Earth Science REVIEWER
RICHTER SCALE - The scale of measure used to calculate the magnitude
A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative
impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual
occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a
community.
The term "geological processes" describes the natural forces that shape
the physical makeup of a planet.
EARTHQUAKE – A sudden and violent shaking of the ground that creates
seismic waves, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of
movements within the earth's crust (tectonic plates) or volcanic action. It is a
natural phenomenon resulting from the release of accumulated stress along
fault lines. Earthquakes can occur along plate boundaries, where tectonic
plates interact, or within the interior of tectonic plates. Earthquakes cannot
be predicted. No one knows when or where it will occur.
EPICENTRE - The location on the Earth's surface directly above the
earthquake focus, which is the origin of the earthquake. News stories often
mention the epicenter, not the locus, of a quake.
FOCUS - Also called the hypocentre, the focus is the point within the Earth's
crust where rocks begin to slipand fracture along a fault. This releases
energy, causing an earthquake.
FAULT LINE - Faults are breaks in the Earth's crust. The fault shownisa
'strike-slip like the San Andreas Fault in California, US, where two crustslabs
slide horizontally
Two Types of Earthquakes
Tectonic Earthquake - Are produced by sudden movement along faults and
plate boundaries.
Volcanic Earthquake - Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma
beneath active volcanoes.
SEISMOLOGY - Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves
that move through and around the Earth.
SEISMOGRAPH - The magnitude of an earthquake is measured by an
instrument called seismograph.
of an earthquake is called the Richter Scale. Charles F. Richter developed
the original earthquake scale in 1935 called the Richter scale.
TURKEY AND SYRIA EARTHQUAKE - On February 6, 2023, a powerful
earthquake devastated vast areas of southern Turkey (officially the Republic
of Türkiye) and war-torn northwest Syria, leaving millions of people in the
region struggling to rebuild their lives. The situation in northwest Syria has
worsened since the disaster, with affected communities enduring immense
challenges: displacement, hunger and malnutrition, lack of access to
healthcare, and fires caused by extreme summer heat. Millions of people still
grappling with the aftermath of the destruction face a deteriorating
humanitarian crisis.
2022 Luzon Earthquake - July 27, 2022, at 8:43am, magnitude of 7.0 Mw
with an epicenter in Abra province. Eleven people were reported dead and
615 were injured. At least 35,798 homes, schools and other buildings were
damaged or destroyed, resulting in ₱1.88 billion worth of damage.
Effects of Earthquake
• Ground shaking
• Soil Liquefaction
• Landslide
• Fissures
• Tsunamis
VOLCANIC ERUPTION - A volcanic eruption is when a gas and/or lava are
released from a volcano—sometimes explosively. Volcanoes provide a
number of environmental benefits, for example: fertile soils, hydrothermal
energy, and precious minerals.
A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rock below
the surface of the earth.
Volcanoes are majestic natural wonders that captivate our imagination and
shape the landscapes around us. Volcanoes are openings of the Earth’s
surface.
Magma – a mixture of molten and semi-molten rock found beneath the
surface of the Earth.
Lava – magma that has reached the Earth’s surface
Magma chamber – is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the
Earth.
Conduit - is the central that sometimes called a pipe.
Crater – the uppermost section of the main vent.
What causes a volcanic eruption?
Typically, for an eruption to occur, enough magma must accumulate in the
chamber under the volcano. Then something needs to trigger the eruption.
That could be an injection of new magma into the chamber, a build-up of
gasses within the volcano, or a landslide that removes material from the top
of a volcano.
Process of Volcanic Eruptions
1. Magma is continuously heated below the surface (asthenosphere)
2. Heated magma goes up
3. Enhanced formation of bubbles
4. As magma rises, gas bubbles are developed pressure inside the
volcano increases due to trapped bubbles within
5. When pressure exceeds the strength of overlying rocks, fracturing
occurs resulting in a further drop in pressure
6. Magma ejected out as a lava
TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Icelandic Eruption - Volcanic eruptions produce runny lava that floods the
Earth's surface through long cracks called fissures, which can be up to 15
miles long.
Hawaiian Eruption - Volcanic eruptions characterized by numerous fissures
result in large quantities of hot, thin, and runny lava that flows rapidly out of
the main vent.
