conditions and natural resource

management in indigenous domains. 37 The relationship of donors with the NGOs has

been the driving force in the operation and implementation of their activities. PAFID

sometimes complains about the insistence of a donor to do some missionary activities

among the indigenous communities. 38 Despite these shortcomings, Frazier (2004)

asserts that NGOs have the leadership potential to deal with the environmental

problems.

37
PAFID Staff in Butuan City in discussion with the author. August 2009.
38
Ibid.

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 Media groups claim that they have the capacity for partnership-building and the

capability for negotiation but have the inclination to side with those in the lower levels or

those who are disadvantaged despite their “acquired desirable attitudes towards

promotion of peace” (Palma-Sealza 2006, 94-98). Their openness in disclosing

information not only from the government but also from other stakeholders offers good

alternatives for dealing with pressing issues. It also enhances the capacity of the

organizational body to carry out resolutions. Collaboration among stakeholders to

generate sufficient resources is necessary to complement the exhaustive effort of the

body to raise funds to support its activities and programs. The CCPD also overcomes

resource limitations, providing convergent effort by partnering and collaborating with

CSOs and other government organizations. 39

The marriage between the church and the military has created a dramatic

change in the participatory process among stakeholders in resolving peace and

development issues in the region. Religion was never a factor in the collaboration as

stakeholders with different faith were encouraged to participate in the conference. The

perceived neutral collaboration encourages other reluctant stakeholders to jump on the

bandwagon; they see it as an inclusive participatory process which is beneficial to all

participants. 40 The healthy mechanism of cooperation also builds trust and confidence

among stakeholders and subsequently fosters a harmonious relationship (Kim 2009).

3.7.4 Civil-Military Cooperation in the Basin

39
Secretariat of CCPD in discussion with the author, July 2010.
40
Ibid.

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The government, which includes military and local government agencies, adopts an

interest-based perspective in addressing the grievances of the insurgents and those

who sympathize with their cause. It employs both right and left hand efforts in winning

them back to mainstream society. Combat operations, negotiation with the armed

groups and humanitarian efforts are the key instruments of the government in

addressing the insurgency. The government’s Strategy of Holistic Approach aims to be

multi-disciplinary, coordinated, and integrated, involving all government agencies in

addressing the country’s insurgency problem. This is to counter the effort of the

insurgents to “undermine the various sectors of the rural society” (Madrigal 2006, 6).

Despite the programs and mechanisms available to improve the socio-economic

conditions of IPs, government services to indigenous communities are very poor and

are “practically nil in many far-flung areas” (Madrigal 2006). In many cases, the security

forces supplant the role of the local government agencies in providing services to the

rural communities because of their easy access to rural areas. Security conditions in

the countryside have legitimized the security forces to take on the inherent role of

orchestrating the collaborative efforts of all sectors that have stakes in rural

communities. This is necessary to fill the gaps on the implementation of government

programs and delivery of basic services in indigenous communities (Madrigal 2006).

The introduction of such structure is basically done through linkages with all institutions

involved and by working collaboratively to address the problems of a conflict-affected

community. This collaborative governance is expected to enhance efficiency in

managing natural resources in the Basin. It will strengthen and encourage the unity of

government officials and communities in the management of natural resources and

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attain the cooperation among stakeholders on any development activity (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008). On the other hand, NGOs also exert influence over many

villages in the rural areas especially in indigenous domains. NGOs have the capacity

to provide more alternatives to fill in the governance gaps because of their greater

flexibility and responsiveness (Frazier 2004). Insurgents take advantage of the power

of some NGOs by infiltrating their ranks and using them to win the support of the IPs to

the revolutionary movement. NGOs as seen by the security forces have become a

powerful instrument in convincing the rural populace to be sympathetic to the

insurgent’s cause (PMT 4ID 2007).

The operational approach of the security forces through its Peace and

Development Teams (PDTs) 41 in the rural communities aims to dismantle the shadow

government of the insurgents in the village, strengthen government control and authority

and facilitate the delivery of basic services (PMT 4ID 2007; Madrigal 2006). The

security forces, in carrying out its counter-insurgency campaign in the villages or

barangays influenced by the insurgents, integrates the operational processes of civil-

military cooperation efforts employing its rural development tools of community

development projects and literacy programs, concentrating its implementation in one

target village. Linkage with other stakeholder institutions, particularly LGUs, LGAs,

NGOs, and POs is necessary to enhance the technical, organizational, and financial

resources available (Madrigal 2006). This partnership with other stakeholders provides

mechanisms for the security forces and other institutions to marshal resources for

mutual benefit (Wondolleck and Yaffee 2000). Deputized security forces significantly

play a key role in the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations particularly on
41
These teams are used to be called Special Operations Teams from 1985-2010(OG2 4ID 2010).

123
illegal logging and illegal mining. Empowering rural communities encourages them to

work in favor of the government and could dramatically lessen or eradicate the influence

of the insurgents. Further, security forces could strengthen or harness the capabilities

of the existing IP organization and other rural communities, particularly their community

defense system, not only in defending their villages but also in the enforcement of

environmental laws and regulations considered vital to their existence. In late 2007, the

National Development Support Command (NDSC) under the Armed Forces of the

Philippines (AFP) was organized to cater to the basic infrastructure development needs

of the conflict-affected rural countryside where a majority of the security forces is

deployed. The Corps of Engineers of the AFP are in the forefront of infrastructure

projects in the rural areas. 42 These development initiatives are key instruments of the

security forces in winning the support of the rural populace and in natural resource

management in the Basin.

The government in its counterinsurgency campaign has been successful in

reducing the level of violence in the entire island of Mindanao. 43 Its balanced approach

of winning the hearts and minds of the populace while reducing the violence in conflict-

affected areas has been an effective tool in preventing the expansion activities of the

insurgents. Development programs continue to play a major role in the counter-

insurgency effort of the government. This is considered as the main positive step to

improve the quality of life of the people affected by the conflict, both armed and non-

armed, and to make-up for the long years of neglect by the government that

systematically introduced structural violence in Mindanao. But controlling rural villages

42
Key staff of the NDSC, AFP in discussion with the author, August 2009.
43
Key staff of the Eastern Mindanao Command in discussion with the author, August 2010.

124
has never been easy for security forces as the insurgents try to counter government

efforts through threat, intimidation and propaganda to reverse the gains of the security

forces. Since 2003, the total number of villages in Caraga region that was cleared of

insurgents’ influence is 156 but the insurgents have been able to regain 38 of these

villages. There are now fewer than 60 villages that are categorized as influenced by the

insurgents (OG2 4ID 2010).

3.8 Synopsis

The unilateral imposition of the State policies over the years to control and exploit the

natural resources in the Basin has been the core issue of conflict between the IPs and

the government. But the State tries to rectify such repressive policies; some laws

however did not promote effective natural resource management at all as they were

inconsistent and others are circumvented through patronage politics which favored the

influential individuals and corporations. The policy issue is undermining the socio-

economic conditions of the grassroots sector and complicated by the demagogic appeal

of the insurgents. The local insurgents openly advocate environmental protection but at

the same time extort revolutionary taxes from corporations engaged in extractive

industries to finance their revolutionary movement. This conflict scenario is

exacerbated by the chaotic institutional arrangements in the Basin. The stakeholders

both use the formal and informal institutions in their conflict management processes.

The active involvement of civil society organizations and security forces help improve

both the natural resource and conflict management in the Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008; Jensen 2003; Madrigal et al 2005).

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 CHAPTER 4. ECOSYSTEM-BASED GOVERNANCE OF

A CONFLICT-AFFECTED ZONE

4.1 Restatement of Purpose

This chapter presents an analysis on the form of development authority as well as an

analysis of the processes, strategies, and measures employed in the natural resource

management of the Basin. It is organized in terms of the developmental framework of

government agencies working in the Basin, the organizational framework of

collaborative management, and the intervention strategies to address both the conflict

and natural resource management in the Basin. This chapter further elaborates the

ecosystem-based management in the Basin that deemed the collaborative governance

of stakeholders necessary, which is mainly based on the outcomes from the ARB

management consultation workshop and the statistical analysis of the survey of the

migrant farmers, the IPs and the security forces in the Basin.

4.2 Development Framework

The National Physical Framework Planning (NPFP) for 2001-2030 basically provides a

framework for planned allocation, use and management of the country’s land and other

physical resources that envisions the development of the country anchored on

sustainable development and growth with social equity. The key principles adopted to

achieve this vision include, among others: (i) food security; (ii) environmental stability

and ecological integrity; (iii) equitable access to physical and natural resources; (iv)

126
people empowerment; and (v) recognition of the rights of IPs. Its main components are

settlement development, production land use, protection land use, and infrastructure

development (National Land Use Committee 2002).

The Mindanao Peace and Development Framework Plan: Mindanao 2020

outlines directions for a 20-year peace and development plan for the Island of Mindanao

with thematic areas on peace and security; economy and environment; human

development and social cohesion; governance, institutions and politics; and enabling

environment. It envisions “the people of Mindanao regardless of cultural or socio-

economic background to have attained a sustainably uplifted quality of life through

collective achievement of a peaceful, developed and integrated Mindanao” (MINDA

2010). One of the main approaches of the MINDA in the pursuit of its economic

development objectives is to “take an archipelagic and ecosystem/river basin-based

approach” in the development planning of the Island, getting the multi-stakeholders

involved in the process (MINDA 2010).

The Caraga region envisions by 2020 that it would be the fastest growing,

ecologically sound economy steered by empowered citizenry. Among its strategies that

have relevance to the integrated management of its natural resources are: (i)

strengthening advocacy and support to development priorities for poverty reduction; (ii)

ensuring food sufficiency and security; (iii) pursuing economic diversification and

promoting value-adding enterprises; (iv) rationalizing and promoting ecological

diversification; and (v) strengthening and sustaining partnership among stakeholders

(NEDA Caraga 2010). Through its Regional Physical Framework Plan (RPFP), the

region aims to provide spatial direction for land use and other physical resources for the

127
next 30 years by: (i) enhancing the implementation and resolving conflicts among

competing uses of land and other physical resources; (ii) effecting a rational distribution

of the regional population; (iii) facilitating access by the regional population to basic

economic opportunities and social services; (iv) guiding public and private investments;

(v) enhancing, protecting and maintaining the integrity of the environment; and (vi)

providing guidance for a systematic application of policies, strategies and practices to

minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks (NEDA Caraga 2010).

Davao Region, on the other hand, wants to realize a reputation by 2020 as the

“country’s most livable region where organized settlements and production areas thrive

in an ecologically balanced environment and where an empowered human resource is

nurtured and sustained in its enthusiastic pursuit as the Southern Philippines’ Gateway

to the World” (NEDA Davao 2010). The region’s strategy to achieve its vision includes,

among other goals, the improved physical planning and sustainable management of the

environment. This could be attained by basically improving the environmental quality

and harnessing the abundant natural resources of the region (NEDA Davao 2010).

Measures to be undertaken to promote sustainable management and use of natural

resources include, among others: (i) strengthened implementation of development

zones and community-based forest management (CBFM); (ii) watershed reforestation

and rehabilitation; (iii) advocacy for the implementation of key command-and-control

measures; (iv) rehabilitation of Mt. Diwata and its environs; and (v) alleviation of

pressure in the urban areas (NEDA Davao 2010).

The Compostela Valley Provincial Development and Physical Framework Plan

(PDPFP) for 2008-2027 envisions the province to be “a God-loving, environment-

128
friendly, empowered and dynamic province; the country’s acclaimed jewelry capital; a

major producer of agro-industrial products; and the preferred leisure and learning

destination in Mindanao, whose inhabitants enjoy the best possible quality of life

fostered by leaders who are guided by the basic values of unity and good governance”

(PGCV 2010). Development thrusts related to its goal to come up with a sustainable

economic stability through proper utilization, management and development of the

province’s natural, man-made, and human resources include: (i) poverty reduction; (ii)

improvement of agriculture and industry productivity; (iii) provision of adequate basic

infrastructure facilities and utilities; (iv) preservation, protection and rehabilitation of the

ecology; and (v) support for cultural indigenous peoples and promotion of their cultural

heritage (PGCV 2010).

The Agusan del Sur PDPFP for 2008-2017 envisions the province as an “agro-

industrialized, eco-tourism province of God-centered, caring, healthy, productive and

self-sustaining communities” (PGADS 2010). It aims to achieve its vision by adopting

an integrated area development approach. The 14 municipalities of the province are

clustered into four convergence development areas (CDAs) 44 with each having a

designated growth center (see Figure 4.1). The first CDA is the processing center of

the province with the Municipality of Bayugan as the growth center and Sibagat as

production and processing center, while Esperanza is the producer of rice and corn

crops as well as fresh and processed Tilapia. The second CDA serves as the provincial

government and commercial center with San Francisco as the growth center where key

commercial, communication and tourism facilities are located. Prosperidad is the

44
Convergence Development Area is a cluster of municipalities within the province of Agusan del
Sur with a designated growth center (PGADS 2010).

129
provincial government center, while Rosario is the center for gold mining and palm oil

industries. Bunawan will serve as the gateway to the protected Agusan marsh. The

third CDA will serve as the organic food and rubber production and processing center

with Trento as the growth center and producer of key crops and Sta. Josefa, Veruela

and Loreto as other production bases. The fourth and last CDA is the wood processing

center of the province with Talacogon as the growth center and the processing zone.

The municipalities of La Paz and San Luis are the primary sources of commercial trees

(PGADS 2010). The plan advocates for the optimum utilization of its natural resources

and protection of critical environmental areas; it will also attempt to address key issues

on increasing population and over-exploitation of natural resources (PGADS 2010).

Figure 4.1. Convergence Development Areas in Agusan Del Sur (PGADS 2010)

130
 The PDPFP of Agusan del Norte envisions the province to be “the leading agri-

forest and service provider in Caraga driven by self-reliant and God-loving communities

living in a safe and secure environment” (PGADN 2010) by 2017; this is to be realized

by its four development goals of settlements, protection, production and transport, and

by infrastructure frameworks (PGADN 2010). The overall aim of the plan -- to come-up

with a balanced land use pattern for standard social utility, optimum productivity and

sustainability and preservation of natural resources -- is to be attained by natural

resource management objectives that include: (i) maintaining land use pattern that

favors sustainable growth; (ii) resolution of boundary within its borders; (iii) increase of

forest cover; (iv) protection watershed and protection forestlands; and (v) promotion of

safe and responsible mining (PGADN 2010). Strategies formulated in the plan to

achieve its goals include: (i) strict enforcement of environmental laws and regulations;

(ii) natural resource enhancement; (iii) consultation with other key stakeholders; (iv)

development of protected area management and watershed plans; and (v) capacity

building of local government units (PGADN 2010).

Butuan in its framework plan visualizes the city in 25 years as “the major

commercial, processing and service center in the Caraga Region, the show window of

history and culture in Mindanao with God-centered holistically secured and empowered

citizenry enjoying the fruits of sustainable development and food security” (CGB 2010).

Its objectives relative to environment include: (i) increasing agricultural productivity; (ii)

natural resource enhancement; (iii) enhanced employment opportunities; and (iv)

development of a flood-free urban center. Strategies designed to achieve its desired

goals include measures such as: (i) rehabilitation of the sub-watersheds of the Agusan

131
River; (ii) reforestation of open and denuded upland areas; (iii) community-based

forestry projects; (iv) integrated solid waste management programs for all villages; and

(v) strict enforcement of environmental law and regulations (CGB 2010).

The development and physical framework plans from the national down to the

provincial and city level clearly recognize the need for ecosystem-based management,

the involvement of different stakeholders who have varying and usually conflicting

interests, and the fact that unstable peace and order could stifle any development

initiatives in the Basin. Planning at a basin level deems its consonance and consistency

with the city and provincial development and physical framework plans to be imperative.

The devolution of natural resource management to local government units (LGUs)

manifests a concentration of the development initiative restricted to their jurisdictions

with a dominating sectoral approach. Natural resource utilization and management for

growth strategies vis-à-vis the polluted and degraded state of the environment pose a

dilemma regarding which is to be given priority, but clearly favoring the need to

rehabilitate and protect the environment to achieve sustainable growth.

4.3 Organizational Framework on Collaborative Management

The primary data concerning the organizational framework of the Basin’s collaborative

management were obtained through participation in the ARB management consultation

workshop as well as interviews of the migrant farmers, the IPs and the security forces in

the Basin using survey questionnaires. The two-day consultation workshop on inter-

LGU agency cooperation for the sustainable management of the ARB was held on

132
August 26-27, 2010 at Marco Polo Hotel in Davao City. It was attended by key

representatives from the LGUs of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur and Compostela

Valley, the National Economic and Development Agency (NEDA) and the DENR branch

offices in the Davao and Caraga Regions and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The

main agenda of the workshop, which was hosted by the ADB, was to come up with the

organizational framework for a developmental authority that would manage the Basin

and the detailed mechanisms that would govern the processes concerning engagement

and the representation of Basin stakeholders in natural resource management. The

consultation workshop and statistical data were primarily used to test the main

hypothesis and the three sub-hypotheses of the study.

The survey questionnaires were prepared and developed to seek the

respondents’ environmental knowledge, security perception, behavior towards the

Basin, and perception on natural resource management. To ensure validity, a pre-test

validation was conducted among more than 10 students enrolled in a research methods

course. Most of the questions about watershed management were developed as part of

the course requirements with fellow students helping in the pre-testing of the survey

questionnaires. They were asked to comment on the clarity and relevance of the

questions. Some of the questions were revised and improved based from the

comments of the students involved in the pre-testing of the questionnaires. The

questions were later translated to the Bisayan dialect, the dominant dialect in the Basin,

and pre-tested by four former colleagues from the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff of

Intelligence, 4th Infantry Division of the Philippine Army. These former colleagues were

involved in the comprehensive studies undertaken by the 4th Infantry Division in the

133
dismantling of priority fronts in the Basin. Again, some questions were revised and

improved taking into consideration the insights of the Intelligence personnel and the

cultural sensitivities of the respondents in the Basin, particularly the IPs and the migrant

farmers.

Figure 4.2 Sampling Sites

134
 The survey respondents were migrant farmers and IPs of the three main

provinces and the security forces deployed in the Basin. The stratified random

sampling considered both geography and demography and was designed to have at

least 100 respondents each (30 IPs, 30 migrant farmers and 40 security forces) for the

three samples of the 17 sub-watersheds of the Basin. The criteria included the

following: (i) the three sub-watersheds represent the upstream, midstream and

downstream of the Basin; (ii) each sub-watershed is representative of areas with key

environmental issues; (iii) there are significant indigenous communities in each sub-

watershed; 45 and (iv) the three sub-watersheds are all conflict-affected (see Figure 4.2).

