Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041

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Advances in Bamboo Science

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/advances-in-bamboo-science

Influence of the outer skin on the flexural properties and thermal

conductivity of densified Dendrocalamus asper bamboo☆
A.D. de Sá a, M. Kadivar a, b, *, G.H.A. Barbirato a, A. Tarverdi a, S. Kadivar a, L.M. do Amaral a,
H. Savastano Júnior a
a
University of São Paulo, Materials Science and Engineering Graduate Program, Brazil
b
BamBuild company, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, the effect of densification and the maintenance of the outer skin on the flexural properties and
Densification thermal conductivity of Dendrocalamus asper Backer ex K.Heyne bamboo was investigated. The results showed
Mechanical characterization improvements in bending resistance for the densified samples compared to the un-densified bamboo. Densified
Thermal Conductivity
samples with the outer skin showed the highest bending strength. Samples with the outer culm wall in
Influence of outer skin of bamboo
compression offered the best results, with an average modulus of rupture (MOR) of around 348.9 MPa and
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of 28.4 GPa. These values are around 40% and 86% (MOR), and 17% and 30%
(MOE) higher compared to densified samples without the skin and un-densified samples, respectively. The
fracture sections of specimens after bending tests were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to
visualize crack propagation within the outer skin and bamboo tissues. Maintaining the skin increases the thermal
conductivity, and the densified bamboo with the skin has a thermal conductivity of around 0.23 W/m.K, 12.8%
higher than the densified bamboo without skin and 22.5% higher than un-densified bamboo. Although a
reduction in thermal performance was achieved, it was concluded that is reasonable to keep the bamboo skin, as
it improves the overall mechanical resistance and reduces material loss during bamboo processing.

1. Introduction that layer (Kadivar et al., 2019).

Nowadays, the importance of improving construction in the context
of environmentally friendly materials advances along with technology.
To make this scenario effective, the use of alternative materials is
necessary. Bamboo is an interesting option, as it is renewable, perennial,
and has great agricultural potential and a fast growth rate. It also ab­
sorbs large amounts of carbon rapidly and can be planted in tropical,
subtropical and some temperate climates (Ghavami, 2016; Zhang et al.,
2002). Besides having several applications, bamboo is a material whose
outstanding mechanical properties represent great potential that re­
mains to be explored by engineers (Chang et al., 2018).
Bamboo has a functionally graded structure, and its wall is composed
of outer, middle and inner layers. The difference between these three
layers is mostly related to the fibre volume fraction and the bulk density
(Kadivar et al., 2020; Li and Shen, 2011). A higher fibre volume fraction
(Fig. 1) means a higher density and a better mechanical performance in
Some modern processing treatments such as lamination and densi­
fication can further extend bamboo strength and applications. These
technologies are used to modify the geometric structure of bamboo to
take advantage of its technical properties and produce a more versatile
material (Sharma et al., 2015). The process of lamination eliminates the
natural curvature by using woodworking machinery, which removes the
outermost (skin) and innermost layers of the bamboo slats (López,
2003). The densification process presses bamboo in the radial direction,
maintaining the skin and redesigning the fibre structure, subsequently
leading to a rise in the density and enhancing the physical and me­
chanical performance of the bamboo (Kadivar et al., 2020). When
densification is accompanied by a flattening process, it transfers the
curvature to a flat shape. This process can be applied either in an open or
closed system by controlling the temperature, pressure, and time.
However, these treatments can also lead to certain drawbacks in the
dimensional stability of bamboo. Kadivar et al. (2021) applied

☆
This article is part of a special issue entitled: “Special issue on Future uses of bamboo” published at the journal Advances in Bamboo Science.
* Corresponding author at: University of São Paulo, Materials Science and Engineering Graduate Program, Brazil.
E-mail address: kadivar.ma@usp.br (M. Kadivar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bamboo.2023.100041
Received 12 March 2023; Received in revised form 3 August 2023; Accepted 7 August 2023
Available online 9 August 2023
2773-1391/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.D. de Sá et al. Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041

Fig. 1. Bamboo cross section layers

(adapted from Kadivar et al., 2020).

Fig. 2. The preparation procedure for the densified and laminated bamboo samples.

