MAT 152 | Mathematics in the Modern World | P2 Reviewer

Collecting and presenting data is very important, knowing that all scientific facts are
supported by true data.
Types of Data Presentation

DATA PRESENTATION
TEXTUAL TABULAR GRAPHICAL
▪ Text, Phrases, ▪ Horizontal and ▪ Lines, Bars, Pictures
Paragraphs Vertical forms
▪ Narrative in nature ▪ Most effective way of ▪ Easily catches
showing relationship attention

▪ Textual presentation is effective if the data to be presented is very minimal or limited

to fewer variables.
▪ Tabular presentation is much better to used when the values are numeric and
independent. It is easy to evaluate the comparisons of the values, rather than when
written in paragraph form.
Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
The frequency distribution is a tabulation or grouping of data into appropriate categories or
classes showing the number of observations in each group or class.

Characteristics/Properties of FDT:
1. Class intervals, CI (First column)
- Left side are called lower limits
- Right side are called upper limits
2. Number of Classes, K
3. Size of class interval (width), C
4. Frequency (Second column) – these are the numbers of observations
that fall within specified class interval.

Sample:

STEPS
1. Find the range (R) of the data:
- (largest - smallest numbers) Ex: R = 68 – 11 = 57 (R)

2. Decide the approximate number of classes:

- Using Sturges Formula = K = (1 + 3.322logN)
(N is the total number of data)

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 - K = (1 + 3.322logN) = K (1 + 3.322log48) = 1 + 5.585 = 6.585 = 7

3. Determine the approximate class interval size (C):

- Dividing the range of the data by number of classes.
- C = R/K = 57/ 7 = 8.143 = 8

Summarize the 1st 3 steps:

R - 57 K-7 C-8

4. 1st Column of the FDT

- Create the Class Intervals (c.i). Set the lowest number as the starting point.
- Class intervals consist of end numbers called lower and upper limits.
- Always include in the counting the smallest value, 11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18, So there
are 8 in all, which is the C or class size required.

5. 2nd Column of the FDT

- Tally the raw data to identify the frequency.

6. 3rd Column of the FDT

- Class frequency (f) the number of data that belong to its class interval. The total of
the frequency column must be equal to the number of observations or sample size (n).
- The number of tally and frequency is just the same

7. 4th and 5th Column of the FDT

- Determine the LCB and UCB. *see the values on the table
- Class boundaries are the numbers used to separate class without gaps created by
class limits.
- Lower Class Boundary (LCB) – is the middle value between the lower class limit
and the upper class limit of the preceding class. (deduct 0.5)
- Upper Class Boundary (UCB) – is the middle value between the upper class limit
and the lower class limit of the next class. (add 0.5)

8. 6th Column of the FDT

- Determine the class mark. This is the average or midpoint of the upper limit and lower
limit.
- Class mark (CM) can be found by adding the lower and upper limits and then dividing it
by 2.

9. 7th and 8th Column of the FDT

- Cumulate the Frequency means you need to add-up the frequencies of each class
interval.
- Cumulative frequency “less than”(<CF) – is obtained by adding the frequencies
successively from the lowest to the highest interval .
- Cumulative frequency “greater than”(>CF) – is obtained by adding the frequencies
successively from the highest to the lowest class interval.

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 10. 9th Column of the FDT
- Determine the relative frequency of each class interval by dividing the frequency of the
interval by the total number of observations.
- Relative frequency percentage (RF%) is the frequency divided by the total
frequency and multiplied by 100 to express in percentage form.

Graphs
- common method to visually illustrate relationships in data.
- The purpose of a graph is to present the data that are too numerous or complicated to
describe adequately in the text and in less space.
- enable us in studying the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables.

Graphical presentation
- a way of analyzing numerical data. It exhibits the relation between data, ideas,
information and concepts in a diagram.