The commanding officers of the three infantry battalions deployed in the Basin

happened to be fellow Philippine Military Academy (PMA) alumni of the researcher. Two

of the field commanders were even his classmates while the third was his

underclassman during their student days at the PMA. The purpose of the study was

explained to these officers during the courtesy call made by the researcher. Assistance

on the conduct of the survey as well as security was also requested by the researcher.

The importance of the guidelines for free-and-prior-informed consent (FPIC) not only for

the IPs but also for the migrant farmers and the security forces in their respective

operational jurisdiction who will participate in the survey was also discussed. An FPIC

statement approved by the Institutional Review Board of Syracuse University was also

45
These indigenous communities are not necessarily purely homogenous in culture and practice
since some members of the indigenous communities in the Basin have adopted some of the lifestyle of
the mainstream society. The author since 1999 never came across with an indigenous community that
has no outside influence.

135
prepared to assure that all rights and privileges of human subjects are protected 46 (see

Appendix G). All the field commanders suggested requests for assistance from the

elected village officials and tribal leaders whose constituents will participate in the

survey.

In the downstream province of Agusan del Norte, the Remedios T. Romualdez

municipality was chosen as the sampling site after consultation with the Commanding

Officer of the 30th Infantry Battalion, the tactical unit deployed in the province. His

recommendation is based on the criteria for sampling and the Remedios T. Romualdez

municipality met all the required conditions. The two village chiefs of San Antonio and

Basilisa of the Remedios T. Romualdez municipality were requested to summon at least

30 IPs and 30 migrant farmers who will volunteer to answer the survey questionnaires in

the village halls. A total of 33 IPs and 37 migrant farmers accepted the invitation and

agreed to answer the questions with the assistance of 30th Infantry Battalion personnel.

The Battalion Commander of the 30th Infantry Battalion marshaled a total of 34

respondents from the security troops deployed in the province. The actual respondents

for IPs and farmers exceeded the target number of respondents because of the larger

number of villagers who came to participate. The researcher decided to allow them to

participate in the survey because of cultural sensitivity issue of sending them home.

The first set of respondents were from the village of San Antonio. The village chief

allowed the survey team to use the village hall for this purpose. The village chief

explained the purpose of the survey to the respondents. The respondents consented to

participate in the survey. They also requested the survey team to read the questions to

46
This is the main objective of the Institutional Review Board of Syracuse University for research
involving human subjects.

136
them, since most of the survey respondents from the groups of IPs and farmers could

hardly read and write. Since the security forces of the 30th Infantry Battalion have been

deployed in Agusan del Norte since mid 2000s, they are known not only to the local

leaders, both formal and informal, but also to the local people whom they worked with in

their several civil-military activities within the municipality. Local populace are mostly

complacent with the presence of the personnel of the 30th Infantry Battalion in their

villages because of the atrocities committed by insurgents against the village people 47

but the involvement of the security personnel in the conduct of the survey may have an

influence on how they respond to questions asked in the survey questionnaires. One of

the military personnel, designated as civil-military operations non-commissioned officer

(CMO NCO) of the security unit deployed in the municipality, read each question twice

to the respondents who were seated in rows. Some of the security personnel assisted

the respondents in marking their answers. The military personnel encouraged the

respondents to take time in choosing their answers before they marked the answers

down. The researcher and the security escorts were aware that they could not stay in

the area for more than three hours to avoid being waylaid by the insurgents on their way

back home. The survey of the first set of respondents lasted for two hours. The survey

team then proceeded to the next village of Basilisa in the same municipality. The

second set of respondents were migrant farmers and the venue of the conduct of survey

was also in their village hall. Similar to what was done in the first village, the designated

CMO NCO read every question twice to the respondents who were seated in rows while

some of the security personnel assisted the respondents in marking their answers. The

survey for the second set of respondents lasted for another two hours. Both the village
47
The village chief during interview with the researcher. July 2010.

137
chiefs of San Antonio and Basilisa agreed to be key informants of the semi-structured

interview about the security situation and natural resource management in their

respective villages. For the third set of respondents, the Battalion Commander

distributed the survey questionnaires to the respondents stationed at their

headquarters. 48 The respondents from the security forces answered the survey

questionnaires individually and on their own. The completed survey questionnaires for

the third set of respondents were later sent to the researcher.

In the midstream Province of Agusan del Sur, there were skirmishes between the

security forces and the insurgents a few days after the researcher explained the

purpose of the study and handed over the questionnaires to the field commander in the

province. Similarly, the researcher emphasized the guidelines for FPIC not only for the

IPs but also for the migrant farmers and the security forces in his operational jurisdiction

who voluntarily participated in the survey. The Municipality of Lapaz was recommended

as the sampling site by the Commanding Officer of the 30th Infantry Battalion since it

met all the set criteria; but the survey was done a month later, after a series of combat

engagements between the contending forces subsided. The villages of Poblacion and

Panagangan of Lapaz were randomly selected as the sampling sites. The security

forces in Lapaz requested the tribal leaders for assistance and facilitation of the survey.

Two of the tribal leaders assembled the volunteer respondents in the designated tribal

assembly house and read and explained the survey questionnaires. The respondents

in the tribal assembly house answered the survey questionnaires on their own. A

house-to-house survey was done for other respondents with the assistance of the

48
The specific location of the station headquarters of the security force could not be divulged
because of security reason.

138
village leaders and following the guidelines for FPIC of the respondents. The survey

questionnaires for IPs and migrant farmers were gathered two days after they were

distributed to the respondents. Meanwhile, the Battalion Commander of the 26th

Infantry Battalion distributed the survey questionnaires to the security forces at their

station. The respondents from the security forces also answered the survey

questionnaires individually and on their own. The completed survey questionnaires for

the security forces were then collected later and sent to the researcher together with the

completed survey questionnaires from the IPs and migrant farmers. There was a total

of 46 IPs, 44 migrant farmers and 42 security forces of the 26th Infantry Battalion in the

midstream samples.

Before the conduct of survey in the upstream Province of Compostela Valley, the

researcher requested a meeting with the village chiefs and the ground commander from

the Commanding Officer of the 3rd Special Forces Battalion deployed in the province.

Similarly, the researcher explained the purpose of the study and how the survey was

done in the downstream province. The researcher also emphasized the guidelines for

FPIC not only for the IPs but also for the migrant farmers and the security forces in their

respective operational jurisdiction who will participate in the survey. The first two sets of

respondents were from the 19 villages 49 of Laak Municipality who assembled for the

meeting of the different tribal leaders set at the municipal center. The survey was

conducted in the house of one of the tribal leaders near the municipal center. The

detachment commander explained what the purpose of the survey was to the volunteer

49
The 19 villages are: Datu Davao, Datu Ampunan, Melale, Sabud, Dona Josefa, Kidawa,
Candiis, Concepcion, Poblacion Laak, Aguinaldo, Titoy, Katipunan, San Antonio, Belmonte, Inakayan,
Sta Emelia, New Bethlehem, Andap and Langtud.

139
respondents (IPs and migrant farmers) and encouraged them to participate in the

survey. The tribal leader who owned the house read the questions to the respondents

seated in rows and the respondents intermittently raised questions for the detachment

commander to clarify the questions they did not understand. Both the IP and migrant

farmer respondents answered the survey questionnaires on their own. The survey of

the first two sets of respondents lasted for two hours. Meanwhile, similar to other

security forces in the Basin, the Battalion Commander of the 3rd Special Forces

Battalion also distributed the survey questionnaires to the security forces at their station.

Similarly, the respondents from the security forces answered the survey questionnaires

individually and on their own. The completed survey questionnaires for the third set of

respondents were then collected and later sent to the researcher together with the

completed survey questionnaires from the first two sets of respondents. The total

number of respondents in the upstream was 39 for the IPs, 41 for the migrant farmers

and 39 for security forces of 3rd Special Forces Battalion.

The total population samples were 104 in the downstream, 132 in the midstream

and 119 in the upstream (see Table 4.1). The survey response is over the target sample

size.

Table 4.1. Response of Survey

Agusan Agusan Compostela
Province
Del Norte Del Sur Valley
Respondents n % response n % response n % response Total
Indigenous Peoples 33 110.00 46 153.33 39 130.00 118
Migrant Farmers 37 123.33 44 146.67 41 136.67 122
Security Forces 34 85.00 42 105.00 39 97.50 115
Total 104 132 119 355

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 4.3.1Statistical Treatment of the Data

The study adopted both the descriptive and inferential statistical treatment of the data

obtained. The Likert Scale was the main tool used to gauge the respondents’

perceptions about the degree of agreement and disagreement over the research

questions. Table 4.2 shows the scale, range and its corresponding adjectival equivalent

used as basis for the interpretation of the results of the survey.

Table 4.2. Likert Scale Used in the Survey

Scale Limits/Boundaries Adjectival Equivalent
5 4.50 – 5.00 Strongly Agree Very Likely Very Responsible
4 3.50 – 4.49 Somewhat Agree Likely Responsible
3 2.50 – 3.49 Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Likely Somewhat Responsible
2 1.50 – 2.49 Strongly Disagree Not Likely Not Responsible
1 1.00 – 1.49 Don’t Know Don’t Know Don’t Know

Frequency count and the average of the weighted mean were used to compute

the central tendency of the perception of the respondents. The formula is expressed as:

Σ WF
WM (X)=
N

where:

N = total number of respondents

WM (X)= weighted mean or weighted average

Σ WF = summation of weighted frequency

Moreover, the Friedman Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) by Ranks (X r 2)

as an inferential statistical tool was used to detect differences across various

stakeholders in collaborative management. The formula is expressed as:

141
 Xr2 = 12 Σ (R2) – 3N(K+1)
NK (K+1)

where:

X r 2= Friedman two-way ANOVA by ranks

N = number of rows

K = number of columns

R = total rank

4.3.2 Analysis of Environmental Knowledge and Perception

A total of 173 or 48.7% of the respondents got the definition of the watershed right with

85 from the security forces. Surprisingly, the IPs had a higher rate of 51 compared to

only 31 for the migrant farmers. The security forces were expected to fare better when

compared to the other two groups because of their higher educational qualification (see

Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3). The definition of the watershed in the survey should not be

viewed from a scientific knowledge; it should be seen from the perspective of the

respondents particularly the IPs who usually based their knowledge about the

watershed on personal observation and traditional folklore. This will help “draw

conclusions about indigenous knowledge systems based upon their own cultural

experiences and frames of references” (Ransom and Ettenger 2001, 225).

142
 Table 4.3. Distribution of the Responses on the Definition of a Watershed
Indigenous Peoples Farmers Security Forces Overall
Watershed Definition
(118) (122) (115) (355)
n % n % n % n %
Area that retains water 51 43.2 37 30.3 85 73.9 173 48.7
Small building where
51 43.2 17 13.9 4 3.5 72 20.3
water is stored
Water intake area 6 5.1 14 11.5 13 11.3 33 9.3
Area that drains into a
5 4.2 40 38.2 8 7.0 53 14.9
specific body of water
None of the options 5 4.2 6 4.9 2 1.7 13 3.7
No response - - 8 6.6 3 2.6 11 3.1
Total 118 100.0 122 100.0 115 100.0 355 100.0

Figure 4.3. Respondents’ Response to Watershed Definition

All the respondents strongly agreed that humans are abusing the environment

and that it is poorly managed in their region. They also perceived that the natural

143
resources are not equitably allocated and its mismanagement is causing conflict among

the stakeholders as well as instability in their communities (see Table 4.4). The IPs and

farmers had an identical mean of 4.1 (somewhat agree) while the security forces had a

lower mean of 3.8 (somewhat agree).

Table 4.4. Perception towards the Environment by Respondents

Indigenous Farmers Security
Perceptions towards
Peoples (118) (112) Forces (115)
the environment
X SD X SD X SD
Humans are severely abusing
4.0 1.3 4.0 1.3 3.9 1.3
the environment.
Environment is poorly managed
3.9 1.4 4.0 1.1 3.4 1.3
in your community.
Natural resources are not
4.0 1.2 4.1 1.1 3.9 0.9
equitably allocated.
Mismanagement of natural resources
4.0 1.4 4.1 1.2 3.7 1.3
causes conflict among stakeholders.
Mismanagement of natural resources
can cause instability in your 4.4 1.1 4.4 0.9 3.9 1.0
community.
Overall 4.1 1.1 4.1 1.0 3.8 0.9
Scale: 4.50 – 5.00 – Strongly Agree; 3.50 – 4.49 – Somewhat Agree; 2.50 – 3.49 -
Somewhat Disagree; 1.50 – 2.49 – Strongly Disagree; 1.00 – 1.49 – Don’t know; SD
– Standard Deviation

The survey among the respondents showed varying influencing factors on how

they view the environment. Personal observation with 27.9% was the main factor that

influenced the respondents’ viewpoint, followed by industrialization with 22.2%, and

population increase with 18.3%. Friends and family members were also considered

influential factors at 11.5%, while environmental group reports scored 7.6%.

Governmental and media reports fared poorly at 5.6% and 3.7% respectively because

of limited access due to their rural location of the respondents. The IPs had personal

observation as the highest influencing factor on top of their list at 40.7%, followed by

population increase at 29.7%, and friends/family members at 21.2%. The top three

144
among the list of influencing factors for migrant farmers were industrialization (24.6%),

population increase (19.7%) and personal observation (16.4%), while the security forces

had personal observation (27.9%), industrialization (22.2%) and population increase

listed as their top three (18.3%) (see Table 4.5 and Figure 4.4).

Table 4.5. Factors Affecting the Respondents’ View on the Condition of the Environment
Indigenous Peoples Farmers Security Forces Overall
Factors (118) (122) (115) (355)
n % n % n % n %
Personal Observation 48 40.7 20 16.4 31 27.0 99 27.9
Friends/Family Members 25 21.2 8 6.6 8 7.0 41 11.5
Media Reports 3 2.5 4 3.3 6 5.2 13 3.7
Governmental Reports 2 1.7 13 10.7 5 4.3 20 5.6
Environmental Group Reports 4 3.4 14 11.5 9 7.8 27 7.6
Industrialization 1 0.8 30 24.6 48 41.7 79 22.2
Population Increase 35 29.7 24 19.7 6 5.2 65 18.3
No Response - - 9 7.4 2 1.7 11 3.1
Total 118 100.0 122 100.0 115 100 355 100.0

No Response
3%

Population Increase
Personal
18%
Observations
28%

Industrialization Friends/Family
22% Member
11%

Media Reports
Governmental 4%
Environmental
Group Reports Reports
8% 6%

Figure 4.4. Factors that Affect Respondents’ View about the Environment

145
 Lack of awareness contributes to personal observation as the main factor that

influenced the respondents’ viewpoint about the environment. With limited grassroots

participation, this leads to inequitable access and sharing of benefits as well as poor

management of natural resources (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Industrialization,

on the other hand, particularly the mining industry is expected to be the second most

factor affecting the respondent’s viewpoints because of the negative impacts on the

water quality in the Basin as well as upland communities and IPs. The affected

communities have good reason to reject mining activities within their domains because

of the poor track record of abandoned mines in the country causing a negative impact

not only on the environmental quality but also the health of the people living in the

periphery of these abandoned sites (Stark et al 2006). The opening up of vast domains

for mining activities has caused environmental degradation and dislocation of upland

communities but some of the provisions of The Mining Act of 1995 also recognized the

rights of the IPs where mining companies are asked to seek their FPIC before they can

operate. This includes the use of best practices in mining operations, the

implementation of socio-cultural development programs in the communities as part of

the social responsibility of mining companies, and the provision of rehabilitation funds

(CASA n.d.). This PFIC provision could be utilized by the IPs to bargain for

concessions to the advantage of their communities but the lack of exposure of these

communities to complex political processes has “put them at the mercy” of the big

mining companies (CASA n.d.). It is not also surprising that the survey yielded

population increase as the third factor that influenced the respondents’ viewpoint.

Population pressure has caused natural resource degradation and population increase

146
has greatly impacted the land use in prime and protected lands with prime agricultural

lands are converted into residential, industrial and other non-agricultural use.

Population increase also contributes to the increasing scarcity of water and the

deterioration of its quality as well as to intensity of conflict over the use of natural

resources in some areas of the Basin among indigenous communities, settlers and

those in the extractive industries of logging and mining (CGB, PGADN, PGADS and

PGCV 2010; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

4.3.3 Test of Hypotheses

4.3.3.1 Workshop Results

Coherent policies are the primary pre-requisite for successful watershed or river basin

management, providing the legal framework that serves as the basis for management

activities of the watershed or river basin (Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and

Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) et al 1999). Figure 4.5

illustrates the dynamics of natural resource management programs in capacity building

and research technology development that is carried out based on coherent policies.

Capacity building is focused on creating an institution that involves LGUs, DENR, NGAs

and academia interacting with key stakeholders from local communities, POs and

NGOs. Research and technology development is focused on the optimization of the

value of the watershed or river basin resources and on how to improve natural resource

conservation technology and land tenure. Watershed strategies are centered on land

147
use to protect, conserve and develop the watershed to achieve sustainable

development.

POLICIES
Guiding Basic Strategic
Principle Policies Policies

PROGRAMS

Research and Technology Development Capacity Building

Soil& Institution
Resource Secure& Local
Water DENR.,LGUs, NGOs
Pricing GIS Equitable Communities
Conservation NGAsSCUs
Method MBs MIS Land& POs
Other
Product
Technologies
Tenure

WATERSHED STRATEGIES
Land Use
Planning/
Allocation

Protection Development Conservation

Environmental Socio-Economic
Stability Development

Figure 4.5. Framework of a Successful Watershed Management (PCARRD et al 1999)

148
 The consultation workshop and statistical data are mainly used to test the main

hypothesis of the study, which posits that appropriate inclusive collaboration among

stakeholders is the key to achieving the objectives of natural resource management of

the conflict-affected watershed. It is further subdivided, proposing that: (i) inclusive

participation of stakeholders will improve collaborative processes in natural resource

management of conflict-affected watersheds; (ii) some collaborative processes work

better than others in effective natural resource management in conflict-affected

watersheds; and (iii) increased responsibility of stakeholders will help achieve

management objectives of the natural resources of conflict-affected watersheds.