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A.D. de Sá et al. Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041

Fig. 3. Bamboo orientation and setup for bending test.

Fig. 4. Regions of scanning electron microscope analysis.

thermo-mechanical densification to bamboo samples in a two-stage
analysis to find the critical densification degree that the sample could
stand before a shear failure, and evaluated the dimensional stability for
this specific case. They found that under certain conditions of the
densification process the three key parameters of dimensional stability
(spring back, water absorption and thickness swelling) can be accept­
able for industrial applications. Kadivar et al. (2022) studied the per­
formance of two bamboo specimens after densification and flattening
processes with various pre-treatments. They maintained the bamboo
skin in the process and found that the two processes had a positive

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A.D. de Sá et al. Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041

Fig. 5. Representation of bamboo samples for thermal conductivity tests.

Bamboo outer skin is a smooth, waxy, and dense layer, contains

Table 1 stomata and silica cells, and act as a water blockage. It is usually
Summary of bamboo bending results. removed by mechanical planning during the bamboo lamination pro­
Group (n = 4) MOR (MPa) LOP (MPa) MOE (GPa) EE (kJ/m2) cessing to improve the gluing properties (He et al., 2022; Li et al., 2015).
a a ab However, this layer is highly variable (Wang et al., 2017), and removing
UD (u) 188.0 ± 0.5 170.1 ± 4.5 21.9 ± 1.8 57.4a ± 2.1
UD (d) 150.2a ± 3.4 140.3a ± 2.3 19.7a ± 0.7 49.5a ± 3.4 it requires high energy consumption and reduces the resource utilization
DT (u) 249.0b 205.1b 24.2b ± 0.6 78.0b ± 5.2 ratio (Nkeuwa et al., 2022).
± 21.2 ± 19.3 Chung and Wang (2017) investigated the effect of epidermal peeling
DT (d) 251.9b 215.3b 24.6bc ± 1.7 75.0b ± 6.6 and steam heating treatments on Phyllostachys edulis (syn. P. pubescens)
± 25.2 ± 17.1
DW (u) 348.9c ± 12.0 274.0c ± 9.1 28.4d ± 1.1 97.9c ± 4.8
and P. makinoi Hayata bamboo samples. According to their findings, the
DW (d) 293.3b 233.2b 27.5 cd 90.0bc removal of the skin (epidermal peeling) led to a reduction in the me­
± 35.6 ± 18.5 ± 1.9 ± 13.4 chanical properties of the bamboo, and an increase in water absorption
Different letters a, b, c, d represent significant statistical difference (Tukey test, rate. Therefore, the maintenance of the skin could be beneficial for the
p-value < 0.05). MOR: Modulus of rupture, LOP: Limit of proportionality, MOE: dimensional stability of treated bamboo and its mechanical
Modulus of elasticity, EE: Specific energy. performance.
The thermal properties of bamboo can also be influenced by the
presence or removal of the outer skin, which affects the heat transfer of
the processed material. Analyzing the conductivity of bamboo can be
useful for the manufacturing of new products, since it is related to the
heating, cooling, and drying steps, and it is an important factor when
evaluating the environmental performance of bamboo in a building and
its heat transfer capacity, which influences the final energy consumption
and in its fire safety (Shah et al., 2016).
With the knowledge that keeping the skin can decrease the number
of processes that are needed for the manufacturing process, can increase
the utilization ratio, and might even increase the mechanical perfor­
mance of the samples, this study examined the mechanical and thermal
behaviors of D. asper bamboo samples with and without the outer skin.
The main objective was to evaluate the role of the skin on the flexural
properties and on the thermal conductivity of bamboo before and after
the densification process.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Material

Fig. 6. Mean stress strain curves for bamboo in different conditions.
impact on mechanical properties and a negative impact on some phys­
ical results of Phyllostachys edulis J.Houz. (Moso) and Dendrocalamus
asper.
D. asper bamboo was chosen for this study due to its high availability,
larger diameters, and thicker walls compared to other bamboo species.
The middle part of the culm, specifically between the heights of 2 m and
5 m, was selected for its homogeneous thickness and diameter. Unlike
the top and bottom sections, the wall thickness in this middle part re­
mains relatively consistent. The less conical shape in the middle part of

