INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

Aristotle –

Copernicus –

Catastrophism –

 James Ussher –

Uniformitarianism –

 James Hutton –

 Theory of the Earth –

“Physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today have also operated the geologic past.”

Geologic Time

 Relative dating
o Laws of Superposition

o Laws of Cross-cutting relations

o Laws of Lateral Community

o Laws of Original Horizontality

 Inclusions
 Principles of Fossil Succession
 Unconformities
GEOLOGY vs EARTH SCIENCES vs GEOSCIENCES

What is Earth Science?

 Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets formed at essentially the same time.
 Nebular Hypothesis
 o The solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula.
o The nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.
o About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began to contract.
o It assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.
o Inner planets begin to form from metallic and rocky clumps.
o Larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a high percentage of ices.

 Layers Form on Earth

o As Earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to increase.
o Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the surface.
o Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the primitive atmosphere.

A view of Earth – Spheres of the Earth

1. Hydrosphere
o Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere.
- Is nearly 71% of Earth's surface.
- Holds about 97% of Earth's water.
o Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found underground.
 2. Atmosphere
o Thin, tenuous blanket of air.
o One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles).

3. Biosphere
o Includes all life.
o Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere.

A view of Earth

 Plate tectonics is the theory that proposes that Earth’s outer shell consists of individual plates that interact in various ways and thereby
produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and Earth’s crust itself.

Representing the Earth’s surface – Maps

 Latitude and longitude are lines on the globe that are used to determine location.
o Latitude is distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.
o Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees.
 No matter what kind of map is made, some portion of the surface will always look either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers have,
however, found ways to limit the distortion of shape, size, distance, and direction.
  Topographic maps represent Earth’s surface in three dimensions; they show elevation, distance directions, and slope angles.

o Contour lines are lines on a topographic

map that indicates an elevation.
o Contour interval is the distance in elevation between adjacent contour lines.

Earth System System

 A system is any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.
 Closed systems are self-contained (e.g., an automobile cooling system).
 Open systems allow both energy and matter to flow in and out of the system (e.g., a river system).
 Earth is a dynamic body with many separate but highly interacting parts or spheres.
 Earth system science studies Earth as a system that is composed of numerous parts, or subsystems.
 Sources of Energy
o Sun—drives external processes such as weather, ocean circulation and erosional processes.
o Earth’s interior—drives internal processes including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building.
 Geosciences Specialties
• Geophysics
• Geochemistry
• Petroleum geology
• Economic geology
• Hydrogeology and hydrology
• Engineering geology
• Environmental geology
• Seismolaogy
• Geochronology
• Geomorphology
• Planetary geology or cosmogeology
• Glaciology
• Marine geology
• Mineralogy
• Paleontology
• Petrology
• Sedimentology and stratigraphy
• Structural geology
• Volcanology

Lesson 1: Minerals and Matter

Matter
- elements are the basic building blocks of minerals.
- over 100 elements are known.
- smallest particles of matter.
- have all the characteristics of an element.
- the nucleus is the central part of an atom and contains:
 protons – positive electrical charges.
 neutrons – neutral electrical charges.

Modern Atomic Theory 4. The distinguishing feature of an atom of a given

 A simplified description of modern atomic theory
includes the following fundamental concepts:
1. An atom is the smallest fraction of an element that
can exist and still show the characteristics of that
element.
2. The main building blocks of an atom are protons,
neutrons, and electrons, although many other
subatomic particles have been identified in recent
years.
3. A typical atom consists of a nucleus of protons and
element is the number of protons in the nucleus.
The number of electrons and neutrons in an atom
of a given element can vary but the number of
protons is constant.
5. Normally atoms are electrically neutral because
they have one negatively charged electron for each
positively charged proton.
6. Electrically charged atoms, called ions, are
produced by the gain or loss of electrons.
7. Isotopes, which are varieties of a given atom
 neutrons and a cloud of electrons surrounding the (element), are produced by variations in the
nucleus. number of neutrons in the nucleus.
8. Atoms combine, mostly through ionic or covalent
bonding, to form minerals

States of Matter c.) Gas - if a liquid is heated, the motion of the particles
a.) Solid - atoms are arranged in a rigid framework. The increases, and individual atoms or molecules become
arrangement in crystalline solids is a regular, repeating, separated as they move about at high speeds,
three-dimensional pattern called a crystal structure but transforming matter into gas. The individual atoms or
in amorphous solids the atomic arrangement is random. molecules are separated by empty spaces and are
Each atom occupies a fixed position but has a vibrating comparatively far apart. This explains why gases can
motion. be markedly compressed and can exert pressure.
b.) Liquid – heating a solid cause an increase in the
vibration of the solid, and atoms move farther apart.
Eventually they become free and can glide past one
another, but they are held together by forces of
attraction. Melting ensues, and the solid matter passes
into the liquid state.