Strombolian Eruption - Short, explosive eruptions shoot thick and pasty lava,
steam, and gas into the air, producing little to no lava. The resulting steep-
sided cone is called a cinder cone.
Vulcanian Eruption - Vulcanian eruptions are more explosive than Hawaiian
and Strombolian eruptions. They are characterized by the ejection of large
amounts of ash, gas and rock fragments in to the air.
Stratovolcanoes Eruption - The most common type of volcanic cone, first the
volcano will have an explosive eruption that ejects huge amounts of steam,
gas, and ash followed by the ejection of lava. They are created from a
combination of eruptions forming layers of ash and lava.
Pelean Eruption - During a Pelean eruption, the volcanic vent can become
blocked by viscous magma, causing a buildup of pressure that is released in
a violent explosion.
Plinian Eruption - The most powerful eruption type, with a towering ash cloud
reaching up to 50,000 feet (about 10 miles) in height, and extremely
dangerous pyroclastic flows.
TRIVIAS AND FACTS:
1. There are about 1,500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide, aside from
the continuous belts of volcanoes on the ocean floor.
2. The world's largest volcano, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, is an active shield
volcano. It's so large that it actually makes up more than half of the entire
area of the Big Island of Hawaii!
3. The deadliest volcanic eruption in history is believed to be the eruption of
Mount Tambora in Indonesia in 1815. It killed about 100,000 people.
4. Volcanoes can form new islands. For example, the Hawaiian Islands were
formed by undersea volcanoes that erupted thousands of times over a period
of millions of years!
5. Volcanic ash can be a major hazard. It can cause roofs to collapse,
contaminate water supplies, disrupt agriculture, and even cause respiratory
problems.
6. Volcanoes can have a major impact on the climate. Large eruptions can
release tiny particles that can reflect sunlight, cooling the Earth's surface.
7. The word "volcano" comes from the name of the Roman god of fire,
Vulcan.
8. There are different types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes, cinder cone
volcanoes, composite volcanoes (or stratovolcanoes), and lava domes.
9. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, and those who study them
are known as volcanologists.
10. Some volcanoes are under the sea. These are known as submarine
volcanoes, and they can create quite dramatic eruptions!
Primary and Secondary Effects of Volcanic Eruptions
• Floods
• Mudslides
• Power Outages
• Wildfires
• Volcanic Gases
• Pyroclastic Flow
• Lava Flows
• Lahars
• Food/water supply interrupted
• Cost of insurance claims
• Unemployment
• Long-term issues with the tourism industry
Composite Volcano - Built up of alternating
layers of rock particles and lava. The magma
inside a composite volcano is rich in silica
and much thicker than magma from a shield
volcano.
Eruptions from composite volcanoes can be
flowing lava or explosions. The explosive
eruptions come from the trapped gases and
produce cinders and ash.
Cinder Cone Volcano - Made mostly of
cinders and other rock particles that have
been blown into the air. Eruptions from
cinder cone volcanoes are violent and
explosive because of all the gas trapped in
the magma.
Shield Volcano - Composed of mostly
quiet lava flows. The magma inside a shield
volcano is rich in iron and magnesium and is
very fluid.
Since the magma is very fluid, the lava
coming out of the volcano tends to
flow great distances.
LANDSLIDE - A typhoon is a large, powerful, and organized tropical storm
characterized by strong winds.
In the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans, the term 'hurricane' is
used, whereas in the Northwest Pacific Ocean they are called 'typhoons. '
The name 'tropical cyclone' – or sometimes 'severe tropical cyclone' or
'severe cyclonic storm' – is used in the South Pacific and Indian oceans.
Low Pressure Area - In a depression (low pressure), air is rising and blows
in an anticlockwise direction around the low (in the northern hemisphere). As
it rises and cools, water vapour condenses to form clouds and perhaps
precipitation. This is why the weather in a depression is often unsettled.
High Pressure Area - In an anticyclone (high pressure) the winds tend to be
light and blow in a clockwise direction (in the northern hemisphere). Also, the
air is descending, which reduces the formation of cloud and leads to light
winds and settled weather conditions.
EYE – CENTER It is the calm part of the storm. Area with the lowest air
pressure, which can be as much as 15% lower than the pressure outside it.
EYE WALL - SURROUNDING THE EYE Where the severe weather occurs.
Innermost ring of convection near the center of the typhoon, packing the
fiercest rains and most intense winds.