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A.D. de Sá et al.
Fig. 7. SEM images of un-densified samples without skin after the bending test.
the stem makes it particularly suitable for producing bamboo laminates
from both un-densified and densified bamboo.
Bamboo poles between 3 and 5 years old were provided by BAM­
BUILD company, located in Pirassununga/SP, Brazil. The average
diameter and wall thickness of the bamboo poles were approximately
150 mm and 14 mm, respectively. Prior to the experiment, the poles
underwent a treatment with an 8% disodium-octaborate-tetrahydrate
(DOT) solution in a pilot-scale immersion tank, following a procedure
described elsewhere (Kadivar et al., 2021). Previous studies have shown
that this chemical treatment does not significantly affect the mechanical
properties of bamboo (Gauss et al., 2019a). Subsequently, the bamboo
stems were conditioned in a protected environment at ambient tem­
perature, away from direct sunlight, for a period of approximately six
months to achieve equilibrium moisture content.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Bamboo processing
The samples utilized in this study were obtained exclusively from the
internodal parts of the bamboo culm. First, the bamboo culm was
longitudinally split, resulting in raw slats. One group of raw slats un­
derwent a lamination process, where the inner and outer layers were
carefully removed to create flat slats and eliminate the natural curva­
ture. This group is referred to as un-densified (UD) bamboo (Fig. 2).
The remaining group of slats were submitted to a densification
process. Within this group, the samples were further categorized into
two subgroups: densified without skin (DT) and densified with skin
(DW). The process of sample preparation is illustrated in Fig. 2.
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Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041
The densification process was performed in the radial direction
(Dixon et al., 2016) of the bamboo using a Hidral-Mac brand hot press,
Model: PHH, 10.0 Ton. The standardized parameters used in the process
were the temperature, pressure, and densification time, which in this
case were equal to 140 ◦ C, 5 MPa, and 15 min, respectively (Kadivar
et al., 2019). The moisture content (MC) of the samples before densifi­
cation was 10.8% (COV 5.3%), and the samples were placed for 5 min on
preheated plates in the machine before applying pressure.
2.2.2. Bending analysis
A three-point bending test was carried out on samples measuring
200 × 30 × 5 mm with a span length of 170 mm following the guide­
lines outlined in ASTM D1037–12 (ASTM International, 2016a). The
samples were cut to these dimensions after processing. The modulus of
elasticity (MOE), the modulus of rupture (MOR), the limit of propor­
tionality (LOP), and the specific energy (EE) were verified for all three
groups of samples: un-densified (UD), densified with skin (DW) and
without skin (DT).
As bamboo is an anisotropic material, the flexural resistance depends
on the direction of the bamboo element (Azadeh et al., 2021). Conse­
quently, two positions were adopted: upward (u) and downward (d)
regarding the outermost layer of the bamboo wall thickness, i.e., in the
upward position, the outer layer of bamboo would be in compression
during the test (Fig. 3).
For each group, 4 samples each in upward and downward positions
were tested. Fig. 3 illustrates the set-up of the bending test and bamboo
wall orientation. Prior to the bending test, the moisture content of the
samples was approximately 8–11%. This moisture content range was
A.D. de Sá et al.
Fig. 8. SEM images of densified samples without skin after bending test.
ensured to maintain consistency and minimize the influence of moisture
on the flexural properties of the bamboo samples.
2.2.3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Image characterization of the un-densified (UD), densified without
skin (DT), and densified with skin (DW) samples was carried out by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using a HITACHI model benchtop
equipment, TM3000, on the unpolished surfaces. The analysis was
performed on the longitudinal section of the samples submitted to a
static bending test on the tensile and compressive stress areas (Fig. 4) to
analyze the failure pattern. Samples were positioned on the specimen
holder using conductive carbon tape. The surfaces did not need to be
coated with a thin metallic layer due to the type of electron beam used in
the equipment, which operates in a vacuum with variable pressure and
acceleration voltage equal to 15 kV.
2.2.4. Thermal conductivity
A DTC 300 MODEL 2022 instrument was used to perform the con­
ductivity and thermal resistance tests. The analysis was performed for
the three groups of samples, as recommended by ASTM E1530–11
(ASTM International, 2016b).
The samples, 50 mm in diameter and 5 mm thickness, were obtained
for UD, DT and DW conditions (Fig. 2) by cutting it with a hole saw
(Fig. 5). Since D. asper bamboo has a larger diameter in comparison to
other species such as P. edulis, it was possible to obtain samples with the
required diameter without the need to glue two or more parts.
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Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041
2.3. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the values obtained for
the mechanical properties and enabled the organization of the results.
Arithmetic means were used as a measure of central tendency and
standard deviation as a measure of dispersion. Following the descriptive
analysis, the data were inserted into an inferential analysis to identify
the existence of significant differences among the studied treatments. A
completely randomized design was used, and the data was compared by
the Tukey test when the ANOVA was significant, both of which were
tested at p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Bending test
The three groups of samples (UD, DT and DW) were analyzed in two
orientations according to the position of the skin. The mechanical re­
sults, presented in the Table 1 and Fig. 6, indicate that the densification
process increased the performance, and maintaining the skin (DW)
improved the flexural parameters in comparison to the un-densified
(UD) and densified without skin (DT) conditions. For the upward (u)
condition, an improvement of up to 85.6% in MOR, 61.1% in LOP,
25.6% in MOE, and 70.6% in EE, when comparing UD(u) to DW(u) was
found. This demonstrates not only a higher resistance, but also higher
ductility and toughness after densification.
The un-densified samples (UD) presented higher MOR, LOP, MOE
and EE with the outer layer in the upward position, although the
A.D. de Sá et al. Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041