Phase changes in water as a function of pressure and temperature

Matter
- energy levels, or shells.
 surround the nucleus.
 contains electrons-negative charged particles.
- The atomic number is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
- Isotopes of an element have the same number of
protons but varying numbers of neutrons.
- Have different mass numbers: the sum of the
neutrons plus protons.
- Many isotopes are radioactive and emit energy and
particles.
- The mass number is the number of neutrons and
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Matter – Atomic Bonds
- When an atom’s outermost energy level does not
contain the maximum number of electrons, the
atom is likely to form a chemical bond with one or
more atoms.
 A compound consists of two or more
elements that are chemically combined in
specific proportions.
 An ion is an atom that gains or loses
electrons.
1. Ionic bonds form between positive and negative
ions.
2. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons.
3. Metallic bonds form when metal ions share
electrons.

Minerals
1. Naturally occurring
2. Solid substance
3. Orderly crystalline structure
4. Definite chemical composition
5. Generally considered inorganic

Minerals
1. Crystallization from magma/lava
2. Precipitation
3. Pressure and temperature
 4. Hydrothermal solutions

Minerals
- Can be classified based on their composition:
1. Silicates
Silicon and oxygen combine to form a structure
called the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. This
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron provides the
framework of every silicate mineral.

2. Carbonates - minerals that contain the

elements carbon, oxygen, and one or more
other metallic elements.
3. Oxides - minerals that contain oxygen and one
or more other elements, which are usually
metals.
4. Sulfates and Sulfides - minerals that contain
the element sulfur.
5. Halides - minerals that contain a halogen ion
plus one or more other elements.
Gypsum – CaSO4 + H2O Molybdenite – MoS2
6. Native elements - minerals that exist in
relatively pure form.

Dolomite – MgCaCO3 Magnetite – Fe3O4 Native Cu Fluorite – CaF 2

Properties of Matters

 Color - small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral different colors.
 L- Amethyst: Quartz with Fe Impurities
R- Quartz with no impurities
 Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form.

Hematite with streak on streak plate

 Luster is used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.

 Crystal form is the visible expression of a mineral’s internal arrangement of atoms.

 Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being scratched.

 Mohs scale consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest).
  Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat, even surfaces.

Mica – Cleavage in one direction Quartz – no cleavage, conchoidal fracturing.

Minerals that do not show cleavage when broken are said to fracture.
 Fracture - the uneven breakage of a mineral.
 Density – is a property of all matter that is the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume.

Quartz –SiO : ~2.65g/cm3 Galena –PbS: ~7.6g/cm3

2

 Some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive properties.

Fluorite – Fluoresence Quartz – Piezoelectric Halite – Salty Sulfur – Distinct smell

MATERIALS OF THE EARTH – ELEMENTS, MINERALS AND ROCKS

 Cave of Crystals – Naica Mexico (Gypsum Megacrysts)

Destruction of Crystals

Minerals dissolve, or melt, by removal of outer atoms from the crystal structure, so the matter returns to a fluid state (liquid or gas). The
heat that causes a crystal to melt increases atomic vibrations enough to break the bonds holding an atom to the crystal structure.
Similarly, atoms can be “pried” loose and carried away by a solvent, usually (in geologic processes) water. The breakdown, or
dissolution, of a crystal begins at the surface and moves inward.

Heat and pressure cause some crystal structures to collapse and new minerals with a more dense, compact atomic structure to form in
their place.

Compression of atoms in a mineral.

Relative Abundance of the Most Common Elements in the Crust

Elements Approximate percentage by weight

oxygen, O 46.6
silicon, Si 27.7
aluminum, Al 8.1
iron, Fe 5
calcium, Ca 3.6
sodium, Na 2.8
potassium, K 2.6
magnesium 2.1
 all others 1.5

THE MOST COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERALS

1. FELDSPAR
2. QUARTZ
3. OLIVINE
4. PYROXENE
5. AMPHIBOLE
6. MICA
7. CLAY
8. CALCITE

Lesson 2: Rocks
 Rocks are the naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, organic matter, and mineraloids.
 Categorized by its genesis, mineral assemblage/chemical composition, texture.
The Rock Cycle
Rocks are any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter occurring naturally as
part of our planet.
 Types of Rocks
1. Igneous rock is formed by the crystallization of molten magma.
2. Sedimentary rock is formed from the weathered products of
preexisting rocks that have been transported, deposited,
compacted, and cemented.
3. Metamorphic rock is formed by the alteration of pre-existing
rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically
active fluids.
 Shows the interrelationships among the three rock types (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic).
 Magma is molten material that forms deep beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
 Weathering is a process in which rocks are broken down by water, air, and living things.
 Sediment is weathered pieces of Earth elements.