During the ADB-sponsored consultation workshop on sustainable management

of the ARB, the participants agreed to come up with a consensus on the institutional

arrangement of a river basin organization to manage and develop the Basin. The

participants were aware of the existing management conditions of the Basin, which are

characterized by too many laws and weak enforcement with no specific enabling policy

covering broad inter-area and intra-area mandates or jurisdictions, particularly at an

ecosystem level. The new framework is anchored on the basic facts that decisions on

ARB management and development are made by politicians, and that the organization

should help them come up with good decisions. The LGUs’ representatives expressed

their position that there should be no reduction of their authority as a ramification of the

creation of a new ARB organization. This authority is based on functions devolved to

LGUs as mandated in the Local Government Code promulgated in 1991. The LGUs’

representatives from the very beginning of the workshop expressed their dislike about

taking away some of the devolved functions due to the ARB organization. This

149
subsequently set the limit on what the new ARB organization can do to the LGUs. On

the other hand, the new ARB organization should be designed to “provide an ‘added-

value’ of coordinating synergy that will be in the form of ‘activity-initiatives’” (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008, Vol V, Chap 5, 18). The workshop primarily aimed to reaffirm

the commitment of the participating LGUs to the ARB integrated management.

The body agreed to create a governing board with a three-tiered level of

participation as the appropriate inclusive collaboration of the stakeholders. The first tier

is the core members, which is composed of chief executives of the three provinces and

Butuan City, two representatives each from DENR, NEDA and NCIP, and one

representative from MINDA. The second tier is made up of additional members and is

composed of two representatives from the regional offices of the Mining and

Geosciences Bureau (MGB), the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), the

Department of Agriculture/National Irrigation Administration (DA/NIA), the Department of

Public Works and Highways (DPWH), and the Department of Trade (DOT), two

representatives from the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), one

representative from the security forces and six from the civil society organizations

(CSOs). The third tier includes supporting members, with one representative each from

the Department of Health (DOH), the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) and

the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC). The number of

members in the second and third tiers is flexible depending on the situational context as

agreed upon by the core members of the governing board.

The Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) among key LGUs and NGAs regarding

the creation of the ARB Governing Board (ARBGB) is yet to be signed; an Executive

150
Order (EO) will need to be issued later formally institutionalizing the new management

organization of the Basin. If a government entity or government-owned and controlled

corporation (GOCC) is established by law or executive order, the ARB organization can

receive initial funding from the national government and LGUs comprising the ARB;

moreover, the ARB might receive annual appropriations from the national government

for the initial 3-5 years of its operations. Likewise, it may receive the proceeds of loans

from multilateral financial institutions with guarantees and local counterpart funds from

the Philippine Government. The ARBGB can enter into grants, funding and donations.

The terms of reference include, among others, the main functions of the body: to

advise/seek advice on technical issues, arbitrate conflict, hold public dialogues,

formulate policies, mobilize resources, and approve and implement plans.

The ADB representatives during the workshop reminded the participants about

the funding mechanism as one of the imperatives of the ARBGB. However, the

participants stressed the need to formally institutionalize the ARGBG first before

discussing the details of funding mechanism in other cooperation venue. Self-financing

mechanism similar to the Lake Mainit Development Alliance (LMDA) could enable the

ARBGB to sustain itself. Provincial governments and municipalities and other

stakeholders contribute to the funding of the LMDA which consists of the two provincial

governments of Agusan Del Norte and Surigao del Norte and four municipalities each

from the two provinces. The meager operational and maintenance expenses of the

Project Management Office (PMO) are funded by an annual contribution from the two

provinces of 150,000 pesos each and from eight municipalities of 50,000 pesos each;

projects are funded by foreign donors and NLAs through networking and linkaging.

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Projects implemented include development assistance from foreign donors on

livelihood, farming, skill enhancement training, and community-based natural resource

management. The Philippine Agenda 21 Plan for the fresh water ecosystem of Lake

Mainit has reinforced the alliance by tapping the services of volunteers and civil society

organizations in the sustainable development of the Lake (Local Government Unit

Management Training Project (LGUMTP) and NEDA Caraga, 2008). 50

Similarly, the three provincial and one city government units within the Basin

would be able to provide the funding contribution to the ARBGB for its operations. But

instead of fixed contribution it might be based on percentage. A suggested percentage

could be taken from the following government and private sources: (i) 0.01% of General

Appropriations Act (GAA) counterpart funds; (ii) 0.01% of Internal Revenue Allocation

(IRA) from LGUs; (iii) 1% of actual releases from foreign-funded projects of NGOs; (iv)

1% of project funds of POs in the ARB; (v) 1% of membership fees of private community

associations, cooperatives, among others; and (vi) 0.01% of collected water charges

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) state that the

ARBGB could be converted later to Government-Owned and Controlled Corporation

(GOCC) once its good track record is established. This subsequently accords more

autonomy and discretion in the use of its revenues for capital expenditures and

operations. The ARBGB then could expand its revenue base through the collection of

membership contributions, license fees, environment or flood control local taxes, water

user charges and penalties on pollutants. The ARBGB “should also be able to identify

projects that are commercially viable and attractive for private business investment”

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 210-218).

50
Mr. Kaiser Recabo, Jr. (Project Director, LMDA) in discussion with the author. September 2010.

152
 4.3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation of Survey Results

The survey among IPs, farmers and security forces showed a high acceptance

rate of collaborative management in regards to natural resources. When asked about

their perceptions about the need to consult every individual and the community on

natural resource management, the three groups resoundingly responded in a positive

way and believed that individuals and communities should indeed be consulted. The

IPs registered a very high mean for individual consultation with 4.9 (very likely) followed

by security forces with 4.5 (very likely) and migrant farmers with 4.4 (likely). A similar

pattern was evident on the issue of whether the community should be consulted with

IPs who responded having a mean of 4.8 (very likely) followed by security forces with

4.5 (very likely) and migrant farmers with 4.4 (likely).

On the other hand, when asked about the need for representation or involvement

of a group or community, of only key stakeholders, of all stakeholders, and of only the

stakeholders in the management of the natural resources, the respondents similarly

answered positively. The IPs registered a mean of 4.8 (very likely) for group or

community to be represented in decision making, 4.5 (very likely) for only key

stakeholders to be involved, 4.2 (likely) for all stakeholders to be involved, and 4.3

(likely) for only the government agencies to be involved in policy/decision making. The

farmers scored a mean of 4.6 (very likely), 4.3 (likely), 4.4 (likely) and 4.2 (likely) with a

similar order while the security forces scored a mean of 4.5 (very likely), 4.2 (likely), 4.3

(likely) and 4.0 (likely) (see Table 4.6).

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 Table 4.6. Perceptions on Degree of Collaboration by Respondents
Perceptions on
the degree of Indigenous Peoples Farmers Security Forces
collaboration (118) (112) (115)
in management of
natural resources
X FR X FR X FR
Individual be
4.9 3.0 4.4 1.0 4.5 2.0
consulted
group or community
4.8 3.0 4.3 1.0 4.5 2.0
be consulted
group or community be
represented in policy/ 4.8 3.0 4.6 2.0 4.5 1.0
decision making
only key stakeholders
be involved policy/ 4.5 3.0 4.3 2.0 4.2 1.0
decision making
all stakeholders be
involved 4.2 1.0 4.4 3.0 4.3 2.0
in policy/decision making
only the government
agencies be involved in 4.3 3.0 4.2 2.0 4.0 1.0
policy/decision making
Total Friedman Rank 16.0 11.0 9.0
Scale: 4.50 – 5.00 - Very likely; 3.50 – 4.49 – Likely; 2.50 – 3.49 - Somewhat likely; 1.50
– 2.49 - Not likely; 1.00 – 1.49 – Don’t know; FR – Friedman Rank

The first sub-hypothesis which proposed that inclusive participation of

stakeholders will improve collaborative processes in natural resource management of

conflict-affected watersheds is tested through the null hypothesis which states that there

is no significant difference on the degree of collaboration of stakeholders in natural

resource management as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces. The Friedman

Two-Way ANOVA by ranks is used to test the multivariate matrix.

Friedman test computation:

Xr2 = 12 Σ (R2) – 3N(K+1)

NK (K+1)

Xr2 = 12 (16.02 + 11.02 + 9.02) – (3) (6) (3+1)

6 (3) (3+1)

X r 2= 4.33

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 Based on the Table of Critical Values for Chi-Square, for a Degree of Freedom

(df) = K-1 = 3 and Significance Level = 0.01, X r 2= 9.21 (Paler-Calmorin 2010, 606).

Since the computed value of 4.33 is lesser than the tabular value of 9.21 with df=3 and

0.01 level of confidence, the degree of collaboration of stakeholders on natural resource

management as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces are almost the same.

The null hypothesis is supported because there is no significant difference on the

degree of collaboration of stakeholders on natural resource management as perceived

by IPs, farmers and security forces.

The survey results also showed varying means about their level of involvement in

natural resource management and these were used to test the second sub-hypothesis

which states that some collaborative processes work better than others in effective

natural resources management in conflict-affected watersheds. The questions asked

that are related to collaborative processes included the level of individual involvement if

he/she is well-informed about the status of the environment, on what he/she could do to

help, on activities about environmental protection initiated was scheduled in his/her

area, on environmental activity if he/she knew could help save money in the long run,

on whether he/she felt that his/her actions can help improve something, on whether

he/she knew that the time he/she is going to commit for an environmental activity would

be minimal, on whether he/she realized that he/she was directly affected by degradation

of environment in his/her community, and on helping improve the state of environment

in his/her community. Table 4.7 shows the results on the level of involvement of the

respondents based on different conditions.

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 Table 4.7. Perceptions on Level of Involvement by Respondents
Indigenous Farmers Security
Level of involvement Peoples (118) (112) Forces (115)
X FR X FR X FR
Become more involved if well-informed
4.9 3.0 4.4 1.0 4.5 2.0
about the status of the environment
Become more involved if well-informed on
4.9 3.0 4.5 2.0 4.4 1.0
what he/she could do to help
Would participate if activities about
environmental protection initiated by 4.6 2.5 4.6 2.5 4.4 1.0
community was scheduled in his/her area
Become more involved if in environmental
activity if he/she knew you could help save 4.1 1.0 4.4 2.0 4.5 3.0
money in the long run
Become more involved if he/shefelt that
4.8 3.0 4.6 2.0 4.0 1.0
his/her actions can help improve something
Become more involved if he/she knew that
the time he/she is going to commit for an 4.2 2.5 4.2 2.5 4.0 1.0
environmental activity would be minimal
Become more involved if he/she realized
that he/she was directly affected by
4.2 3.0 3.9 1.0 4.1 2.0
degradation of environment in his/her
community
Interested in helping improve the state of
4.6 1.5 4.6 1.5 4.7 3.0
environment in his/her community
Total Rank 19.5 15.5 14.0
Scale: 4.50 – 5.00 - Very likely; 3.50 – 4.49 – Likely; 2.50 – 3.49 - Somewhat likely; 1.50
– 2.49 - Not likely; 1.00 – 1.49 – Don’t know; FR – Friedman rank

Property rights are key to the incentive program of the grassroots sector as it

enables the realization of benefit transfer. Security of land tenure not only stimulates

investment and economic activities but also help in poverty alleviation of grassroots

sector. The Department of Energy in its power generation and development program

provides access to benefits or transfers in host area by: (i) power benefits; (ii) training

and skills development and reforestation/agro-industrial skills; (iii) preference in

employment; (iv) preference in the sourcing of local supplies and materials; (v) provision

of a livelihood or development fund exclusive for use by the host areas and to be

appropriated in equitable amounts from barangay to regional level; and (vi)

establishment of a reforestation, watershed management, health, and/or environmental

156
enhancement fund (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Similarly, the Southern

Philippines Irrigation Sector Project “provides direct assistance to upland watershed

occupants in their efforts to rehabilitate/protect the watersheds that supply water

requirements of downstream irrigation systems” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol

IIIA, 62-63).

The second sub-hypothesis is tested through the null hypothesis which states

that there is no significant difference on the possible level of involvement in natural

resource management on different collaborative processes51 in effective natural

resources management in conflict-affected watersheds as perceived by IPs, farmers

and security forces.

Friedman Test Computation:

Xr2 = 12 Σ (R2) – 3N(K+1)

NK (K+1)

Xr2 = 12 (19.52 + 15.52 + 14.02) – (3) (8) (3+1)

8 (3) (3+1)

X r 2= 6.06

Based on the Table of Critical Values for Chi-Square, for a Degree of Freedom

(df) = K-1 = 3 and Significance Level = 0.01, X r 2= 9.21 (Paler-Calmorin 2010, 606).

Since the computed value of 6.06 is lesser than the tabular value of 9.21 with df=3 and

0.01 level of confidence, the level of involvement in natural resource management

according to various incentives as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces are

almost the same. The null hypothesis is supported because there is no significant

51
Collaborative processes in the Basin, include among others, engagement of stakeholders by
coalition, capacity building, policy advocacy, stakeholder meetings, consultation, community-based
mediation and government inter-agency meeting.

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difference on the level of involvement in natural resource management on different

collaborative processes in effective natural resource management in conflict-affected

watersheds as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces.

Similarly, the respondents had registered different means when asked about the

degree of responsibility of different stakeholders in natural resource management.

Table 4.8 shows the response about the perception of the respondents on the degree of

responsibility of stakeholders in natural resource management. Lack of awareness and

weak interfacing mechanism among stakeholders cause low participation of

stakeholders in natural resource management; these subsequently result to “poor

management, ecological imbalance, misuse and overuse of resources, and inequitable

access and sharing of benefits” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIIA, 161).

Managing pressing issues involving stakeholders through collaborative management

cuts across political systems and varying cultures but this will certainly enhance the

efficiency in managing natural resources and security conditions in the Basin. Tipa and

Welch (2006) assert that “community participation strengthens and encourages the

unity of government officials and communities” in the management of natural resources

and attain the cooperation among stakeholders on any development activity in rural

communities in particularly indigenous domains. The CCPD case also illustrates the

coordination of activities of a range of partners to patch up the geographic and

functional fragmentation that exists across agencies, organizations, and levels of

government thus providing more unity of purpose and perspective (Wondolleck and

Yaffee, 2000). The respondents in Table 4.6 fully support the need for representation or

involvement of a group or community, of only key stakeholders, of all stakeholders, and

158
of only the stakeholders in the management of the natural resources. These conditions

help test the third sub-hypothesis which proposed that the increased responsibility of

stakeholders will help achieve management objectives of natural resources of conflict-

affected watersheds as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces.

Table 4.8. Perceptions on Degree of Responsibility by Respondents

Perceptions on
the degree of Indigenous Peoples Farmers Security Forces
responsibility (118) (112) (115)
towards natural
resources X FR X FR X FR
Local government 4.0 1.0 4.4 2.0 4.5 3.0
Farmers and
4.2 1.0 4.5 2.5 4.5 2.5
Agricultural producers
Business and
3.4 1.0 3.8 2.0 3.9 3.0
industry
Loggers and miners 3.1 1.0 3.2 2.0 3.4 3.0
Indigenous people 3.4 1.0 4.0 3.0 3.9 2.0
Environmental
4.3 2.0 4.0 1.0 4.6 3.0
organizations
Security forces 4.7 3.0 4.3 1.0 4.6 2.0
Private citizens or
4.2 3.0 4.1 2.0 4.0 1.0
individuals
Other stakeholders 2.8 1.0 3.1 2.0 3.3 3.0
Total rank 14.0 17.5 22.5
Scale: 4.50 – 5.00 - Very responsible; 3.50 – 4.49 – Responsible; 2.50 –
3.49 - Somewhat Responsible; 1.50 – 2.49 - Not responsible; 1.00 – 1.49 –
Don’t know; FR – Friedman Rank

To test the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference on

the degree of responsibility of stakeholders towards natural resource management as

perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces, the Friedman Two-Way ANOVA by ranks

is again used.

Friedman test computation:

Xr2 = 12 Σ (R2) – 3N(K+1)

NK (K+1)

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 Xr2 = 12 (14.02 + 17.52 + 22.52) – (3) (9) (3+1)
9 (3) (3+1)

X r 2= 4.06

Based on the Table of Critical Values for Chi-Square, for a Degree of Freedom

(df) = K-1 = 3 and Significance Level = 0.01, X r 2= 9.21 (Paler-Calmorin 2010, 606).

Since the computed value of 4.06 is lesser than the tabular value of 9.21 with df=3 and

0.01 level of confidence, the degree of responsibility of stakeholders towards natural

resource management as perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces are almost the

same. The null hypothesis is accepted because there is no significant difference on the

degree of responsibility of stakeholders towards natural resource management as

perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces.

Based on the results of the survey, the existing set-up and conditions require

community participation and collaboration among stakeholders in natural resource

management. The results support an inclusive participation among stakeholders but

there is not much difference on the degree of collaboration among stakeholders in

natural resource management. Some collaborative processes work better than others

but with no significant difference on the level of involvement in natural resource

management on different collaborative processes. The results also show that

stakeholders with increased responsibility will help achieve management objectives of

natural resources albeit with no significant difference in their degree of responsibility.

The survey results help define the intervention strategies to be introduced on the

institutional framework and participatory governance among stakeholders in the Basin;

grassroots sectors are usually left out in policy formulation in natural resource

management. These intervention strategies will foster a more coordinated and

160
cohesive framework of collaboration and empower grassroots sector needed to address

the multidimensional problems in the Basin that are beneficial to grassroots

stakeholders and rural development.

4.4 Intervention Strategies

4.4.1 Institutional Reforms

The establishment of a river basin organization could bring together the stakeholders to

cooperate in the management of natural resources in the Basin. The lack of

coordination and a tight cohesion of program planning and implementation can be

dramatically improved with a single, unifying, coordinating and integrating institutional

mechanism linking upstream and downstream stakeholders into an organization that

facilitates understanding and commitments for the sustainable development of the ARB

(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). An ecosystem-based approach, be it on a river

basin or sub-watershed level, is logical in managing natural resources and highlighting

the interrelations of the different ecosystems in the Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI

2008). The river basin organization is expected to provide coherent policies that

address conflicting natural resource use and development objectives. The structure of

the governing board will be able to engage key stakeholders, helping these conflicting

groups collaborate with stakeholders representation based according to sectoral

groups. But this will take time to be fully functional and should be attuned to the

dynamics of the environmental, social-economic and political situation. The ARBGB,

161
however, is expected to metamorphose into a GOCC as it aims for more autonomy in

the use of its revenues for capital expenditures and operations and in dealing with

business entities within the Basin. It can grow further to an organization similar to the

Mekong River Commission (MRC) or the Murray Darling Basin Authority as it develops

and matures. Its governance will be defined by the coming together of various

stakeholders and the organizations and institutions they represent.