Fig. 9. SEM images of densified samples with skin after bending test.

Table 2
Summary of bamboo thermal conductivity results.
Group Density (g/cm3) Thermal conductivity K (W/m.K)

UD (n = 16) 0.905a ± 0.018 0.187a ± 0.004

DT (n = 13) 1.209b ± 0.024 0.203b ± 0.007
DW (n = 13) 1.394c ± 0.055 0.229c ± 0.007

Different letters a, b, c, represent significant statistical difference (Tukey test, p-

value < 0.05).

differences were not statistically significant. Gauss et al., 2019b inves­

tigated the influence of the outer layer orientation on P. edulis bamboo
samples without curvature, and found higher flexural resistance (MOR
and LOP) with the outer skin oriented upwards. They found that when
the outer layer is in tension (downwards), the failure occurs due to
compression damage on the inner wall, and when it is in compression
(upwards), the failure occurs on the region with lower fibre volume.
Kadivar et al. (2019) studied the flexural behavior of the inner, middle,
and outer layers of D. asper bamboo separately, and found that the
resistance increases from inner to outer positions, confirming that the
failure occurs in the region with a lower percentage of fibre.
With the densified samples without skin (DT), the mechanical per­ Fig. 10. Thermal conductivity versus density of the bamboo samples for
formance was similar for both upward and downward positions. This is a each condition.
consequence of the higher homogeneity of the material after being
densified, reducing the space between the fibre bundles along the culm the inner and middle layers where the fibre bundles were more spaced.
wall. Azadeh et al. (2022) studied the degree of densification of pro­ In addition, the fibre volume fraction (FVF) after the process was uni­
cessed D. asper bamboo and found that although the densification pro­ form along the bamboo thickness.
cess occurs all over the radial direction, it was more pronounced with The maintenance of the skin (DW) improved the resistance of the