INNER (RAIN) BANDS - FOUND OUTSIDE OF THE EYE WALL Arching
bands of clouds and thunderstorms that spiral out of the eye wall. – NOAA
Rain and winds are often associated with these bands.
Also referred to as “buntot ng bagyo”.
OUTER (FEEDER) BANDS - FOUND OUTSIDE OF THE RAIN BANDS
Occur in advance of the main rain shield. In thunderstorm development, they
are the lines or bands of low-level clouds that move or feed into the updraft
region of a thunderstorm.
Meteorologist - A scientist who study weather. They can tell when and where
a typhoon might begin by studying the temperature over the ocean in areas
where these storms are likely form.
Meteorology - Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which
include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather
forecasting.
Weather Radar - Very important to meteorologist because it can detect rain
and severe weather even when it is cloudy or dark.
PAGASA - The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA) - Conducts research and development
projects related to atmospheric and allied data.
Typhoons are categorized based on their sustained wind speeds. The Saffir-
Simpson scale, often used for hurricanes, categorizes them from Category
1 (weakest) to Category 5 (strongest).
Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) - This is the smallest and
innermost monitoring domain, whose boundary is closest to the Philippine
Islands. Tropical Cyclones inside the PAR warrants the issuance of Severe
Weather Bulletin, the highest level of warning information issued for tropical
cyclones.
BIGGEST STORM EVER – 1979 Near Micronesia (Western Pacific)
TYPHOON SAOLA - Most severe typhoon to make landfall in the Philippines
in the past 12 months. According to the internationally accepted Saffir-
Simpson classification, this corresponded to a category 4 typhoon.
TYPHOON GLENDA - When Glenda hit in 2014, it sustained wind speeds of
up to 140 kilometers per hour and ended up affecting Regions I, III, IV-A, IV-
B, V, VIII, and the National Capital Region.
TYPHOON ONDOY - Former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo described
Ondoy as a “once-in-a-lifetime typhoon” when it hit the Philippines.
TYPHOON EGAY JULY 2023 - Five people have been reported killed while
more than 325,000 people have been affected by Typhoon Egay
(international name: Doksuri) and the southwest monsoon, the National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) said.
In a situation report released Thursday, the NDRRMC said the typhoon had
affected 328,356 people or 89,639 families. This included 26,697 displaced
persons and 19,826 people staying in various evacuation centers.
LANDSLIDE - A landslide which is also known as a "landslip" is a geological
phenomenon that includes huge ground movement such as rock falls and
etc. This movement can be triggered by various factors, including heavy
rainfall, seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, or human activities.
• a mass movement of rocks, soil, or debris down a slope.
• a type of 'mass wasting' that goes down a slope with the influence of gravity.
Rotational Slide - Rotational slides, also known as "slumps", are a type of
landslide where a mass of soil and rock moves in a rotational manner along
a curved surface. This typically occurs due to saturation from rainfall, which
reduces the friction between the layers of soil and rock.
Translational Slide - Translational slides are landslides in which a mass of
soil and rock moves horizontally along a well-defined surface. This
movement is typically caused by weakened ground conditions, making the
slope unstable.
Rock Fall - Rock fall is a type of landslide that involves individual rocks or
boulders detaching from a steep rock face or cliff and falling due to factors
like weathering, seismic activity, or freeze-thaw cycles.
Rock Toppling - Rock toppling occurs when large rocks or boulders tip over
from a vertical position. This often happens due to factors like erosion,
weathering, or seismic events.
Lateral Spread - Lateral spreading is a type of landslide where the layers of
soil and rock move horizontally. This phenomenon is typically associated
with liquefaction, which occurs when water-saturated sediments temporarily
lose their strength during an earthquake.
Debris Flow - Debris flow is a fast-moving mixture of water, soil, and rock
that rushes down steep slopes. It is often triggered by heavy rainfall,
snowmelt, or volcanic eruptions, and it can behave like a fluid, carrying
debris with it.
Effects of Landslide

• Loss of life
• Damaged Property
• Environmental Impact
• Economic Loss
The deadliest landslide ever recorded in the history happened in 1556 in the
Shaanxi province of China, claiming approximately 830,000 lives.
That before, to determine whether there will be a landslide or other disasters,
the base it on the behavior of animals. If animals were seen fleeing an area,
it was taken as a sign of impending disaster.