4.4.2 Greater Participation in Governance

The growing presence of the government in the countryside requires that rural

communities get more involved and have a greater influence on the decision-making

structure. The government should accommodate IPs in its bureaucracy to ensure the

success of its development projects in the indigenous communities (ADB 2002). This

would ensure active participation of IPs and the NCIP in inter-agency planning at a

national level down to the village level with the government providing the technical and

financial support. At the regional and basin level, a technical working group for IPs

could help in the implementation of development programs beneficial to the indigenous

communities and oversee of intervention programs in the indigenous domains (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Wondolleck and Yaffee (2000) assert that “successful

program implementation is more likely if it is supported and owned” by the indigenous

communities. Collaborative participation initiated by the government could respond

appropriately to the peculiar conditions of the indigenous communities as their problems

are addressed based on the local context. Further, an increase in budget, a desk for

162
IPs in every line agency, and sensitivity training modules should also be provided (ADB

2002).

4.4.3 Enhance Conflict Resolution Mechanism

ADB (2002) asserts that there is a need to establish mechanisms and guidelines for

free-and-prior-informed consent (FPIC) as this will minimize suspicion of the process of

securing the approval of the tribal chieftains by companies that venture into their

domains. The terms of profit sharing and problems of displacement should be clearly

addressed to avoid conflicts similar to what happened in the past. A Technical Working

Group (TWG) on preparation of management plans for protected areas in ancestral

domains agreed in 2005 by DENR and NCIP could improve this coordination and

regulatory process and iron out the overlapping responsibilities among the key agencies

involved. The creation of ARBGB will certainly aid and improve their process of

deciding how to utilize the natural resources in their domains. Sub-groups in the

community should also be given the opportunity to voice their concerns to prevent intra-

conflict among the members of the indigenous communities. The use of rituals should

also be promoted in resolving conflicts as this form of restorative justice system is

essential in peacebuilding in the community, is relatively efficient and costs little. Issues

of natural resource management should be integrated into the conflict resolution of the

community as well. The traditional decision-making process among IPs when resolving

conflict is considered valuable in promoting a good justice system within the tribal

communities. In cases that involve conflicts of tribal people against non-tribal people,

163
non-traditional mechanisms of the village justice system under a local government code

should be institutionally strengthened to help address the conflict situation (Burton et al

2007).

4.4.4 Information, Education and Communication Campaigns

Massive IEC campaigns should be undertaken to disseminate information on

environmental laws, the causes and effects of destructive environmental activities, and

the long-term benefits of sustainable natural resource management. The government

should also elevate the level of awareness of the IPRA implementation not only among

the IP communities but among other sectors as well. The government must make a

concerted effort to dialogue with the IPs on a regular basis to make them aware of

programs and policies aimed at protecting their rights, such as the establishment of the

NCIP. IPs should also be informed of the government’s effort to intensify ancestral

domains reform and development and protect the vulnerable through free educational

and legal assistance, health programs, socio-economic services, and representation in

policy-making bodies (ADB 2002; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Timely, accurate,

and full information about the progress of the IPRA could help build the necessary trust

among the IPs (Rola et al 2004). Such policy advocacy will help alleviate the fears and

suspicions of the IPs that the IPRA is only good in principle, develop their trust and

confidence in what the government is doing, and ensure their cooperation. A non-

traditional educational package should be developed to fit to the peculiarities and

sensitivity of the IPs and not simply following the Western model of education which

164
might be sub-optimal for learning particularly among rural IPs with low educational

attainment. Security forces can also be tapped using the Army Literacy Patrol Systems

(ALPS) since it is not easy to disseminate information in the rural areas because of

access and security issues. The ALPS program used by the Peace and Development

Teams teach the literacy basics to the migrant farmers and IPs. This is complemented

by Army Concern in Community Organizing for Development (ACCORD), another

countryside development strategy adopted by the security forces in the Basin. These

development initiatives are key instruments of the security forces in winning the support

of the rural populace and in natural resource management in the ARB. This will

certainly help counter the propaganda of the insurgents to discredit the government

among the rural communities (Madrigal et al 2005).

4.4.5 Capacity Building

A bigger budget should be allocated for the NCIP to facilitate and fast-track CADT/CALT

application processing for the IPs (ADB 2002). Large numbers of IPs believe the

government is not sincere in its implementation of the IPRA since land titling rate is

slow. Furthermore, the NCIP is perceived powerless and inefficient primarily because

of a limited budget and deficient technical capability. ADB (2002) asserts that the NCIP

should work with academics and NGOs like the Philippine Association for Intercultural

Development (PAFID) and the Green Forum, among others, to facilitate speedy

mapping and delineation of indigenous domain and expeditious processing of

CADT/CALT. The NCIP should also venture toward establishing a partnership with the

165
Corps of Engineers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines since NGOs like PAFID and

the Green Forum are sometimes reluctant because of the appalling security situation.

Technical assistance from the government and NGOs should be provided to improve

the technical know-how of the IPs and community-based sustainable livelihood

programs should be financially supported by the government to alleviate conditions in

the indigenous communities (ADB 2002). Indigenous leaders should also undergo

training on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the use of Global Positioning

Systems (GPS) to help document their traditional boundaries and on providing other

proofs of ancestral domains (ADB 2002; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). The NEDA

Caraga (2010) has proposed a GIS center to institutionalize support mechanisms for the

planning and implementation of socio-economic and environmental activities in the

region. It is a welcome development as it would officially centralize and coordinate

sensitive GIS data that is basically acceptable to all stakeholders. The Regional GIS

Center will serve as the repository of GIS-generated data and this is very instrumental in

its collaborative rapport on data exchange with other regional line agencies (RLAs),

academes, LGUs, NGOs, and other stakeholders who usually have varying data (NEDA

Caraga 2010). The current state of the regional office requires more capacity to realize

a functional GIS center that could process and integrate all databases within the region.

The envisioned one-stop GIS shop will have a network at the regional level with

provincial and city counterparts. The regional network would be composed of the

provinces and cities of the region, selected RLAs, academes, and NGOs. Provincial

and City counterparts will replicate functions similar to that of the region but within its

geographical jurisdiction (NEDA Caraga 2010).

166
 CHAPTER 5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Restatement of Purpose

This chapter presents a summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the data and

analyses presented in Chapters 2-4, and the recommendations based on the study.

The summary of the study provides an overview of the problems in the ARB, the

purpose of the study, and the major findings from the study and its relation to the

literature. The recommendations provide discussion of the policy implications that

include personal insights of the researcher and further studies and research.

5.2 Summary of the Study

Problems related to natural resources in the country are exerting constant pressure on

Philippine society. Watersheds provide vital resources for its well-being and are also a

source of livelihood for rural communities. However, these watersheds are continually

degraded, contributing significantly to poverty, inequality and a general loss of income

(ADB 2008). The Agusan River Basin, the case under study, is a microcosm of the

state of river basins in the country. Watersheds in the Basin are heavily degraded,

which is characterized by the frequent occurrence of floods during the rainy season and

an insufficient water supply in the dry season. The problems in the Basin are

compounded by rapid population growth, demands for raw materials both domestic and

international, unsustainable agricultural practices, inconsistencies in government

167
policies, and appalling peace and order conditions (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008;

PGADN, PGADS, PGCV, OG2 4ID and OG2 10ID 2010).

Key issues faced by management actors in the Basin include: 52 (i) natural

resource degradation caused by population pressure, unsustainable farming practices

and illegal activities (CGB, PGCV and PGADN 2010); (ii) encroachment on prime and

protected lands brought about by increasing population pressure and the subsequent

conversion of these lands into residential, industrial and other non-agricultural use lands

(PGADS, PGCV and PGADN 2010); (iii) land tenure and border conflict primarily

caused by overlapping provisions issued by the government over the years (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008; PGCV 2010); (iv) flooding problems brought about by the

continuing increase in the siltation of the Agusan River and its tributaries, low basin run-

off, excessive erosion and the poor drainage systems in many settlements (CGB and

PGCV 2010); (v) declining water quality due to population pressure, intensive irrigation,

mining, logging activities and indiscriminate dumping of domestic and commercial

garbage (CGB and PGCV 2010; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008); (vi) weak

governance as Illegal activities in the Basin continue to thrive, as manifested by the

presence of settlements in protected areas, shifting cultivation, and illegal extraction of

forest and mineral resources (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008); (vii) an absence of

Basin-wide management characterized by poor planning and management at the local

government and institutional levels, weak policy-making, weak enforcement, poor

knowledge base, institutional fragmentation, and under-utilization of the Basin (CTIIEC,

Halcrow, and WCI 2008); and (viii) security issues as manifested by the presence of

insurgents as informal regulators, conflict over the use of natural resources among
52
Cf pp 3-10.

168
indigenous communities, settlers and those in the extractive industries of logging and

mining, and a lack of security for environment workers. The appalling conditions of both

the conflict situation and natural resources in the ARB require efficient and effective

management to address the problems of food and security, water scarcity and pollution,

and the degradation of the watersheds and ecosystems in the Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow,

and WCI 2008; Madrigal et al 2005; PDI 2010).

This study developed understanding of the underlying factors affecting natural

resource and conflict management in the ARB that could identify interventions and

improved policy for the target audience -- the grassroots segment in the ARB whose

livelihoods are affected most. It is expected to benefit not only the different government

agencies working in the Basin from the Mindanao Development Authority (MINDA) to

the local government units and the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) but also other

sectors from the civil society organizations (CSOs), including NGOs, religious groups,

the academe, and people’s organizations (POs). The ecosystem-based management

system provides a new and promising framework for collaboration on natural resource

management deemed crucial not only to rural development but also in defeating the

decades-long insurgency. Moreover, the improved collaboration among stakeholders is

expected to strengthen the social fiber of a diverse society that has been adversely

affected by natural resource mismanagement and the seemingly exclusive policies of

mainstream society. This will greatly contribute to the achievement of the desired

national development and security objectives.

This study hypothesizes that appropriate inclusive collaboration among

stakeholders is the key to achieving the objectives of natural resource management of

169
the conflict-affected watershed. This hypothesis is further subdivided, positing that: (i)

inclusive participation of stakeholders will improve collaborative processes in natural

resource management of conflict-affected watersheds; (ii) some collaborative processes

work better than others in effective natural resource management in conflict-affected

watersheds; and (iii) increased responsibility of stakeholders will help achieve the

management objectives of natural resources of conflict-affected watersheds. It then

seeks to analyze and describe the conflict and natural resource management in the

Basin in the context of ecosystem-based management by finding answers to the main

research questions concerning: (i) the factors (organizational/cultural) that influence the

collaborative partnerships among stakeholders of the ARB; (ii) the existing governing

and institutional mechanisms of the natural resource management of the ARB; (iii) the

form of development authority and/or process that is imperative for the success of

natural resource management at a watershed level; and (iv) appropriate strategies that

include security measures that are suitable for interventions in the natural resource

management that affects livelihoods most in the ARB.

Major findings in the study include the following:

1. Imposed and incoherent policies breed conflict. The natural resource policies

unilaterally imposed by successive colonizers and mainstream society bred bitter

resentment among the IPs. This has been the core issue of violent conflict in the Basin.

The government is rectifying injustices in natural resource use through land tenure

instruments. But the incoherence of policies set by the government over the years has

created chaotic conditions on land use among stakeholders, causing further conflict

among communities and sectors. The confusion and overlap of land use and tenure

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brought about by incoherent policies results in difficulties on the part of the IPs in

asserting rights over their land and resources. Complete access of the IPs to their

domains has yet to be realized and an Executive Order with the DENR taking the lead

could unite the existing land laws (Cariño 2009; CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

The State policies over natural resources clearly show the political dimension of

the conflict in the Basin as stated by Buckles in Rusnak (1999), where the State

exercises firm control in natural resource ownership and management at the expense of

the less powerful sectors particularly the IPs and subsequently creating conditions of

inequality. The State policy of imposing its mandate without local participation of and

inadequate consultation with stakeholders as asserted by FAO (2005) underline the

implosion of unequal relations among stakeholders in the Basin. Relatedly, the

uncoordinated planning has emboldened the government agencies to formulate laws

and regulations unmindful of the ramifications to existing policies. This regulatory mess

causes the abuse of the Basin, throwing stakeholders into a state of confusion and

conflict with one another while confirming the assertion of Rola, Sumbalan and

Suminguit (2004) about the poor state of watersheds in the country.

2. Lack of convergence alters power dynamics. The lack of coordination and

convergence among various government agencies in addressing crosscutting issues

makes the efforts of each agency less effective and inefficient (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and

WCI 2008; Cariño 2009). The supplanting role of security forces in delivering basic

services in the conflict-affected areas changes the power dynamics among government

agencies. Appalling security conditions compel security forces to assume roles outside

of their core competencies. The entanglement of security forces in unusual roles could

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complicate matters of governance in the future as other government agencies find it

difficult to de-influence the rural communities from military clout so that appropriate roles

will be properly delineated.

The collaboration framework as envisioned by the security forces in its counter-

insurgency campaign put them in an unfamiliar situation of leading development

activities in the conflict-affected zones in the Basin. The framework of linkaging and

collaboration of the security forces with the LGUs, the LGAs, the NGOs and the POs is

designed to harness the technical, organizational, and financial resources and

capabilities of the stakeholders involved, but utilizing security forces as the frontline

providers of development initiatives may create problems in the near future. Using

security forces as the developmental vanguard looks promising in the short term due to

their focus on efficiency and effectivity in rural development but may cause disarray in

governance functions in the long run.

3. Stakeholders “shop” for alternative venues of cooperation. The perceived

dysfunction of government agencies in managing natural resources in the Basin pushed

the stakeholders to look for other venues for cooperation and innovation to help resolve

pressing issues in the region. The CCPD case illustrates the coordination of activities

between a range of partners to patch up the geographic and functional fragmentation

that exists across agencies, organizations, and levels of government, thus providing

more unity of purpose and perspective (Wondolleck and Yaffee, 2000). The

introduction of such structure is basically done through linkages with all institutions

involved and by working collaboratively to address the problems of conflict-affected

communities. The satisfaction of the participants in making a policy “does not

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[necessarily] mean that the decision is a good one” (O’Leary and Bingham 2003, 73).

However, the security forces and the religious sector indeed were able to build a

“collaborative leadership capacity that emphasizes a shared clear vision and goals for

transparency for key stakeholders” (Kim 2009).

The situation confirmed the earlier assessment of the DENR that there is indeed

a lack of involvement of the LGUs and stakeholders in the Basin management (ADB

2004). This stagnation pushes the patience of many stakeholders to the limit and they

subsequently seek new venues to remedy the inefficient and ineffective management of

natural resources in the Basin. The stakeholders see the necessity for the unity of

government officials and communities to optimize cooperation. The CCPD provided

some answers to the aspirations of the stakeholders to have a fair process in natural

resource use and management. Sabatier et al (2005) stress that this healthy

participatory approach is key to building the trust and cooperation of and in binding the

communities and sectors involved.

4. Optimum use of traditional conflict resolution mechanisms. Recognition by

the government and the security forces of the usefulness of the IPs’ traditional conflict

resolution mechanisms strengthens local institutions capable of sustainable,

inexpensive and efficient conflict resolution. Respecting local traditions galvanizes

ownership of a conflict resolution process that suits the existing conditions perfectly and

is favorable to the effective management of natural resources in rural areas. The

performance of an environmental dispute resolution can be evaluated if the parties are

“treated with dignity, respect, and in accordance with their rights” (O’Leary and Bingham

2003, 29) and are well represented. The integration of the traditional conflict resolution

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mechanisms of IPs into mainstream society is very important to ensure peace and

order. Out of this comes increased trust between State agencies and stakeholders and

greater commitment to implement decisions made together (Madrigal 2006).

Experiences demonstrate that sensitivity and recognition of cultural tradition and local

knowledge as well as the flexibility to negotiate with various stakeholders can sustain

many of these local initiatives.

5. Security forces as potential partners in natural resource management.

Shifting the efforts of the security forces to the non-traditional role of statebuilding offers

a huge potential for other government agencies and stakeholders to engage them in a

partnership built on natural resource management. The ubiquitous presence of the

security forces in the countryside, particularly in protected areas and indigenous

domain, provides readily available assistance for the implementation of development

programs in rural areas. Its mobility and manpower have a huge multiplier effect that is

not easy to marshal in other institutions and sectors. The active involvement of security

forces in natural resource management through collaboration with other stakeholders

helps rural communities attain self-sustenance and development. The security forces

with their huge personnel and logistics resources can dramatically help in the

reforestation of indigenous lands vastly damaged by natural resource exploitation in the

past. Most importantly, alliances between government agencies, security forces and

local stakeholders become generally effective in fending off attempts by the insurgents

to derail the government’s programs (Madrigal 2006).

The issue on the lack of commitment of field personnel to police the Basin

mentioned in the previous study by CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) could be dealt

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with more involvement of security forces in natural resource management. The

Strategy of Holistic Approach which mandates the whole government machinery to

synergize and make efficient its operations has much to be desired. The capabilities of

the security forces to be a potent force in helping police the Basin and as partner in

natural resource management have yet to be tapped and explored. However,

management actors should also be careful when involving security forces as partners

and delegating them more functions and responsibilities in natural resource

management as their armed presence and imposing character may have a negative

impact on the migrant farmers and IPs.

6. River basin organization. The ADB-sponsored consultation workshop on

sustainable management of the ARB yielded a collaborative framework management

through the organization of the ARB Governing Board as consensually agreed upon by

the participants. This is to address the dysfunctional management conditions of the

Basin which is characterized by too many laws and weak enforcement with no specific

enabling policy covering broad inter- and intra-area mandates or jurisdictions. The new

collaboration framework has a three-tiered level of participation that defines the

appropriateness of inclusive collaboration. The first tier consists of the core members,

which is composed of chief executives of the three provinces and Butuan City, two

representatives each from the DENR, the NEDA and the NCIP, and one representative

from the MINDA. The second tier is made up of additional members and is composed

of two representatives each from regional offices of the Mining and Geosciences

Bureau (MGB), the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), the Department of

Agriculture/National Irrigation Administration (DA/NIA), the Department of Public Works

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and Highways (DPWH), and the Department of Trade (DOT), two representatives from

the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), one representative from the security

forces and six from the civil society organizations (CSOs), and the third tier includes

supporting members, with one representative each from the Department of Health

(DOH), the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) and the Department of

Transportation and Communications (DOTC). The number of members for the second

and third tiers is flexible depending on the situational context, as agreed upon by the

core members of the governing board. This illustrates the conditions of the

appropriateness of inclusive collaboration among stakeholders as the key to achieving

the objectives of natural resource management of the conflict-affected watershed

posited as the main hypothesis.

