LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

● part of the body’s defense mechanism against microorganisms and other harmful
substances
● transports a fluid called LYMPH through lymphatic capillaries called LYMPHATICS
● consists of:
- Lymph
- Lymphatic Vessels
- Lymphocytes
- Lymph Nodes
● organs:
- Spleen
- Tonsils
- Thymus Gland
- Peyer’s Patches in the Intestines
FUNCTIONS
● FLUID BALANCE: drainage of interstitial fluid

INTERSTITIAL FLUID
● blood plasma that gets forced through
the blood capillary walls into spaces
between tissue cells

LYMPH
● the name given to interstitial fluid
when it enters a lymphatic capillary
● Fat absorption and transport of fats from the digestive tract to the blood

LACTEALS
● special lymphatics that pick up fats and transport them to the blood

CHYLE
● lymph in lacteals that looks milky because of its fat content
● DEVELOP IMMUNITIES: production of lymphocytes

LYMPHATIC VESSELS
● originate singly or in plexus as blind-end tubes called
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES between cells in most
parts of the body
● transport fluid from interstitial spaces to the bloodstream
● lymphatic capillaries unite to form larger lymph vessel
called LYMPHATICS
 LYMPHATICS
● resemble veins in structure but have thinner walls and more valves = help to
ensure that the lymph will not backflow but go in one direction only

● Three Layers of Lymphatic Vessels:

TUNICA INTIMA
● smooth endothelium and valves

TUNICA MEDIA
● elastic fibers and smooth muscle

TUNICA ADVENTITIA
● strong outer covering composed of connective
tissue

● the lymphatic vessels converge into one of two main

channels:

RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT

● drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body empties into the right
subclavian vein

THORACIC DUCT
● the left lymphatic duct
● main collecting duct of the lymphatic system begins as a prominent sacs in
abdomen called CISTERNA CHYLI
● drain lymph from the rest of the body except the upper right quadrant and
empties into the left subclavian vein

LYMPH NODES
● oval to bean-shaped structures found along the length of
lymphatics

● also known as the lymph glands

● size ranges from 1 to 25 mm in length, looking like small

seeds or almonds

● GROIN, AXILLAE, and NECK

● contain a slide depression on one side called the HILUM

HILUM
● where efferent lymphatic vessels and
a nodal artery enters and a nodal
vein leaves a node
● afferent lymphatics enter the lymph
node at various locations on the
node

TRABECULAE
● a capsular extensions of fibrous
connective tissue covering a node

LYMPHATIC TISSUE
● consists of different kinds of lymphocytes and other cells that make up dense
aggregations of tissue called CORTICAL or LYMPHATIC NODULES

GERMINAL CENTER
● surrounded by a lymph nodule
● produces lymphocytes

LYMPHATIC SINUSES
● space between group of lymphatic tissue

MACROPHAGES
● engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances in the lymph
before it is returned to the blood

LYMPHOCYTES
● a type of white blood cell strategically located in the lymph nodes and respond
to foreign substances in the lymphatic streams (collection of lymphocytes:
follicles)

T-CELLS
● lymphocytes “in transit” that
circulate continuously between
blood, lymph nodes and lymphatic
streams, performing their
surveillance role

B-CELLS
● makes infection-fighting proteins
called antibodies
 PLASMA CELLS
● release antibodies in response to antigens
● have a shorter lifespan than memory cells

MEMORY CELLS
● remember particular antigens so, if they appear in your body in the future,
your immune system can mount a defense quickly

ANTIGENS (Antibody Generators)

● markers that allow the immune system to identify substances in the body,
including harmful ones like viruses and bacteria

LYMPH CIRCULATION
1. PLASMA, filtered by blood capillaries - passes into interstitial tissue spaces = now called
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
2. passes into lymphatic capillaries = now called LYMPH
3. lymph now passes into larger lymphatic vessels called LYMPHATICS: valves prevent
backflow of lymph and have lymph nodes along their lengths
4. afferent lymphatic vessels enter the lymph nodes - efferent lymph vessels leave the
nodes
5. circulation of lymph is maintained by muscular contractions, which compress the
lymphatics and push the lymph along
6. Efferent lymphatics unite to form lymphatic trunks
7. principal trunk now pass their lymph into two main channels: the thoracic/left
lymphatic duct, and the right lymphatic duct
8. the thoracic duct empties its lymph into the left subclavian vein; the right lymphatic duct
drains into the right subclavian vein
9. the lymph is drained back into the blood where it originally came from, and the cycle
completes itself; the circulation repeats its continuously, thus maintaining the proper
levels of lymph, plasma, and interstitial fluids in the body