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A.D. de Sá et al.
bamboo in both upward and downward conditions. However, the same
homogeneity in properties observed for DT samples was not found for
DW. This indicates that although the FVF was uniform after the densi­
fication process, the skin played a major role in the final resistance and
toughness. The higher flexural resistance with the presence of bamboo
skin was also observed for P. makinoi and P. edulis elsewhere (Chung and
Wang, 2017).
3.2. SEM analysis
Images from the failure regions at the top and bottom parts of each
group are presented on Fig. 7, Fig. 8, and Fig. 9. The samples kept
receiving load after the rupture, which caused higher deformations.
Ideally, the exact moment of maximum load should be captured and
analyzed to better characterize the failure patterns.
For un-densified samples (UD), in both upward (u) and downward
(d) conditions, a splintering behaviour was observed on the region
submitted to tension (ASTM International, 2014). In the compression
zone, for UD(u), higher deformations were observed in comparison to
UD(d), where the damage was seen on the surface. This could indicate
that when the inner layer of bamboo was compressed, the failure
occurred with lower deflections, whereas when the outer layer was
compressed, it supported higher deformations before failure (Fig. 7).
Densified samples without skin (DT) presented similar behaviour to
the UN group at the tension zone, and in compression, more superficial
damage was observed for the DT(u) group, which could indicate that the
failure occurred at the top region (Fig. 8).
When submitted to compression, the group with skin DW(u) pre­
sented low damage to the upper region, indicating that the main reason
for rupture was the failure of the bottom part. In contrast, when the skin
faced downwards DW(d), higher damage was observed at the upper
region, and less splintering at the bottom. The samples with skin facing
upwards were able to accommodate more deformation before the failure
(Fig. 9).
3.3. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity estimates the quickness of heat travel through
a material by conduction, which is the main form of heat transfer
through insulation (Deshmukh et al., 2017). According to Wang (1988),
a material is considered a thermal insulator when it presents a con­
ductivity coefficient (K) lower than 0.25 W/m.K, a condition met by all
bamboo conditions that were studied.
In addition, the density of the materials can significantly influence
heat transfer. In the investigated samples, the density was lower in the
UD (0.904 g/cm3) compared to the DT (1.209 g/cm3) and DW (1.394 g/
cm3) groups (Table 2). This suggests that the densification process on
groups DT and DW affected their thermal conductivity, and the presence
of skin further increased the conductivity coefficient (Fig. 10).
Shah et al. (2016) investigated thermal conductivity (K) on different
engineered bamboo products and observed a positive linear correlation
between density and thermal conductivity, with K values in the range of
0.20–0.35 W/m.K. For laminated bamboo manufactured with P. edulis,
values below 0.25 W/m.K were also found with a mean density of
0.626 g/cm3.
For wood species (Monopetalanthus spp., Millettia laurentii, Baillonella
toxisperma, Sterculia rhinopetala, Cylicodiscus gabunensis) with density
values between 0.8 and 0.99 g/cm3, the thermal conductivity varied
between 0.24 and 0.33 W/m.K (Nouemsi et al., 2021), indicating that
bamboo has lower conductivity when compared to high density wood,
an interesting result in relation to low-energy buildings.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the influence of densification process and presence of
outer skin on the flexural properties and thermal conductivity of
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Advances in Bamboo Science 5 (2023) 100041
Dendrocalamus asper bamboo was investigated.
The results of the bending tests indicate that the densification process
improved the mechanical strength of bamboo in comparison to un-
densified samples in all parameters evaluated (MOR, LOP, MOE, EE),
and the presence of the outer skin further improved the material per­
formance, reaching up to 348.9 MPa in MOR, and 28.4 GPa in MOE. The
orientation of bamboo also affected its flexural resistance, which was
attributed to the fibre volume fraction variation throughout the radial
direction. However, densified samples without skin presented similar
resistance in both orientations due to the fibre distribution
homogeneity.
For thermal conductivity, a positive correlation between density and
thermal coefficient indicated that the densification process reduced the
insulation capacity of bamboo. However, even with higher thermal co­
efficients, densified bamboo with skin had lower conductivity in com­
parison to wood species with similar density.
Overall, the improvement in mechanical resistance and low thermal
conductivity coefficients indicates the densification process as an
interesting alternative for the design of low-energy buildings, in addi­
tion to the reduction in material losses during bamboo processing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
All authors express their sincere thanks to the Laboratory of Con­
struction and Ambience, the Laboratory of Food Technology of FZEA,
USP, and to BamBuild company. Holmer Savastano Júnior thanks the
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico CNPq
(Grant 307723/2017-8), Marzieh Kadivar thanks to Fundação de
Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo FAPESP (Grant 2022/01191-
3 and 2022/08553-8) for financial assistance, and Guilherme Barbirato,
Sara Kadivar, Abasalt Tarverdi, and Leo Amaral thank Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES), Finance
code 001 for financial support.
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