The first sub-hypothesis which proposed that inclusive participation of

stakeholders will improve collaborative processes in natural resource management of

conflict-affected watersheds is acceptable because there is no significant difference on

the degree of collaboration of stakeholders on natural resource management as

perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces. Similarly, the second sub-hypothesis

which posited that some collaborative processes work better than others in effective

natural resource management in conflict-affected watersheds is also acceded to

because there is no significant difference on the level of involvement in natural resource

management on different collaborative processes in effective natural resource

management in conflict-affected watersheds as perceived by IPs, farmers and security

forces. And the third sub-hypothesis which postulated that increased responsibility of

stakeholders will help achieve the management objectives of natural resources of

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conflict-affected watersheds is also accepted because there is no significant difference

in the degree of responsibility of stakeholders towards natural resource management as

perceived by IPs, farmers and security forces. These results led to help develop the

following key interventions and improved policies on natural resource and conflict

management in the Basin: (i) institutional reforms; (ii) greater participation in

governance; (iii) enhancement of conflict resolution mechanism; (iv) information,

education and communication campaigns; and (v) capacity building.

The engagement processes of the grassroots segment and government

institutions are key considerations in ecosystem-based collaboration toward sustainable

development as exemplified by the Lake Mainit Development Alliance (LMDA) in the

neighboring zone. The LMDA is the development organization most like the Agusan

River Basin Governing Board (ARBGB). The ARBGB, however, is expected to

metamorphose into an organization similar to Mekong River Commission (MRC) or the

Murray Darling Basin Authority (MDBA) as it develops and matures. Its governance will

be defined by the coming together of various stakeholders and the organizations and

institutions they represent.

This is in consonance with the idea of Malayang (2002) who asserted that

interests of stakeholders and powers of institutions make the decisions and actions in

water governance. Natural resource management and development in the country has

also shown remarkable improvements. More than two decades ago when Ganapin

(1987) concluded in his study the there was a need to integrate environmental

considerations in the development of Palawan Island, the management actors in the

ARB not only included environmental considerations in its policy discussions but also

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made the ecosystem as basis for governance. The collaborative organization of

ARBGB in order to succeed, according to Sabatier et al (2005) should be able to

“demonstrate its superiority to traditional approaches on both procedural and

effectiveness criteria, as well as win its fair share of turf battles with traditional agencies”

(Sabatier et al 2005, 11).

The ARB case has a complex conflict setting and management processes that

combined some of the characteristics of the 12 cases of natural resource conflict

reviewed by Castro and Nielsen (2003). The conflict setting is rooted on the

government policies that largely contribute to conflict over natural resource control

among diverse users in the Basin. The confusion and prevailing conflict over land

tenure and land use in the Basin are primarily caused by overlapping provisions (Cariño

2009). It is prevalent in some areas of the Basin among indigenous communities,

settlers and those in the extractive industries of logging and mining. The top-down and

inconsistent government policies has put indigenous groups and migrant farmers in a

disadvantaged position undermining their livelihood and way of life and complicated by

revolutionary movement introduced by outside groups that took advantage of the

opportunity to further their wider revolutionary cause. This conflict setting is

exacerbated by the fragmented, uncoordinated and un-integrated institutional

arrangements in the Basin (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008; Cariño 2009).

The key theme of the case focuses on the design of a management collaboration

framework among stakeholders that would address the seemingly dysfunctional natural

resource management and appalling conditions of the conflict situation in the Basin.

The formation of a river basin organization takes into consideration the grassroots

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participation to achieve a balanced representation among different stakeholders in

doing management planning, and policy and decision making to optimize the

sustainable economic benefits and social welfare with equity for all populations living in

the Basin. The management processes, include among others, engagement of

stakeholders by coalition, capacity building, policy advocacy, stakeholder meetings,

consultation, community-based mediation and government inter-agency meeting. The

security forces also engage other management actors and grassroots stakeholders in

its effort to address the violent conflict perpetrated by the insurgents. These

management processes seek to address the multi-dimensional problems through

collaboration of the actors and players who do not act in a cohesive, coordinated and

integrated direction and to foster greater involvement and coordination among local

government units and other stakeholders in the Basin management.

5.3 Conclusions and Recommendations

5.3.1 Institutional Framework and Arrangement

The grassroots stakeholders perceived that there is no significant difference on the

degree of collaboration of stakeholders in natural resource management, on the level of

involvement in natural resource management, and on the degree of responsibility of

stakeholders towards natural resource management. However, this proved to be

different from the perception of those involved in the governance of natural resources in

the Basin. Natural resource management objectives in conflict-affected watersheds

could indeed be improved with the increased participation among stakeholders and the

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adoption of different collaborative processes based on specific circumstances. The

creation of a governing board should be pursued with a multi-tiered level of participation

designed to adapt to a situational context. This institutional set-up could dramatically

transform the management and development of the Basin with a unified planning and

management organization with a clear vision that integrates all sectors and

stakeholders relationships in the Basin. This will reduce the long list of environmental

issues in the Basin and address the fragmented, uncoordinated and un-integrated

institutional arrangement that rendered natural resource management in the Basin

practically ineffective and inefficient. The governing board will set in motion the formal

link of stakeholders’ engagement into a coherent organization that facilitates

collaboration for the sustainable development of the Basin. The collaborative process

leads to adoptive management that addresses challenges posed by dynamics of not

only the physical, socio-economic, and political dimensions of natural resource

management but the conflict situation as well. This will set a new collaborative model of

natural resource management in an ecosystem basis not only in Mindanao but possibly

for the entire country as well. The situation replicates the conditions of Lake Mainit in

the neighboring province. The creation of Lake Mainit Development Alliance (LMDA)

dramatically transformed the natural resource management in the Lake Mainit

Watershed. The LMDA engaged the stakeholders in a coherent manner providing

venue for collaboration with a fair and balanced stakeholders’ representation.

In the neighboring province of Bukidnon, a similar study by Bruno (2009) was

carried out about the link of social and bio-physical dimensions of water governance. It

was found that institutions indeed set standards for actions and decisions of

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stakeholders but focused on enforcing compliance rather than cultivating a sense of

responsibility among stakeholders. However, the process of governance needs to be

adaptive to the changing conditions not only of social dimensions but also the bio-

physical dimensions (Bruno 2009). Both the Bukidnon and ARB cases show a different

management processes despite having similar ecological and cultural context. The

need to exercise care and caution is deemed imperative when making cross-

comparison with other watershed or river basin cases in Africa, Americas or other Asia-

Pacific countries. The dynamics of governance need to consider the complex

interaction of variables even though they have similar ecological and cultural context

and conflict situation (Bruno 2009).

5.3.2 Balance of Power in Resource Control and Benefit Transfer

The improving conditions of natural resource management in the Basin continue to

manifest itself as the Basin management pushes for a more favorable situation

benefiting the marginalized sectors. The balance of power on natural resource access

and use is tilting in favor of the other sectors and stakeholders previously denied by the

State. The turbulent past of the country on natural resource management is gradually

being rectified by the State’s policies of improving the socio-economic and political

status of the IPs through greater participation in governance of natural resources as well

as greater economic opportunities through natural resource control. But the

government has a lot of work to do as far as policy implementation is concerned, to fully

realize its natural resource management objectives and its commitment to improve the

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lot of the deprived sectors. Policy inconsistencies that range from overlapping

provisions to conflicting and confusing regulations derail the implementation flow of its

programs.

The government has to “fast-track” the sorting out of property rights of various

stakeholders who are perplexed and who feel disempowered by conflicting and

inconsistent policies and weak enforcement of laws. The regulatory impasse blocks the

transfer of benefits and access to natural resources of some sectors and subsequently

stymies other economic activities (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008). Development

programs should prioritize the marginalized sectors, particularly IPs and migrant

farmers, and gender balance to achieve the desired objectives of high utilitarian natural

resource management and equitable distribution. This would help provide more options

to poverty-stricken sectors that do much harm through their unsustainable practices of

natural resource use.

Castro and Nielsen (2001) assert that “increased stakeholder participation will

enhance the efficiency and perhaps the equity of the intertwined common property

resource management and social systems” (Castro and Nielsen 2001, 231). But this

does not mean that other users, like the business sector, should be marginalized in

favor of the disadvantaged sectors. Natural resource management in the Basin should

not lose focus on the “take-home” agenda of the different stakeholders to strike the

balance of power on natural resource control and benefit transfer. The IPs aspire to be

respected as a people including respect for their culture, tradition, and their ancestral

domain, greater recognition and participation in governance, among others. But their

engagement in collaborative process with other stakeholders is primarily motivated by

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land tenure security and livelihood to ease their poverty and suffering. Other common

needs that motivate the IPs in participatory governance are physical security, adequacy

of social infrastructure, education and technical know-how (ADB 2002; Madrigal et al

2005). Castro and Nielsen (2001) further state that a conflict situation induces the

creation of a collaborative agreement but it has the tendency to treat all stakeholders at

the same level which is detrimental to local participants. Lessons learned of past

collaboration are a good foundation for a strong alliance among participants in the future

(Castro and Nielsen 2001).

5.3.3 Multi-faceted Intervention Approach

A multi-faceted intervention approach is imperative in a conflict-affected watershed. An

intervention approach should not only focus on land and forest resource use and

management but also on institutional and social dimensions surrounding the

management issues in the Basin. CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008) suggest a

prioritization of target areas for protection and rehabilitation since watershed

management projects are also applied by different development projects and could best

be “undertaken under a programmatic approach where initiatives are oriented towards a

long-term vision and translated into short-term strategies, measurable goals, and

defined timelines” (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008, vol IIA, 62). Increased levels of

participation by grassroots stakeholders and linkaging with government stakeholders

should characterize the combined intervention approach of natural resource

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management in the Basin. This will beef up the development of a governing board as it

tries to galvanize the desired collaboration of stakeholders in the ARB’s management.

CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI (2008, vol IIIA, 61) highly recommend for watershed

rehabilitation and protection the combined practices of “fascines, gabions, contour

farming, sloping agricultural land technology (SALT), ripraps, zero tillage, and assisted

natural regeneration”, among other practices, designed to control soil erosion, and

rehabilitate and increase fertility of degraded lands in the Basin. Other effective

programs promoting soil conservation and agro-forestry practices such as the Landcare

Program, which employs an effective way to control soil erosion through the use of low-

cost, less labor-intensive farmer adaptation of natural vegetative strip and applied in

other provinces in Mindanao, can greatly improve natural resource management in the

community (Catacutan and Duque 2006). The government should also consider

importing efficient practices from other tropical countries, which are applicable to the

community. In the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, for example, green manure/cover crop

systems are capable of maintaining soil fertility even under permanent cultivation

(Eastmond and Faust, 2004). This could replace the widely practiced kaingin system or

swidden agriculture practiced by many IPs and would help improve the management of

forests damaged by the slash-and-burn practice. ADB (2002) also recommends the

“documentation and research of cultural practices focused on community organization,

social structures and systems and cultural exchanges with other indigenous tribes to

promote best practices” (ADB 2002, 69).

5.3.4 Security as Key Component in Natural Resource Management

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Other government agencies directly involved in the management of natural resources in

the Basin should realize that development is indeed a tool in counter-insurgency.

Appalling security conditions derail implementation of programs in the Basin and cause

a spillover in other areas not affected by conflict. The lifeblood of the revolutionary

movement in the Basin largely depends on the natural resource exploitation to sustain

their insurgency activities against the government. The security forces could not

address the security issues with a military solution alone; they need the cooperation of

other government agencies to have a concerted and comprehensive counter-insurgency

strategy. The involvement of security forces as a supporting agency in natural resource

management could be further taken into the next level of cooperation at a national level.

This is beginning to be realized as other stakeholders are given the opportunity to get

involved in the crafting of the 2010 National Internal Peace and Security Plan. Decades

of lawlessness in some areas in the Basin makes it very difficult for agencies to carry

out their functions and implement government programs. The success of natural

resource management in the Basin has much to do with stability in the conflict-affected

areas. However, the openness of the Armed Forces of the Philippines to be inclusive in

planning its security plan does not intend to command management framework and

mechanisms over other management actors and stakeholders. The security is

designed to come-up with a unified collaborating effort in addressing security issues in

the country.

The security forces should capitalize on the institutionalized cooperation with

other agencies involved in natural resource management not only in the Basin but in

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other conflict-affected areas across the country. It should integrate its counter-

insurgency plan with the programs and capabilities of other stakeholders, in pursuit of

national development objectives. This is mutually beneficial among government

agencies as a convergent effort marshals technical and material resources to carry out

an efficient and effective program implementation. This would put all government

agencies on the same page in addressing the insurgency problems in the Basin and

dramatically lessen the burden on the security forces to do development functions

instead of focusing its effort on its traditional core competencies. Other stakeholders

should also take advantage of the cooperation opportunity to influence the reframing of

the psyche of the security forces from a civilian perspective on how natural resource

conflict in the Basin is widely seen. The convergent efforts should be able to translate

on the ground the dismantling of the shadow government and engender full local

ownership of security systems that help enforce environmental laws and regulations.

The presence of armed insurgents in the countryside threatens rural communities

and restrains their freedom of movement to the point of oppressing the IPs and the

migrant farmers (Madrigal et al 2005). The strategic location of these remote

communities for guerilla bases necessitates an integrated territorial defense system

(ITDS). However, convergence efforts on security among the concerned stakeholders

in the rural communities are not easy to marshal. Addressing security in a community

basically involves the community itself, the local government units (LGUs), the local

police force and the military force. Since the security forces cannot provide the

necessary manpower to secure all the rural communities, it is forced to tap the services

of natives who are trained and enlisted as paramilitary troops with the military serving as

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cadres. The ITDS pools the efforts and resources of stakeholders to counter the

activities of the insurgents. As part of the security improvement program in indigenous

domains, the Department of National Defense (DND) allocated a five percent enlistment

quota for the IPs (Madrigal 2006; MIPCPD 2007). This could be appreciated if the

enlisted IPs would serve as cadres in their domain. The ITDS is seen as the ultimate

security effort in rural villages where there is a greater involvement and ownership by

the community and it should be pushed vigorously in order to attain its desired security

objectives (Madrigal 2006). Deputized security forces play a key role in the

enforcement of environmental laws and regulations particularly in regards to illegal

logging and illegal mining. Further, security forces also strengthen or harness the

capabilities of existing IP defense systems, not only in defending their villages against

the insurgents but also in the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations

considered vital to their existence.

5.3.5 Further Studies and Research

5.3.5.1 Detailed Mechanisms on Participation of Security Forces

The security forces had a notorious reputation as a State instrument in natural resource

exploitation during the martial law era. Its shifting effort of using development as a tool

in counter-insurgency entangles the security apparatus of the State to natural resource

access and management. Despite the fair recognition of its vital support in natural

resource management, it has the inherent intimidating presence that is prone to abuse

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and corruption. A clear mandate and mechanisms about its level of participation are

required to deter abuse of power in carrying out its functions. Further study about the

detailed mechanism regarding the specific legal functions and limitations of the security

forces must be done to further refine its role in natural resource management which is

expected to vary over time especially when conditions on peace and order improve.

5.3.5.2 Replicate Study at a Sub-Watershed Level

The devolution of natural resource governance down to the municipal level has yet to be

implemented in most of the municipalities in the Basin. There are some unorganized

rural communities which are not yet on board and whose participation could alter

management dynamics in the future. Their capacity to perform their roles in natural

resource management is expected to improve as program implementation by the

government is fully realized. Their direct involvement under decentralized governance

improves their political activity in natural resource management and planning units could

be further broken down to a smaller level to facilitate easier control and management by

the LGUs at the municipal and at the village levels. This would cut across complicated

and sensitive issues concerning various cultures at the local level; orderly and

egalitarian conditions at the local level are crucial in gaining the Basin-wide support for

successful natural resource management. A similar study should be carried out at a

sub-watershed level to clearly define the delineated powers and functions of natural

resource management at an intra- and inter-municipality level.

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Definition of Terms:
Agricultural Land – ‘land devoted to, or suitable for, cultivation of the soil, planting
crops growing trees, raising of livestock’s, poultry, fish or aquaculture production,
including the harvesting of such farm products, and other farm activities and practices
by persons whether natural or juridical and not classified by law as mineral land, forest
land, residential land, commercial land or industrial land (RA 8435 from NLUC 2002).’

Agroforestry – 1) ‘a collective name for land use systems where woody perennials
(trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) grow on the same land management unit with
agricultural crops and/or animals; this can either be in some form of spatial arrangement
or in a time sequence (PCCARD et al 1999).’ 2) ‘sustainable management of land,
which increases their productivity by properly combining agricultural crops with forest
crops simultaneously or sequentially over time through the application of management
practices which are compatible with the local climate, topography and slope (Forest
Management Bureau and International Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine
Reference for Forest-related Terms and Definitions, March 2006 from NSCB 2009 ).’

Alienable and Disposable Lands – ‘land of the public domain subject to the present
system of classification and declared as not needed for forest purposes (PD 705); lands
of the public domain which have been delineated, classified and certified as such and
available for disposition under the Public Land Act (NLUC 2002).’

Ancestral Domain – ‘all areas generally belonging to IP comprising lands, inland

waters, coastal areas, and natural resources therein, held under a claim of ownership,
occupied or possessed by IP, themselves or through their ancestors, communally or
individually since time immemorial, continuously to the present except when interrupted
by war, force majeure or displacement by force, deceit, stealth or as a consequence of
government projects or any other voluntary dealings entered into by government or
private individuals, corporations, and which are necessary to ensure their economic,
social, and cultural welfare. It shall include ancestral lands, forests, pasture, residential,
agricultural, and other lands individually owned whether alienable and disposable or
otherwise, hunting grounds, burial grounds, worship areas, bodies of water, mineral,
and other natural resources, and lands which may no longer be exclusively occupied by
IP from which they traditionally had access to for their subsistence and traditional
activities, particularly the home ranges of IP who are still nomadic and/or shifting
cultivators’ (Section 56, IPRA Law).

Army Literacy Patrol System – ‘A non-formal educational program sponsored by the

Philippine Army and duly accredited by the Department of Education using soldiers as
teachers providing basic reading, writing, and counting/number skills to illiterate adults
living in far flung areas of the countryside’ (Madrigal 2006).