THE PRINCIPAL LYMPHATIC TRUNK

LUMBAR TRUNK
● drains lymph from the lower extremities, the walls and viscera of the pelvis, the
kidneys and adrenal glands, and most of the abdominal wall

INTESTINAL TRUNK
● drains from the stomach, intestines, pancreas, spleen, surface of liver
 BRONCHOMEDIASTINAL TRUNK
● drains the thorax, lungs, heart, diaphragm, and the rest of the liver

INTERCOSTAL TRUNK
● helps drain portion of the thorax

SUBCLAVIAN TRUNK
● drains the upper extremities

JUGULAR TRUNK
● drains the head and the neck

ORGANS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

SPLEEN
● soft, blood-rich organ that
filters blood
● located on the left side of
the abdominal cavity, just
beneath the diaphragm,
and curls around the
anterior aspect of the
stomach
● oval in shape
● single largest mass of lymphatic tissue in the body
FUNCTIONS:
● filters and cleanses the blood: bacteria, viruses, and other debris
● provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance
● MOST IMPORTANT FUNCTION: destroy worn-out RBC and return some
of their breakdown products to the liver (bilirubin)
● during hemorrhage, it releases blood into the blood circulation route

THYMUS GLANDS
LOCATION:
● in the mediastinum along the trachea behind the sternum between two
lungs
● during puberty, it reaches its maximum size
● in other individuals, the thymus becomes small and difficult to detect
because it is replaced with fat and connective tissue
FUNCTIONS:
● involved in immunity
● site for lymphocyte production and maturation
 ● kill pathogens and produce antibodies
● secretes the hormone called THYMOSIN:
- stimulate the production of T cells

TONSILS
● masses or multiple groups of lymphoid
tissue
FUNCTIONS:
● trap and destroy bacteria

PALATINE TONSILS
● commonly removed in
tonsillectomy
FUNCTIONS:
● protects the body against respiratory and gastrointestinal
infections

PHARYNGEAL TONSILS or ADENOIDS

● nasopharyngeal tonsil or third tonsil
● where the nose blends into the throat
FUNCTIONS:
● increase the capability of the lymphatic system against foreign
organisms
LOCATION:
● close to the internal opening of the nasal cavity

LINGUAL TONSILS
● two small mounds of lymphatic tissue
FUNCTIONS:
● kill pathogens and produce antibodies
LOCATION:
● back surface of the tongue and its base

PEYER’S PATCHES
● also known as AGGREGATED LYMPHATIC
FOLLICLES
● resemble tonsils
FUNCTIONS:
● their macrophages destroy
bacteria
● in the wall of the small intestine
 MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHATIC TISSUE
(MALT)
● collective term for the cells of the immune system in the mucosa of the
respiratory, alimentary, urogenital and mammary gland
FUNCTIONS
● to augment the mechanical and chemical barriers of surface mucosal
epithelia

VERMIFORM APPENDIX
● contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens
● assists in the maturing of B lymphocytes
● produces immunoglobulin A (Ig A) antibodies

IMMUNITY
● the ability to resist infection from microorganisms or pathogens, damage from foreign
substances, and harmful chemicals

PATHOGENS
● disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses

HUMORAL AND CELLULAR IMMUNITY

● produced by the body’s lymphoid tissue
INNATE IMMUNITY: 1st line (Physical Barrier)
● SKIN: keratinized epidermis - strong physical barrier
● PROTECTIVE SECRETIONS:
1. the ACIDIC pH OF SKIN secretions inhibits bacterial growth, SEBUM contains
chemicals that are toxic to bacteria; VAGINAL SECRETIONS of adult females
are also very acidic
2. the STOMACH MUCOSA secretes hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting
enzymes that kill pathogens
3. SALIVA and LACRIMAL FLUID contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys
bacteria
4. STICKY MUCUS traps many microorganisms that enter digestive and
respiratory passageways
● MUCOUS MEMBRANE: in the digestive system,respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
● STRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS: mucus-coated hairs inside the NASAL CAVITY trap
inhaled particles, and the RESPIRATORY TRACT MUCOSA is ciliated; the cilia sweep
dust and bacteria laden mucus superiorly toward the mouth, preventing it from entering
the lungs