Different types of graphical representation

Bar Graph Line Graph Pie Chart Pictograph

• Uses solid • Information of • Circle divided • A way of
bars to is connected into slices to showing data
represent in some way illustrate using images
quantities • Effective for numerical • A fun and
• Effective for continuous proportion interesting
discrete variable • Each part way to show
variables • Multiple line represents a data, but it is
• Multiple bar graph for percentage of not very
graph for comparing the total. accurate
comparing figures of two • A good way to • Can be
figures of two or more show relative vertical or
or more categories sizes horizontal
categories

General Rules for Graphic Presentation of Data and Information

1) Suitable Title – Should clearly indicates the subject for which you are presenting it.
2) Unit of Measurement – Clearly state the unit of measurement.
3) Suitable Scale – To represent the entire data in an accurate manner.
4) Index – Explains the different colors and shades, lines and designs and include a scale of
interpretation.
5) Data Sources – Wherever possible, include the sources of information at the bottom of the
graph.
6) Simple and Neat – Easy to understand and attractive to the eyes

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Measures of central tendency
- mean, median and mode.
Mean Median Modal

A. Ungrouped Data
Find the mean, median, and mode for the following list of values:
8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 13

Solution:
Mean: (8 + 9 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 12 + 13) ÷ 10 = 105 ÷ 10 = 10.5
Median = (10 + 11) ÷ 2 = 21 ÷ 2 = 10.5
Mode = 10 and 11 (this is called a bi-modal distribution)

B. Grouped Data
Consider the FDT of the urine amylase of 42 patients. Solve for the mean, median, and mode.
Round-off your answer to two decimal places.

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Measure of dispersion
- shows how scattered the data are. It tells the variation of the data from one another and
gives a clear idea about the distribution of the data.

The Range is also a measure of dispersion: R = Highest Value – Lowest Value

The Variance and the Standard Deviation.

Let’s have a look and compare the scores Sophia and Daff in the recent 4 summative
tests by solving the mean, range, variance and standard deviation.

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The normal distribution is a probability function that describes how the values of a variable
are distributed. It is a symmetric distribution where most of the observations cluster around the
central peak and the probabilities for values further away from the mean taper off equally in both
directions.

The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution and several implications

are:

The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1.

The probability that a normal random variable X equals any particular value is 0.
The probability that X is greater than a equals the area under the normal curve
bounded by a and plus infinity (as indicated by the non-shaded area in the figure below).
The probability that X is less than a equals the area under the normal curve bounded
by a and minus infinity (as indicated by the shaded area in the figure below).

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Additionally, every normal curve (regardless of its mean or standard deviation) conforms to the
following "rule".
About 68% of the area under the curve falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
About 95% of the area under the curve falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
About 99.7% of the area under the curve falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
Collectively, these points are known as the empirical rule or the 68-95-99.7 rule. Clearly, given
a normal distribution, most outcomes will be within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Standard Normal Table (z-score Table)

• To calculate the area under the normal curve, we use the standard normal or z-score table
• In a z-score table, found in the last pages of this module, the left most column tells you how
many standard deviations above the mean to 1 decimal place, the top row gives the second
decimal place, and the intersection of a row and column gives the probability.

Steps in Calculating Probabilities under Normal Curve

1. Translate the problem into one of the following: (z < a), (z > a) or (a < z < b).
2. Draw a picture of normal curve. Shade in the area of the given probability P on the picture.
This will help you to visualize the problem.
3. Standardize a (and/or b) to a z-score using the z-formula if it is not yet standardized.
4. Look up the z-score on the Z-table and find its corresponding probability.

Correlation coefficients are used in statistics to measure how strong a relationship is

between two variables (at least an interval scale). Pearson’s correlation (also called
Pearson-r) is a correlation coefficient commonly used in linear relationship.

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Example:

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Regression analysis constitutes an important part of a statistical analysis to explore and
model the relationship between variables. It helps in predicting the value of a dependent
variable based on the values of the independent variables.

Regression analysis is used when predicting the behavior of a variable. The regression
equation explains the amount of variations observable in the in the independent variable x. It is
actually an equation of a line, meaning to say that there should be a significant linear
relationship between the variables.

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