Buffer Zone – ‘identified area outside the boundaries of and immediately adjacent to
designated protected areas that needs special development control in order to avoid or
minimize harm to the protected area. The buffer zone of twenty meters from the
riverbank or lakeshore or seashore (Forest Management Bureau and International

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Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related Terms and
Definitions, March 2006 from NSCB 2009).’

Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title – ‘refers to a title formally recognizing the rights
of possession and ownership of IP over their ancestral domains identified and
delineated in accordance with the IPRA Law’ (Madrigal 2006).

Certificate of Stewardship Contract – ‘contracts awarded to individuals or families

actually occupying or tilling portions of forest lands’ (Cariño 2009).

Collaboration – ‘A conflict style that seeks to resolve both surface disputes and
underlying conflicts, improve relationships, and seek resolutions that meet the interest
and needs of both parties to the greatest possible degree’ (Merchant 2011).

Communist Party of the Philippines – is the ‘brain and the political arm of the
communist insurgency and controls the overall activities of the New People’s Army and
the National Democratic Front’ (Madrigal 2006).

Communist Insurgents – refers to members of the local communist movement.

Community-Based Forest Management Agreement – ‘a production sharing

agreement designed to ensure that participating communities enjoy the benefits of
sustainable utilization, management and conservation of forestlands and natural
resources therein’ (Cariño 2009).

Conflict – ‘the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between
people resulting in unwanted stress or tension and negative feelings between
disputants’ (Merchant 2011)

Forest – ‘refers to land with an area of more than 0.5 hectare and tree crown cover (or
equivalent stocking level) of more than 10 percent. The trees should be able to reach a
minimum height of 5 meters at maturity in situ. It consists either of closed forest
formation where trees of various storey’s and undergrowth cover a high proportion of
the ground or open forest formations with a continuous vegetation cover in which tree
crown cover exceeds 10 percent. Young natural stands and all plantations established
for forestry purposes, which have yet to reach a crown density of more than 10 percent
or tree height of 5 meters are included under forest. These are normally forming part of
the forest area, which are temporarily unstocked as a result of human intervention or
natural causes but which are expected to revert to forest. It includes forest nurseries
and seed orchards that constitute an integral part of the forest; forest roads, cleared
tracts, firebreaks and other small open areas; forest within protected areas; windbreaks
and shelter belts of tress with an area of more than 0.5 hectare and width of more than
20 meters; plantations primarily used for forestry purposes, including rubber wood
plantations. It also includes bamboo, palm and fern formation (except coconut and oil
palm) (NSCB Resolution No.12, Series of 2004 from NSCB 2009).’

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Forestland – ‘land of the public domain comprising of public forests,
permanent/established forest reserves and forest reservations (DENR DAO No. 15, s.
1995 and (PD 705); lands of the public domain which have been legally designated for
multiple uses such as production forest, agro forestry, rangeland forestland
reservations, inland water bodies, protection forest, resettlement and military
reservations (NLUA, NLUC 1995 from NLUC 2002).’

Indigenous People – ‘A group of people or homogenous societies identified by self-

ascription and ascription by others, who have continuously lived as organized
community on communally bounded and defined territory, and who have under claims
of ownership since time immemorial, occupied, possessed and utilized such territories,
sharing common bonds of language, customs, traditions and other distinctive cultural
traits or who have through resistance to political, social and cultural inroads of
colonization, non-indigenous religions and cultures, become historically differentiated
from the majority of Filipinos. Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples
likewise include peoples who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent
from the populations which inhabited the country, at the time of conquest or
colonization, or at the time of inroads of non-indigenous religions and cultures, or the
establishment of present state boundaries, who retain some or all of their social,
economic, cultural and political institutions, but who may have been displaced from their
traditional domains who may have resettled outside their ancestral domains’ (Paragraph
h, Section 3, Chapter 2, Republic Act No. 8371, IPRA of 1997 and Its Implementing
Rules and Guidelines).

Insurgency – ‘an organized armed political struggle whose goal is the seizure of power
through revolutionary take-over and subsequently replacing the existing government’
(Philippine Army Manual 0-1, p. 1.3-001 from Madrigal 2006).

Integrated Forest Management Agreement – ‘agreement entered into by DENR and a

qualified person, to occupy and process, in consideration of a specified rental, any
forest land in the public domain in order to establish an industrial forest plantation
(NSCB 2009).’
Integrated Watershed Management – ‘the process of formulating and implementing a
course of action involving natural, introduced and human resources of a watershed,
taking into account the social, economic and institutional factors operating within the
watershed and the surrounding and other relevant regions to achieve specific
objectives’ (PCCARD et al 1999).

Kaingin – ‘a farming system based on shifting or slash and burn clearing of forest for
the planting of agricultural and agro-forestry crops’ (PCCARD et al 1999).

Land Classification – ‘a system for determining land of the public domain into the
forest land, mineral land, nature parks and agricultural land based on the 1987
Constitution. In current practice, lands of the public domain are classified into either
forest land or alienable and disposable land (Forest Management Bureau and

191
International Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related
Terms and Definitions, March 2006 from NSCB 2009).’

Land Degradation – ‘reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and

complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest or
woodlands resulting from natural processes, land uses or other human activities and
habitation patterns such as land contamination, soil erosion and the destruction of the
vegetation cover’ (NSCB 2009).

Land Use – ‘the employment of a site or holding so as to derive revenue or other

benefits from it; the delineation by the governing authority of the utilization of the land
within a particular jurisdiction so as to promote the most advantageous development of
the community such as industrial, residential, commercial, recreational and other uses
under the plan’ (HUDCC from NSCB 2009).

Land Use Classification – ‘the process of delineating or allocating lands according to

protection, production, settlement and infrastructure’ (Forest Management Bureau and
International Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related
Terms and Definitions, March 2006 from NSCB 2009).

Land Use Plan – ‘a document containing a set of policies embodying the community-
desired pattern of population distribution and proposal for the future allocation of land to
the various land-using activities in accordance with the social and economic activities of
the people. Through maps and similar illustrations, it identifies the location, character
and extent of the areas’ land resources to be used for different purposes and includes
the process and the criteria employed in the determination of the land uses’ (RA 8435
from NLUC 2002).

License Agreement – ‘a privilege granted by the State to a person to utilize forest

resources within any forest land with the right of possession and occupation thereof to
the exclusion of others, except the government, but with the corresponding agreement
to develop, protect and rehabilitate the same in accordance with the terms and
conditions set forth in said agreement’ (PD 1559 from NSCB 2009).

Mining area – ‘a portion of the contract area identified by the contractor for purposes of
development, mining, utilization, processing and rehabilitation, and sites for support
facilities or in the immediate vicinity of the mining operations’ (RA 7942 from NLUC
2002).

Multiple Use – ‘the harmonized use of the numerous benefits from the land, soil, water,
wildlife, recreation value, grass and timber of the forest lands’ (PD 705 from NLUC
2002).

National Democratic Front (NDF) – is the ‘shield of the CPP/NPA insurgency. Its aim
is to establish a broad front for the communist movement in the various sectoral areas

192
which can be organized for revolutionary mass movements and used to advance the
legal programs of the movement in support of the armed struggle’ (Madrigal 2006).

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) – ‘the classification and

administration of all designated protected areas to maintain essential ecological
processes and life-support systems, to preserve genetic diversity, to ensure sustainable
use of resources found therein, and to maintain their natural conditions to the greatest
extent possible’ (HUDCC from NSCB 2009).

New People’s Army (NPA) – is the ‘military arm of the CPP. It is composed mainly of
soldiers from the peasantry is tasked to defend and secure the CPP-envisioned
people’s democratic state. The most pressing task of the NPA is to defeat and destroy
the Armed Forces of the Philippines and all other kinds of armed power in the hands of
the government and the “exploiting classes.” The NPA is a fighting force, a propaganda
force, a productive force closely linked to the masses of the people. The armed strength
of the NPA includes its regular mobile troops, the guerilla units, the armed militias, self-
defense units, and armed city partisans’ (AFPJCSC 1986, 102 from Madrigal 2006).

Production forest – ‘includes natural and artificially regenerated forests, and areas
below 50 percent slope or less than 100 meters (DENR DAO 15, s. 1995); forestland
managed primarily for the production of timber and other tree product (Maul, 1995);
includes the residual dipterocarp forests, mangrove and pine forests, forests available
for logging, rangeland for grazing, areas under the Industrial Forest Plantation
management; areas for Community Forestry Program; Integrated Forestry areas
(agroforestry), watersheds not yet proclaimed as watershed reserve, multiple-use zones
and buffer zones under the NIPAS Act; and other forest land for special land uses’
(NPFP, 1992 from NLUC 2002).

Protected Area – ‘a relatively large area where one or more types of ecosystems of
ecological significance are adequately conserved, where plant and animal species and
habitats are not materially altered by human exploitation and/or occupation’ (PAWB
from NSCB 2009).

River Basin – is the ‘portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It
encompasses the entire land surface dissected and drained by many streams and
creeks that flow downhill into one another, and eventually into one river. The final
destination is an estuary or an ocean’ (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Social Integrated Forest Management Agreement – ‘an agreement entered into by

and between a natural or juridical person and the DENR wherein the latter grants to the
former the right to develop, utilize and manage a small tract of forestland, consistent
with the principle of sustainable development’ (NSCB 2009).
Timber License Agreement – ‘a long term license executed by and between the
Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources on behalf of the government and the
grantee for the harvesting and removal from the p[public forest of timber and in
appropriate cases also of other forest products’ (Forest Management Bureau and

193
International Tropical Timber Organization, Philippine Reference for Forest-related
Terms and Definitions, March 2006 from NSCB 2009).

Uplands – ‘land areas located on slopes of more than 18%’ (CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI
2008).

Watershed – ‘a topographically delineated area of land from which rainwater can drain,
as surface run-off via a specific stream or river system to a common outlet point which
may be a dam, irrigation system or urban water supply take-off point or where the
stream discharges into a river, lake or the sea’ (PCCARD et al 1999). ‘It includes small
watersheds with an area of 10,000 hectares (ha) and less; medium-scale watersheds of
more than 10,000 ha to 50,000 ha; and large-scale watersheds of more than 50,000 ha’
(CTIIEC, Halcrow, and WCI 2008).

Watershed Management – 1) ‘the process of guiding and organizing land and other
resource uses in a watershed to provide desired goods and services without adversely
affecting soil and water resources; 2) the application of business methods and technical
principles to the manipulation and control of watershed resources to achieve a desired
set of objectives such as maximum supply of usable water, minimization of soil erosion
and siltation problems, and reduction of flood and drought occurrences’ (PCARRD et al
1999).

194
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Appendix A. Questionnaire for Farmers and Indigenous Peoples 1

Environmental Knowledge and Security Perception

1. Is a watershed a/an:

area that retains water area that drains into a specific body of water
small building where water is stored none of the options mentioned
water intake area that feeds a water treatment plant
2. How concerned are you with the state of environment in your community?
very concerned not at all concerned
somewhat concerned don’t know
not very concerned
3. How concerned are you with the state of environment of your municipality as a whole?
very concerned not at all concerned
somewhat concerned don’t know
not very concerned
4. Compared to five years ago, do you think that the environment in your community is:
more degraded about the same
less degraded
5. Compared to five years ago, do you think that the environment in your community is:
much better much worse
somewhat better about the same
somewhat worse don’t know
If you answered much better or somewhat better, proceed to Question 6.
If you answered somewhat worse or much worse, proceed to Question 7.
6. What do you think is the main reason why the state of environment in your community is BETTER
than it was five years ago?
additional legislation and policies public awareness
reforestation improved waste disposal
law enforcement other _______________
7. What do you think is the main reason why the state of environment in your community is WORSE
than it was five years ago?
resource extraction industrialization
deforestation population increase
land conversion other_______________

8. Which affects your views on environment the most:

personal observations environmental group reports
friends/family members industrialization
media reports population increase
governmental reports other_________________

1
Some of the questions are inspired by and extracted from the questionnaires developed by
McClafferty (2002) in the conduct of survey of Chesapeake Bay Watershed residents.

203
 Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly Don't
Agree (5) Agree (4) Disagree (3) Disagree(2) Know(1)
9.. Humans are severely abusing     
the environment.
10. Environment is poorly     
managed in your community.
11. Natural resources are not     
equitably allocated.
12. Mismanagement of natural
resources causes conflict among     
stakeholders.
13. Mismanagement of natural
resources can cause instability in     
your community.

Residents’ Behavior Towards the Agusan River Basin

Very Somewhat Somewhat Never Don't

How likely: Likely(5) Likely (4) Unlikely(3) (2) Know(1)
14. is it that if you are well-informed about the
status of the environment you would become     
more involved?

15. is it that you would become more involved

if you are well-informed on what you could do to     
help?
16. would you participate if activities about
environmental protection initiated by your     
community was scheduled in your area?
17. is it that you would become more involved
if in environmental activity if you knew you could     
help save money in the long run?
18. is it that you would become more involved
if you felt that your actions can help improve     
something?
19. is it that you would become more involved if
you knew that the time you are going to commit     
for an environmental activity would be minimal?
20. is it that you would become more involved
if you realized that you were directly affected by     
degradation of environment in your
community?
21. is it that you are interested in helping
improve the state of environment in your     
community?

Yes (3) No (2) Don’t Know (1)

22 . Has anyone in your household planted a tree in the past five   
years particularly in your community?

204
 23. Has anyone in your household helped clean up a stream or   
helped clean Agusan River?
24. Has anyone in your household made an effort to conserve   
water?
25. Has anyone in your household joined or volunteered for an   
environmental group that help clean streams and Agusan River?
26. Do you think there is anything that you do now as part of your
daily activities that worsens the state of environment in your   
community?
27. Do you think there is any change you could make in your
daily activities that would help improve the state of environment   
in your community?

Residents’ Behavior Towards Natural Resources Management

What should be the degree

of responsibility of the Somewhat
Very Somewhat Not At All
following in the Not Don’t
Responsible Responsible Responsible
management of natural Responsible Know(1)
(5) (4) (2)
resources in Agusan River (3)
Basin?
29. local government     
30. farmers and agricultural     
producers
31. business and industry     
32. loggers and miners     
33. Indigenous people     
. 34. environmental     
organizations
. 35. security forces     
. 36. private citizens or     
individuals
. 37.other stakeholders     
(_______________)

What should be the degree of

collaboration of the following in the Very Somewhat Somewhat Not At All Don’t
management of natural resources in Likely(5) Likely (4) Unlikely (3) Likely(2) Know(1)
Agusan River Basin?
38. Individual be consulted     
39. group or community be     
consulted
40. group or community be     

205
 represented in policy/decision
making
41. only key stakeholders be
involved policy/decision     
making
42. all stakeholders be involved     
in policy/decision making
43. only the government
agencies be involved in     
policy/decision making

44. How long have you lived in your current community?

0 to 9 years more than 25 years
10 to 25 years don’t know
45. To which age category do you belong?
18 to 34 years old 45 to 54 years old
35 to 44 years old 55 to older
46. What is your educational background?
no high school diploma bachelors degree
high school diploma or equivalent graduate degree
some college or associate degree
47. What is your civil status?
married divorced
not married, living with a partner widowed
separated never married
48. What is your best estimate of your household income before taxes last year?
less than P 50,000.00
between P 50,000.00 and less than P 100,000.00
between P 100,000.00 and less than P 200,000.00
between P 200,000.00 and up
49. Gender?
male
female

206
Appendix B. Questionnaire for Security Forces 2

Environmental Knowledge and Security Perception

1. Is a watershed a/an:

area that retains water area that drains into a specific body of water
small building where water is stored none of the options mentioned
water intake area that feeds a water treatment plant
2. How concerned are you with the state of environment in your community?
very concerned not at all concerned
somewhat concerned don’t know
not very concerned
3. How concerned are you with the state of environment of your municipality as a whole?
very concerned not at all concerned
somewhat concerned don’t know
not very concerned
4. Compared to five years ago, do you think that the environment in your community is:
more degraded about the same
less degraded
5. Compared to five years ago, do you think that the environment in your community is:
much better much worse
somewhat better about the same
somewhat worse don’t know
If you answered much better or somewhat better, proceed to Question 6.
If you answered somewhat worse or much worse, proceed to Question 7.
6. What do you think is the main reason why the state of environment in your community is BETTER
than it was five years ago?
additional legislation and policies public awareness
reforestation improved waste disposal
law enforcement other _______________
7. What do you think is the main reason why the state of environment in your community is WORSE
than it was five years ago?
resource extraction industrialization
deforestation population increase
land conversion other_______________

8. Which affects your views on environment the most:

personal observations environmental group reports
friends/family members industrialization
media reports population increase
governmental reports other_________________

2
Some of the questions are inspired by and extracted from the questionnaires developed by
McClafferty (2002) in the conduct of survey of Chesapeake Bay Watershed residents.

207
 Strongly Somewhat
Somewhat Strongly Don't
Agree Disagree
Agree (4) Disagree(2) Know(1)
(5) (3)
9. Humans are severely abusing the
environment.     

10. Environment is poorly managed in

your community.     

11. Natural resources are not

    
equitably allocated.
12. Mismanagement of natural
resources causes conflict among     
stakeholders.
13. Mismanagement of natural
resources can cause instability in your     
community.

Residents’ Behavior Towards the Agusan River Basin

How likely: Very Somewhat Somewhat Never Don't

Likely(5) Likely (4) Unlikely(3) (2) Know(1)
14. is it that if you are well-informed about the
status of the environment you would become     
more involved?
15. is it that you would become more involved
if you are well-informed on what you could do to     
help?
16. would you participate if activities about
environmental protection initiated by your     
community was scheduled in your area?
17. is it that you would become more involved
if in environmental activity if you knew you could     
help save money in the long run?
18. is it that you would become more involved
if you felt that your actions can help improve     
something?
19. is it that you would become more involved if
you knew that the time you are going to commit     
for an environmental activity would be minimal?
20. is it that you would become more involved
if you realized that you were directly affected by     
degradation of environment in your
community?
21. is it that you are interested in helping
improve the state of environment in your     
community?

208
 Yes No Don’t
(3) (2) Know (1)
22. Has anyone in your household planted a tree in the past five years   
particularly in your community?
23. Has anyone in your household helped clean up a stream or helped clean   
Agusan River?
24. Has anyone in your household made an effort to conserve water?   
25. Has anyone in your household joined or volunteered for an environmental   
group that help clean streams and Agusan River?
26. Do you think there is anything that you do now as part of your daily   
activities that worsens the state of environment in your community?
27. Do you think there is any change you could make in your daily activities   
that would help improve the state of environment in your community?