The Rock Cycle – Energy that drives the rock cycle

 Processes driven by heat from the Earth’s interior are responsible
for forming both igneous rock and metamorphic rock.
 Weathering and the movement of weathered materials are
external processes powered by energy from the sun.
 External processes produce sedimentary rocks.

Igneous Rocks

1. Intrusive igneous rocks – formed when magma hardens beneath

Earth’s surface.

2. Extrusive igneous rocks – formed when lava hardens.

Igneous rocks can be classified based on their composition and texture.

1. Texture
 Coarse-grained texture is caused by slow cooling resulting in larger crystals. Phaneritic
  Fine-grained texture is caused by rapidcooling resulting in smaller, interconnected mineral grains.
Aphanitic
 Glassy texture is caused by very rapid cooling.
 Porphyritic texture is caused by different rates of cooling resulting in varied sized minerals.

2. Composition
 Granitic composition rocks are made
mostlyof light-colored quartz and
feldspar.

 Andesitic composition rocks are

between granitic light-color minerals
and basaltic composition dark-colored
minerals.

 Basaltic composition rocks are made

mostly of dark-colored silicate
minerals and plagioclase feldspar.

 Ultramafic composition rocks are

made mostlyfrom iron and
magnesium-rich minerals.
Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphism means “to change
form.”
 Most metamorphic changes occur at
elevated temperatures and pressures.
 Conditions for formation are found a
few kilometers below the Earth’s
surface and extend into the upper
mantle.

Metamorphic Rocks – Formation of Igneous Rocks

 Contact metamorphism occurs when
magma moves into rock.
- Occurs near a body of magma.
- Changes are driven by a rise in
temperature.
- Creates a contact aureole.

 Regional metamorphism results in large-scale deformation and high-grade metamorphism.

- Directed pressures and high temperatures occur during mountain building.
- Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock
.
 Dynamic Metamorphism – Occurs on shear zones, during plastic conditions.

Metamorphic Facies

Metamorphic Rocks – Agents

 Heat
o Provides the energy needed
to drive chemical reactions.
 Pressure
o Causes a more compact
rock with greater density.
 Hydrothermal Solutions
o Hot water-based solutions
escaping from the mass of
magma.
o Promote recrystallization by
dissolving original minerals
and then depositing new
ones.

Origin of Pressure in Metamorphism

 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Two main categories
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rock
• Has a banded or layered appearance.
2. Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock
• Does not have a banded texture.

Foliated Metamorhpic Rocks in increasing metamorphism

Non-foliated rocks
Classification of Major Metamorphic Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
 Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
o Erosion involves the weathering and the removal
of rock.
o Weathering is the breaking down of pre-existing
rocks.
o Deposition occurs when an agent of erosion—
water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy and
drops sediments.
o Residual / Insitu deposits that formed essentially
in place by disintegration of coarse crystalline
rocks, skips the transportation phase of erosion.
 Compact and Cementation
o Compaction is a process that squeezes, or
compacts, sediments.
o Cementation takes place when dissolved
minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among
the sediments.
  Diagenesis
o Process that involves water-rock interactions, microbial activity, and compaction after deposition.

Terrigenous Constituents
 These sediments are derived from terrestrial environment.
 From any rock type, including older sedimentary rocks.
 Ranges from Gravel to Mud.
 Transported as solids.
 Mainly silicates – also called as “Siliciclastic” grains.
 Fe-Oxides and clay minerals are often found as results of recombination and crystallization from parent rocks during
weathering.

Two Main Groups

1. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of weathered bits of rocks and minerals.
o Classified by particle size.

• Common rocks include

- Shale
- Mudstone
- Siltstone
- Sandstone
- Conglomerate
- Breccia

Chemical/Biochemical
 Derived from the precipitates.
 Soluble constituents e.g. calcite, gypsum.
 Examples are ooids and pellets.
 Includes limestones, cherts, evaporites, phospherites.
Carbonaceous
 Composed of carbonized residues of terrestrial plants and animals, and petroleum bitumen
• Humic – woody residue of plant tissues, most constituents of coal.

• Sapropelic – spores, pollen, phyto- and zooplanktons, and macerated plant debris in water; constituents of
cannel coals and oil shales.
 • Bitumens – solid, asphaltic residue form from petroleum through the loss of volatiles, oxidation and
polymerization.

Authigenic Constituents

 These are secondary constituents.

 Often a result of precipitation from pore waters during burial diagenesis.

2. Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved substances precipitate, or separate, from water.
Common rocks include:
- limestone—most abundant chemical rock.
- microcrystalline quartz known as chert, flint, jasper, or agate.
- evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum.
- coal
 Features of sedimentary rocks are clues to how and where the rocks are formed.
• Fossils are remains of organisms preserved in rocks, at least 10,000 years old.
• Petroleum, some sedimentary rocks can store petroleum and natural gases from buried microorganisms.