Residents’ Behavior Towards Natural Resources Management

What should be the degree of Somewhat

responsibility of the following Very Somewhat Not At All Don’t
Not
in the management of natural Responsible Responsible Responsible Know
Responsible
resources in Agusan River (5) (4) (2) (1)
(3)
Basin?
28. local government     
29. farmers and agricultural     
producers
30. business and industry     
31. loggers and miners     
32. Indigenous people     
33. environmental     
organizations
34. security forces     
35. private citizens or     
individuals
36. other stakeholders     
(_______________)

209
 What should be the degree of
collaboration of the following in the Very Somewhat Somewhat Not At All Don’t
management of natural resources Likely(5) Likely (4) Unlikely (3) Likely(2) Know(1)
in Agusan River Basin?
37. Individual be consulted     
38. group or community be     
consulted
39. group or community be
represented in policy/decision     
making
40. only key stakeholders be     
involved policy/decision making
41. all stakeholders be involved in     
policy/decision making
42.only the government agencies be     
involved in policy/decision making

Name (optional):______________________________________

Rank: ______________________

Total Number of Years in the Service:

(26-30)___, (21-25)____, (16-20)____, (11-15)____, ( 6-10) ____

Highest Military Career Course Attended: __________________

Sex: Male____, Female____.

Age: ____

Unit Assignment ________________________

210
Appendix C. Semi-structured Questionnaire for Indigenous Peoples/Farmers

• What are the main issues and concerns in your community?

● What is the power structure in your community?

● What justice system/conflict resolution mechanism do you apply

when settling disputes in your community?

● How important are the natural resources (land, forest and water resources) to
you and your community? What are their cultural and historical significance?

● What are the goals/objectives of the community in natural

resources management?

● What is the customary practice or system of governance in

managing natural resources in your community?

● What form of development authority do you need in managing the resources in

your community?

● Who are the key personalities involved in the management of natural

resources in your community? What are their roles and functions?

● What are the existing government policies on natural resources

management in your community? Are they being implemented?

● Who formulates such government policies? Is the community consulted/involved

in policy making?

● Are local beliefs and cultural norms integrated into policies formulated to protect
and conserve the natural resources in your community?

● Do you encounter any problems with the existing policies of the government? Do
ordinances that ignore people's traditional way of life and religious beliefs result
in conflict? Why?

● What are the ramifications of government policies on the protection and

conservation of natural resources in your location to your community?

● What indigenous knowledge systems and practices would you like government
to support?

● Is free-and-prior-informed consent observed by non-members of your

community?

211
● How does the Indigenous People’s Rights Act impact your community?

● How does the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples function to

address your needs?

● What is the state of security/community protection in your community?How does

the presence of insurgents impact your community?

● How would you like the government to address the security problem in your
community, if any?

● Do you see the need for the involvement of security forces in your community
as part of the government effort in nation-building?

● What form/s of support from the government agencies and security forcesdo you
need in your community?

212
Appendix D. Semi-structured Questionnaire for Management Actors

• What are your stakes in the Agusan River Basin (ARB)/sub-basin?

• What are your programs/projects for the restoration and rehabilitation of the
ARB/sub-basin? watershed protection?

• How will you address the problems of harmonization of the tenurial instruments in
the ARB/sub-basin? What programs/projects are you implementing?

• What problems do you encounter in the implementation of the Certificate of

Ancestral Domain Claim/ Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title processing?

• How do you support the formulation of Ancestral Domain Sustainable

Development and Protection Plans (ADSDPP)? Indigenous Knowledge Systems
and Practices?

• What intervention programs/projects are you implementing to empower the

community/IPs in managing their resources?

• How would you implement capability building/community as a mainstream activity

in watershed management?

• What are the issues and concerns in the implementation of IPRA? How about the
customary law and state law harmonization?

• What type of management approach do you prefer for the ARB/sub-basin? What
about the structure, membership and functions of the ARB/sub-basin
governance?

• What should be the roles and responsibilities of the stakeholders in the ARB/sub-
basin? How about the local government units (LGUs) and national line agencies
(NLAs)?

• What strategies do you suggest for funding in the ARB/sub-basin management?

• How would you monitor and evaluate the success of the implementation of your
program/project in the ARB/sub-basin?

• How does the CCPD helps in achieving your objectives?

213
Appendix E. Semi-structured Questionnaire for Security Forces

• What is the state of law and order in your area of responsibility?

• How do you address the law and order/security problem if there is any?

• What tactics, techniques and procedures do you and your unit apply in securing
your area of responsibility? Is the government winning?

• What existing government programs are you and your unit implementing to
encourage the insurgents to return to the folds of law?

• What programs do you and your unit apply to win the hearts and minds of the
local populace and support in your security operations?

• Historically, struggle over territory has been the most prevalent form of conflict
and natural resources often underlie these territorial struggles. How are
resources interwoven into the complex dynamics of conflict?

• Are natural resources and their contestability centrally pertinent to the conflict in
your area of responsibility and in the whole country? How?

• Can both the scarcity and abundance of natural resources create an environment
that is ripe for violent conflict? How?

• Are you and your unit engaged in civil-military operations? Do you participate in
nation-building programs particularly in rural areas?

• Do you see the need for the security forces to get involved in development
activities particularly on natural resources management? What form of
intervention program do you suggest if at all?

• What role can natural resources play in resolving and managing conflict and in
preventing the recurrence of violence in the post-conflict environment?

• How does the CCPD help in achieving your mission?

214
Appendix F. Results of the Survey
Farmers & Indigenous Peoples

Table 1. Profile of the Stockholders by Gender and Age

Variable Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Sex
Male 67 56.8 55 45.1 122 50.8
Female 34 28.8 37 30.8 71 29.6
No Response 17 14.4 30 24.6 47 19.6
Total 118 100.0 122 100.0 24 100.0
Age (in years)
18-34 15 12.7 67 54.9 82 34.2
35-44 19 16.1 18 14.8 37 15.4
45-54 39 33.1 18 14.8 57 23.8
>54 35 29.7 10 8.2 45 18.8
No Response 10 8.5 9 7.4 19 7.9

Table 2. Profile of the Respondent by Civil Status and Educational Attainment

Variable Indigenous Farmers Overall

(N=118) (N=122) (N=240)
n % n % n %
Civil Status
Married 91 77.1 78 63.9 169 70.4
Living with a Parent 8 6.8 2 1.6 10 4.2
Separated 1 0.8 1 0.8 2 0.8
Legally Separated 1 0.8 3 2.5 4 1.7
Widowed 7 6.8 8 3.3
Single 6 5.1 28 23.0 34 14.2
No Response 3 2.5 10 8.2 13 5.4
Educational Attainment
Some High School years 67 56.8 37 30.3 104 43.3
High School Graduate 21 17.8 27 22.1 48 20.0
Post Secondary Graduate 26 22.0 35 28.7 61 25.4
Associate
Some College years
Bachelor’s Degree 9 7.4 9 3.8
Graduate Degree 1 0.8 4 3.3 5 2.1
No Response 3 2.5 10 8.2 13 5.4

Table 3. Profile of Respondents by Length of Stay and Income

Variable Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Length of Stay
(in years)
0-9 15 12.7 21 17.2 36 15.0
10-25 21 17.8 46 37.7 67 279.
more than 25 77 65.3 40 32.8 117 48.8
Don’t know - - 6 4.9 6 2.5

215
 No Response 5 4.2 9 7.4 14 5.8
Estimated Yearly Income (in pesos)
Less than 50,000 53 44.9 81 66.4 134 55.8
50,000 23 19.5 6 4.9 29 12.1
100,000-199,999 7 5.9 1 0.8 8 3.3
200,000 and above 34 28.8 2 1.6 36 15.0
No Response 1 0.8 32 26.2 33 13.8

Table 4. Distribution of the Responses on the Definition of a Watershed

Choices Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Area that retains water 51 43.2 37 30.3 88 36.7
Small building where water is stored 51 43.2 17 13.9 68 28.3
Water intake area 6 5.1 14 11.5 20 -
Area that drains into a specific body of water 5 4.2 40 38.2 45 -
None of the options 5 4.2 6 4.9 11 4.6
No response - - 8 6.6 8 3.3
Total 118 100.0 122 100.0 240 100.0

Table 5. Frequency Distribution of the Responses on the Concern of the Environment

Statement Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Condition of the Environment
i.) In the community
Very concerned 34 28.8 7 5.7 41 17.1
Somewhat concerned 74 62.7 97 79.5 171 71.3
Not very concerned 4 3.4 9 7.4 13 5.4
Not at all concerned 2 1.7 1 0.8 3 1.3
Don’t know 3 2.5 3 1.3
No response 1 0.8 8 6.6 9 3.8
ii.) In the municipality
As a whole
Very concerned 27 22.9 8 6.6 35 14.6
Somewhat concerned 74 62.7 83 6.0 157 65.4
Not very concerned 9 7.6 14 11.5 23 9.6
Not at all concerned 7 5.9 6 4.9 13 5.4
Don’t know 1 0.8 2 1.6 3 1.3
No response - - 9 7.4 9 3.8

Table 6. Frequency Distribution on the Responses on the State of the Environment

Statement Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Degradation
More degraded 40 33.9 20 16.4 60 25.0
Less degraded 30 25.4 47 38.5 77 32.1
About the same 47 39.8 43 35.2 90 37.5
No response 1 0.8 12 9.8 13 5.4
Condition
Much better 13 11.0 31 25.4 44 18.3

216
 Somewhat better 66 55.9 47 38.5 113 47.1
Somewhat worse 6 18.6 15 12.3 21 8.8
Much worse 22 1.7 7 5.7 29 12.1
About the same 2 7.6 13 10.7 15 6.3
Don’t know 9 1 0.8 10 4.2
No response 8 6.6 8 3.3

Table 7. Perception of the Respondent on the Condition of the Environment

Reason Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
For Better Environment
Additional legislation 16 20.3 3 3.8 19 12.1
Reforestation 32 40.5 36 46.2 68 43.3
Law enforcement 7 8.9 11 14.1 18 11.5
Public awareness 20 25.3 22 28.2 42 26.8
Improved waste disposal 4 5.0 4 5.1 8 5.1
No response - - 1 2.6 1 1.2
Total 79 100.0 78 100.0 157 100.0
Worse Condition
Resource extraction - - 7 31.8 7 14.0
Deforestation 23 82.1 4 18.2 27 54.0
Land conversion 1 3.6 3 13.6 4 8.0
Industrialization - 2 9.1 2 4.0
Population increase 3 10.7 6 27.3 9 18.0
No response 1 3.6 - - 1 2.0
Total 28 100.0 22 100.0 50 100.0

Table 8. Factors Affecting the Respondents View on the Condition of the Environment

Factors Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Personal Observations 48 40.7 20 16.4 68 28.3
Friends/Family Member 25 21.2 8 6.6 33 13.8
Media Reports 3 2.5 4 3.3 7 2.9
Governmental Reports 2 1.7 13 10.7 15 6.3
Environmental Group Reports 4 3.4 14 11.5 18 7.5
Industrialization 1 0.8 30 24.6 31 12.9
Population Increase 35 29.7 24 19.7 59 24.6
No Response - - 9 7.4 9 3.8
Total 118 100.0 122 100.0 240 100.0

Table 9. Perception towards the Environment

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
Indigenous People(N = 118)
Humans are severely abusing the environment. 4.0 1.3 Somewhat Agree
Environment is poorly managed in your community. 3.9 1.4 Somewhat Agree
Natural resources are not equitably allocated. 4.0 1.2 Somewhat Agree
Mismanagement of natural resources causes conflict 4.0 1.4 Somewhat Agree

217
among stakeholders.
Mismanagement of natural resources can cause instability
4.4 1.1 Somewhat Agree
in your community.
Overall 4.1 1.1 Somewhat Agree
Farmers (N = 122)
Humans are severely abusing the environment. 4.0 1.3 Somewhat Agree
Environment is poorly managed in your community. 4.0 1.1 Somewhat Agree
Natural resources are not equitably allocated. 4.1 1.1 Somewhat Agree
Mismanagement of natural resources causes conflict
4.1 1.2 Somewhat Agree
among stakeholders.
Mismanagement of natural resources can cause instability
4.4 0.9 Somewhat Agree
in your community.
Overall 4.1 0.8 Somewhat Agree

Table 10. Overall Perceptions towards the Environment

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
Humans are severely abusing the environment. 4.0 1.3 Somewhat Agree
Environment is poorly managed in your community. 4.0 1.3 Somewhat Agree
Natural resources are not equitably allocated. 4.1 1.2 Somewhat Agree
Mismanagement of natural resources causes conflict
4.1 1.3 Somewhat Agree
among stakeholders.
Mismanagement of natural resources can cause instability
4.4 1.0 Somewhat Agree
in your community.
Overall 4.1 1.0 Somewhat agree

Table 11. Residents’ behavior towards management of the Agusan River Basin

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
Indigenous People (N = 118)
How likely is it that if you are well-informed about the status of
4.9 0.6 Very Likely
the environment you would become more involved?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you are
4.9 0.5 Very Likely
well-informed on what you could do to help?
How likely would you participate if activities about environmental
protection initiated by your community was scheduled in your 4.6 1.1 Very Likely
area?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if in
Somewhat
environmental activity if you knew you could help save money in 4.1 1.2
Likely
the long run?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you felt
4.8 0.7 Very Likely
that your actions can help improve something?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
knew that the time you are going to commit for an environmental 4.2 1.1
Likely
activity would be minimal?
Hoe likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
realized that you were directly affected by degradation of 4.2 1.2
Likely
environment in your community?
How likely is it that you are interested in helping improve the 4.6 1.0 Very Likely

218
state of environment in your community?
Favorable
Overall 4.5 0.5
Behavior
Farmers (N = 122)
How likely is it that if you are well-informed about the status of Somewhat
4.4 0.8
the environment you would become more involved? Likely
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you are
4.5 0.8 Very Likely
well-informed on what you could do to help?
How likely would you participate if activities about environmental
protection initiated by your community was scheduled in your 4.6 0.8 Very Likely
area?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if in
Somewhat
environmental activity if you knew you could help save money in 4.4 0.9
Likely
the long run?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you felt
4.6 0.8 Very Likely
that your actions can help improve something?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
knew that the time you are going to commit for an environmental 4.2 0.9
Likely
activity would be minimal?
Hoe likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
realized that you were directly affected by degradation of 3.9 1.1
Likely
environment in your community?
How likely is it that you are interested in helping improve the
4.6 0.6 Very Likely
state of environment in your community?
Favorable
Overall 4.4 0.6
Behavior

Table 12. Residents’ behavior towards management of ARB (overall)

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
How likely is it that if you are well-informed about the status of
4.7 0.7 Very Likely
the environment you would become more involved?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you are
4.7 0.6 Very Likely
well-informed on what you could do to help?
How likely would you participate if activities about environmental
protection initiated by your community was scheduled in your 4.6 1.0 Very Likely
area?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if in
Somewhat
environmental activity if you knew you could help save money in 4.3 1.1
Likely
the long run?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you felt
4.7 0.8 Very Likely
that your actions can help improve something?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
knew that the time you are going to commit for an environmental 4.2 1.0
Likely
activity would be minimal?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you
Somewhat
realized that you were directly affected by degradation of 4.1 1.2
Likely
environment in your community?
How likely is it that you are interested in helping improve the
4.6 0.9 Very Likely
state of environment in your community?
Favorable
Overall 4.5 0.5
Behavior

219
 Table 13. Level of participation of the residents towards the improvement of the environment

Statement Indigenous Farmers Overall

n % n % n %
Has anyone in your household planted a tree in the past five years
109 92.4 95 77.9 204 85.0
particularly in your community?
Has anyone in your household helped clean up a stream or helped
53 44.9 65 53.3 118 49.2
clean Agusan River?
Has anyone in your household made an effort to conserve water? 86 72.9 97 79.5 183 76.3
Has anyone in your household joined or volunteered for an
62 52.5 66 54.1 128 53.3
environmental group that help clean streams and Agusan River?
Do you think there is anything that you do now as part of your daily
activities that worsens the state of environment in your 58 49.2 45 36.9 103 42.9
community?
Do you think there is any change you could make in your daily
activities that would help improve the state of environment in your 81 68.6 96 78.7 177 73.8
community?

Table 14. Residents’ perceptions on the degree of responsibility towards natural resources
management

Statement Mean Standard Deviation Description

Indigenous People (N = 118)
local government 4.0 1.0 Responsible
farmers and agricultural producers 4.2 0.8 Responsible
business and industry 3.4 1.3 Somewhat Responsible
loggers and miners 3.1 1.4 Somewhat Responsible
Indigenous people 3.4 1.6 Somewhat Responsible
environmental organizations 4.3 1.2 Responsible
private citizens or individuals 4.7 0.7 Very responsible
security forces 4.2 1.1 Responsible
other stakeholders 2.8 1.6 Somewhat Responsible
Farmers (N = 112)
local government 4.4 0.8 Responsible
farmers and agricultural producers 4.5 0.8 Very responsible
business and industry 3.8 1.0 Responsible
loggers and miners 3.2 1.2 Somewhat Responsible
Indigenous people 4.0 1.2 Responsible
environmental organizations 4.0 1.2 Responsible
private citizens or individuals 4.3 1.0 Responsible
security forces 4.1 0.9 Responsible
other stakeholders 3.1 1.3 Somewhat Responsible

Table 15. Overall perceptions of the residents on the degree of responsibility towards natural
resources management

Statement Mean Standard Deviation Description

local government 4.4 0.9 Responsible

220
 farmers and agricultural producers 4.3 0.8 Responsible
business and industry 3.6 1.2 Responsible
loggers and miners 3.1 1.3 Somewhat Responsible
Indigenous people 3.7 1.5 Responsible
environmental organizations 4.2 1.2 Responsible
private citizens or individuals 4.5 0.9 Very Responsible
security forces 4.1 1.0 Responsible
other stakeholders 3.0 1.5 Somewhat Responsible

Table 16. Degree of collaboration in the management of natural resources

Degree of Collaboration Mean Standard Description

Deviation
Indigenous People
individual be consulted 4.9 0.4 Very Likely
group or community be consulted 4.8 0.5 Very Likely
group or community be represented in policy/decision
4.8 0.7 Very Likely
making
only key stakeholders be involved in policy/decision
4.5 1.2 Very Likely
making
all stakeholders be involved in policy/decision making 4.2 1.4 Somewhat Likely
only the government agencies be involved in
4.3 1.5 Somewhat Likely
policy/decision making
Farmer
individual be consulted 4.4 0.9 Somewhat Likely
group or community be consulted 4.3 1.0 Somewhat Likely
group or community be represented in policy/decision
4.6 0.8 Very Likely
making
only key stakeholders be involved in policy/decision
4.3 1.0 Somewhat Likely
making
all stakeholders be involved in policy/decision making 4.4 0.9 Somewhat Likely
only the government agencies be involved in
4.2 1.3 Somewhat Likely
policy/decision making
Overall
individual be consulted 4.7 0.8 Very Likely
group or community be consulted 4.6 0.8 Very Likely
group or community be represented in policy/decision
4.7 0.8 Very Likely
making
only key stakeholders be involved in policy/decision
4.4 1.1 Somewhat Likely
making
all stakeholders be involved in policy/decision making 4.3 1.2 Somewhat Likely
only the government agencies be involved in
3.8 1.4 Somewhat Likely
policy/decision making

221
 Security Forces

Table 1. Profile of the Security Forces

Variable n %
Sex
Male 86 74,8
Female 1 0.9
No Response 28 24.3
Total 115 100.0
Age
18-34 46 40.0
35-44 21 18.3
45-54 17 14.8
>54 0 0.0
No Response 33 27.0
Total 115 100.0

Table 2. Military Rank of the Security Forces

Variable n %
Major 2 1.7
st
1 Lieutenant 8 6.9
2ndLieutenant 4 3.5
Private 5 4.3
Private First Class 14 12.2
Corporal 10 8.7
Sergeant 12 10.4
Staff Sergeant 10 8.7
Technical Sergeant 5 4.3
Master Sergeant 6 5.2
Chief Master Sergeant 1 0.9
CAA 5 4.3
CPC 2 1.7
No Response 31 27.2
Total 115 100.0

Table 3. Number of Years of Service and the Highest Military Career Course Attended

Variable n %
Length of Service (in years)
26-30 9 7.8
21-25 14 12.2
16-20 10 8.7
11-15 10 8.7
6-10 19 16.5
No Response 53 46.1

222
 Highest Military Career Course
Military Intelligence Non-Commissioned Officer Advance Course 3 2.6
Infantry Non-Commissioned Officer Advance Course 17 14.8
Infantry Officer Basic Course 14 12.2
Basic Course 2 1.7
Bachelor of Science 2 1.7
Communication and Electronic Course 2 1.7
Candidate Soldier Course 1 0.9
Filed Artillery Non-Commissioned Officer Advance Course 2 1.7
Ordnance Service Course 1 0.9
Specialized Schooling 1 0.9
No Response 70 60.7

Table 4. Unit Assignment of the Security Forces

Unit n %
9SFC, 35FBN,SFR 6 5.2
30IB, 4ID,PA 31 27.0
2GIB, 4ID, PA 37 32.3
72IB, 10ID, PA 2 1.7
GSF Company 2 1.7
SFRA, SOCOM, PA 2 1.7
No Response 35 30.4

Table 5. Distribution of the Responses on the Definition of a Watershed

Statement n %
Area that retain water 85 73.9
Small building 4 3.5
Water intake area 13 11.3
Area that drains 8 7.0
None of the options mentioned 2 1.7
No response 3 2.6
Total 115 100.0

Table 6. Frequency Distribution of the Responses on the Concern of the Environment

Statement n %
Condition of the environment
A. In the community
Very concerned 93 80.9
Somewhat concerned 21 18.2
Not very concerned 1 0.9
Total 115 100.0
B. In the municipality as a whole
Very concerned 95 82.6

223
 Somewhat concerned 17 14.8
Not very concerned 3 2.6
Total 15 100.0

Table 7. Frequency Distribution on the Responses on the Condition of the Environment

Statement n %
Degradation
More Degraded 40 34.8
Less Degraded 62 53.9
About the Same 13 11.3
Total 115 100.0
Condition
Much Better 73 63.5
Somewhat Better 20 17.4
Somewhat Worse 12 10.4
Much Worse 5 4.3
About the Same 5 4.3
Total 115 100.0

Table 8. Perceptions of the Respondents on the Condition of the Environment

Reasons n %
Better Environment
Additional Legislation 20 21.5
Reforestation 56 60.2
Law-enforcement 5 5.3
Public Awareness 8 8.6
Improve Waste Disposal 2 2.2
No Response 2 2.2
Total 93 100.0
Worse Condition
Resource Extraction 3 17.6
Deforestation 11 64.7
Population Increase 1 5.9
No Response 2 11.8
Total 17 100.0

Table 9. Factors Affecting the Respondents’ Views on the Condition of the Environment

Factors n %
Personal Observation 31 27.0
Friends/Family Member 8 7.0
Media Reports 6 5.2
Governmental Reports 5 4.3
Environmental Reports 9 7.8

224
 Industrialization 48 41.7
Population Increase 6 5.2
No Response 2 1.7
Total 115 100

Table 10. Perceptions towards the Environment by the Security Forces

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
Humans are severely abusing the environment. 3.9 1.3 Somewhat Agree
Environment is poorly managed in your community. 3.4 1.3 Somewhat Disagree
Natural resources are not equitably allocated. 3.9 0.9 Somewhat Agree
Mismanagement of natural resources causes conflict
3.7 1.3 Somewhat Agree
among stakeholders.
Mismanagement of natural resources can cause instability
3.9 1.0 Somewhat Agree
in your community.
overall 3.8 0.9 Somewhat Agree

Table 11. Security Forces’ Behavior towards Management of the ARB

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
How likely is it that if you are well-informed about the status of
4.5 0.8 Very Likely
the environment you would become more involved?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you are
4.4 0.8 Somewhat Likely
well-informed on what you could do to help?
How likely would you participate if activities about environmental
protection initiated by your community was scheduled in your 4.4 0.7 Somewhat Likely
area?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if in
environmental activity if you knew you could help save money in 4.5 1.0 Very Likely
the long run?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you felt
4.0 1.2 Somewhat Likely
that your actions can help improve something?
How likely is it that you would become more involved if you
knew that the time you are going to commit for an environmental 4.0 1.1 Somewhat Likely
activity would be minimal?
Hoe likely is it that you would become more involved if you
realized that you were directly affected by degradation of 4.1 1.1 Somewhat Likely
environment in your community?
How likely is it that you are interested in helping improve the
4.7 0.6 Very Likely
state of environment in your community?
Favorable
Overall 4.3 0.6
Behavior

Table 12. Level of Participation of the Residents towards the Improvement of the Environment

Statement n %
Has anyone in your household planted a tree in the past five years particularly in your
98 85.2
community?
Has anyone in your household helped clean up a stream or helped clean Agusan River? 82 71.3

225
Has anyone in your household made an effort to conserve water? 104 90.4
Has anyone in your household joined or volunteered for an environmental group that help
77 67.0
clean streams and Agusan River?
Do you think there is anything that you do now as part of your daily activities that worsens
45 39.1
the state of environment in your community?
Do you think there is any change you could make in your daily activities that would help
99 86.1
improve the state of environment in your community?

Table 13. Security Forces’ Perception on the Degree of Responsibility towards Natural Resources

Statement Mean Standard Deviation Description

local government 4.5 0.9 Very Responsible
farmers and agricultural producers 4.5 0.9 Very Responsible
business and industry 3.9 1.1 Responsible
loggers and miners 3.4 1.2 Somewhat Responsible
Indigenous people 3.9 1.0 Responsible
environmental organizations 4.6 0.7 Very Responsible
private citizens or individuals 4.6 0.7 Very Responsible
security forces 4.0 1.1 Responsible
other stakeholders 3.3 1.3 Somewhat Responsible

Table 14. Degree of Collaboration in the Management of Natural Resources as Perceived by the
Security Forces

Standard
Statement Mean Description
Deviation
Individual be consulted 4.5 0.6 Very Likely
group or community be consulted 4.5 0.7 Very Likely
group or community be represented in policy/decision
4.5 0.8 Very Likely
making
only key stakeholders be involved in policy/decision making 4.2 1.1 Somewhat Likely
all stakeholders be involved in policy/decision making 4.3 0.9 Somewhat Likely
only the government agencies be involved in policy/decision
4.0 1.2 Somewhat Likely
making

226
Appendix G. Approved Syracuse University Institutional Review Board Free-and-
Prior-Informed Consent Statement for Interviewees

Project Title: Managing Conflict and Natural Resources in Conflict-Affected Watersheds

of the Philippines: The Case of the Agusan River Basin
My name is Haroun-Al-Rashid I. Jaji and I am a PhD student at the State University of
New York College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry (SUNY-ESF) and Syracuse
University. I am inviting you to participate in a research study. Involvement in the study
is voluntary, so you may choose to participate or not. This sheet will explain the study to
you and please feel free to ask questions about the research if you have any. I will be
happy to explain anything in detail if you wish.
I am interested in learning more about the natural resource and conflict management in
Agusan River Basin (ARB). You will be asked to answer some of the prepared
questions. This will take approximately 30 minutes of your time. All information will be
kept confidential. I will assign a number to your responses, and only I, my faculty
advisor and/or dissertation committee members, as appropriate will have the key to
indicate which number belongs to which participant.
OR In any articles I write or any presentations that I make, I will use a made-up name
for you, and I will not reveal details or I will change details about where you work and
where you live.
I may interview you one-on-one or you may be interviewed in groups. Please be aware
that confidentiality cannot be guaranteed in group situations. Other participants in your
group will know how you answer questions. While we will discourage anyone from
sharing this information outside of the group, we cannot guarantee confidentiality by
other group members. We will do our best to keep all of your personal information
private and confidential but absolute confidentiality cannot be guaranteed.
The benefit of this research is that you will be helping us to understand the problems
and how to manage natural resources and conflict in ARB. This information should help
us to better understand the real situation in ARB and help us in our policy-formulation.
By taking part in the research you may experience the benefits of providing the
necessary inputs and participate in our research project.
The risk to you of participating in this study is inadvertently divulging sensitive
information. This risk will be minimized by treating the information with utmost
confidentiality.
If you do not want to take part, you have the right to refuse to take part, without penalty.

227
If you decide to take part and later no longer wish to continue, you have the right to
withdraw from the study at any time, without penalty.
If you have any questions, concerns, complaints about the research, contact Dr.
Richard Smardon, my major advisor, at Department of Environmental Studies, SUNY-
ESF, 211B Marshall Hall, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, New York 13210, Tel: +1-315-
470-6576, rsmardon@esf.edu. If you have any questions about your rights as a
research participant, you have questions, concerns, or complaints that you wish to
address to someone other than the investigator, if you cannot reach the investigator,
contact the Syracuse University Institutional Review Board at +1-315-443-3013.
All of my questions have been answered, I am over the age of 18 and I wish to
participate in this research study. I have received a copy of this consent form.
___ I agree to be audio taped.
___ I do not agree to be audio taped.

_________________________________________ _________________________
Signature of Participant Date

_________________________________________
Printed Name of Participant

_________________________________________ _________________________
Signature of Researcher Date

_________________________________________
Printed Name of Researcher

228
Resume:

Name: HAROUN-AL-RASHID I. JAJI

Date and Place of Birth: August 9, 1967/Sulu, Philippines

Education:

Name and Location Dates Degree

High School:

Notre Dame of Jolo For Boys, 1982

Sulu, Philippines

College:

Western Mindanao State University, 1987 Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Zamboanga City, Philippines

Philippine Military Academy, 1991 Bachelor of Science

Baguio City, Philippines

Graduate:

University of Melbourne 2002 Master of Water Resources Management

Victoria, Australia

University of the Philippines 2006 Graduate Diploma in Environmental and

Open University, Natural Resources Management
Laguna, Philippines

Maxwell School of Syracuse University, 2010 Certificate of Advanced Study in Conflict

New York, USA Resolution

Maxwell School of Syracuse University, 2011 Executive Masters in Public Administration

New York, USA (International and National Security Policy)

Maxwell School of Syracuse University, 2011 Certificate of Advanced Study in Security

New York, USA Studies

SUNY-ESF, 2011 PhD in Environmental and Natural

New York, USA Resources Policy

Employment:

Employer Dates Job Title

4th Infantry Division, October 16, 2006 – Deputy Chief, Office of the
Philippine Army August 01, 2008 Assistant Chief of Staff for
Intelligence

229
Joint European Union – August 15, 2005 – Field Monitor and Deputy Chief
Association of Southeast Asian September 15, 2006 of Staff
Nations, Aceh (Indonesia)
Monitoring Mission

4th Infantry Division, June 1 - August 13, 2005 Chief, Division Real Estate Office
Philippine Army and Project Officer

4th Infantry Division, July 26, 2004 – June 1, 2005 Deputy Chief, Office of the
Philippine Army Assistant Chief of Staff for
Operations

4th Infantry Division, July 1, 2003 – Chief Operations Branch

Philippine Army September 1, 2004 (Concurrent), Office of the
Assistant Chief of Staff for
Operations

4th Infantry Division,
Philippine Army
July 1, 2003 – February 15, 2005
Chief Division Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF)
Integration Program Affairs
Office, Office of the Assistant
Chief of Staff for Operations

Intelligence Service July 1 – September 15, 1998; Intelligence Officer

Armed Forces of the Philippines April 15, 1999 – March 1, 2000

Military Intelligence Group 12, September 16, 1998 – Operations Officer

Intelligence Service March 15, 1999
Armed Forces of the Philippines

78th Infantry Battalion, September 8, 1995 – Civil-Military Operations Officer

3rd Infantry Division, December 10, 1996
Philippine Army

78th Infantry Battalion, January 7, 1996 – June 25, 1997 Operations and Training Officer
3rd Infantry Division,
Philippine Army

Alpha Company, June 1, 1994 – August 22, 1995 Company Commander

78th Infantry Battalion,
3rd Infantry Division,
Philippine Army

Alpha Company, October 17 - May 07, 1991 Platoon Leader

78th Infantry Battalion,
3rd Infantry Division,
Philippine Army

Fellowships and Grants Received:

Society of American Military Engineers Scholarship Award

Australian Leadership Awards – PhD Scholarship in Australia
Fulbright Fellowship – PhD Scholarship in USA
International Tropical Timber Organization Fellowship Grant
SUNY-ESF Tropical Social Forestry Fund Fellowship Grant

230
Award /Recognition:
Letter of Commendation from Hon. Fidel V. Ramos,
Secretary Department of National Defense and
Chairman of National Disaster Coordinating Council
dated 31 July 1990
Award of the Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation
Operation Ribbon (2 times)
Award of the Philippine Republic Presidential Unit
Citation as member of the cadet Corps Armed
Forces of the Philippines dated 13 September 1990
Philippine Military Academy (PMA) Dean’s List
1987-1991
Highest number of awards with a total of six during
graduation rites of PMA Class 1991( Society of
American Military Engineer Scholarship, Physical
Sciences Plaque, Mathematics Plaque, Tambuli
Plaque, Engineering Sciences Plaque, Philippine
Army Award)
Letter of Congratulations from the Vice President of
the Republic of the Philippines dated 20 February
1991
Award of the Military Merit Medal (13 times)
Award of the Gold Cross Medal dated 21 August
1992
Award of the Military Commendation Medal (5
times)
Award of the Military Civic-Action Medal (3 times)
Award of the Anti-Dissidence Campaign Medal and
Ribbon (4 times)
Award of the Combat Commander’s (Kagitingan)
Badge dated 23 October 1997
Award of the Civil-Military Operations Badge dated
20 October 1998
Citation
For exemplary commitment in the conduct of
rescue and relief operations in Baguio City,
Philippines in the aftermath of the devastating
earthquake that hit the country in July 16, 1990
For active participation in rescue and relief
operations
For extra ordinary achievement during the rescue
and relief operations in Baguio City, Philippines
after the earthquake on July 16, 1990
For obtaining a grade point average of at least
8.5 in all courses of the Academic Group
For garnering the most number of awards in
excellence during graduation ceremony of PMA
Class 1991.
For graduating as the 5th top cadet of PMA Class
1991 and garnering the highest number of
awards in excellence and being the first Tausug
to be in the Top 10 of the graduating class
For meritorious and valuable service in counter-
insurgency campaign
For heroism and gallantry in action as Team
Leader that figured in a highly successful raid
against 10 armed communist terrorists on 02 July
1992
For exemplary efficiency, devotion and loyalty to
duty in counter-insurgency campaign
For exemplary performance in the conduct of civic
actions in the Philippine Archipelago
For services rendered in anti-insurgency
campaign of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
against the enemy of the state
For stint as combat commander in Mindanao,
Philippines
For invaluable services and participation in the
conduct of Civil-Military Operations and law
enforcement in the region
231
Award of the Bronze Cross Medal dated 02 April For act of heroism involving risk of life during the
2000 conduct of intelligence operations which led to the
surrender of Moro Islamic Liberation Front
Commander and thirteen followers

Aceh Monitoring Mission Medal awarded by For professional and dedicated service with Aceh,
Secretary General/High Representative of Indonesia Monitoring Mission from
European Union 14 August 2005 – 15 September 2006

Presidential Award Dharma Nusa from President
Susilo Bambang Yudhuyono of Indonesia dated 26
December 2006
In recognition of participation in the successful
implementation/peace monitoring of Helsinki
MOU/peace agreement between the Gerakan
Aceh Merdeka (GAM)/ Free Aceh Movement and
the Government of Indonesia.

Certificate of Recognition presented by His For having been awarded with the Australian
Excellency Tony Hely, Ambassador of Australia to Leadership Awards- Scholarships
the Philippines dated 06 December 2007

Books/Theses/Articles Written:

Title: Date: Place:

Sedimentation and Pollution 2002 University Of Melbourne,

Management of Yellow River of Victoria, Australia
China (Research Paper)

Empowering the Lumads 2004 4th Infantry Division,

(Indigenous Peoples) in Agusan Del Mindanao, Philippines
Sur, Philippines (Paper - Principal
Author)

Evaluation of Cadre Battalion 2004 4th Infantry Division,

(Article - Principal Author) Mindanao, Philippines

Special Operations Approach to 2005 4th Infantry Division,

Tribal Communities in Caraga Mindanao, Philippines
Region, Philippines (Book -
Principal Author)

The Dismantling of Guerrilla Front 2007 4th Infantry Division,

Committee 8 (Book - Principal Mindanao, Philippines
Author)

The Dismantling of Last Formidable 2008 4th Infantry Division,

Guerrilla Front in Misamis Oriental, Mindanao, Philippines
Philippines (Book - Principal Author)

232