INNATE IMMUNITY: 2nd line (Cells and Chemicals)

● PHAGOCYTES: macrophage or neutrophil engulfs a foreign particle much the way an
amoeba ingests a food particle
● NATURAL KILLER CELLS: “police” the body in blood and lymph; unique group of
lymphocytes that can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells; release a
lytic chemical called PERFORINS

INNATE IMMUNITY: Inflammatory Response

LYMPHOKINES
● chemicals released by the sensitized T lymphocytes
● there are number of these chemicals:

CHEMOTACTIC FACTORS
● attract neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophil

MACROPHAGE MIGRATION INHIBITING

FACTOR (MIF)
● keeps macrophages in the inflamed and infected area

HELPER FACTORS
● stimulate plasma cells to produce antibodies

INTERLEUKIN-2
● stimulates the proliferation of T and B cells

GAMMA INTERFERON
● make tissue cells resistant to viruses, actives macrophages, and matures killer T
cells

SUPPRESSOR FACTORS
● stop antibody production by T cells

MONOKINES
● chemicals released by activated macrophages
● these chemicals include:

INTERLEUKIN-1
● stimulates T cell production and fever

TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR

● kills tumor cells and attract granular leukocytes

COMPLEMENT
● blood-borne proteins causes the lysis of microorganisms and enhance the
inflammatory response

HUMORAL IMMUNITY
● ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
● involves B cells creating antibodies
● occurs mostly in the blood
 ● takes place in the “humors”/body fluids

B CELL ACTIVATION
1. an antigen binds to an
antibody on a B cell
2. endocytosis: B cells engulfs
(swallows) the antigen -
breaks it down into pieces -
presents those pieces on its
own surface (through major
histocompatibility complex
(MHC) II proteins)
3. antigen-presenting B-cell complex

B CELL PROLIFERATION
4. helper T cell bind to the B cell complex
5. T cells releases cytokines - chemical messenger that prompt the B cell to start
rapidly dividing into two other types of cells:
● plasma cells produce and release antibodies that work against the
specific antigen
● memory wells will work in the future

ANTIBODY-ANTIGEN REACTION
6. plasma cells release antibodies
7. these antibodies are on the hunt for more of the same antigen
8. once they find that antigen, they bind to it, and a reaction takes place which
triggers neutralization and destruction of those antigens

CELLULAR IMMUNITY
● CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
● involves mainly T cells

INITIATION and ACTIVATION

1. naive T cell comes in contact with the MHC antigen complex = becomes
activated

T-CELL PROLIFERATION
2. once the T cell is activated - it releases cytokines (chemical messengers that
prompt the proliferation and activation of other T cells) including:
● HELPER/INDUCER T CELLS: call for help to other white blood cells
● REGULATORY T CELLS: prevent hypersensibility or overreaction of
the immune system by releasing cytokines that suppress the immune
response
● CYTOTOXIC T CELLS: aggressive; seek out and destroy infected
cells
 TYPES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE
IMMUNITY IMMUNITY

NATURAL NATURAL ACTIVE NATURAL PASSIVE

IMMUNITY IMMUNITY
IMMUNITY
body produces antibodies you receive antibodies
(active) in exposure to a live (passive) that were originally
pathogen created in response to a
disease- causing agent
(natural)

EXAMPLE
when you get chicken pox,
and after your initial infection,
you build immunity against
the disease
EXAMPLE
when a mother passes
immunity to a child through
breast milk or the placenta

ARTIFICIAL ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE

IMMUNITY
IMMUNITY
your body produces
antibodies (active) in
exposure to a vaccine
IMMUNITY
you receive antibodies
(passive) that were created in
exposure to a vaccine

EXAMPLE
when you get a polio vaccine
as a child and you build
immunity against polio
EXAMPLE
if you are bit by an animal,
you will get rabies shot
containing rabies antibodies
so you don't become infected
with rabies

ANTIGENS and ANTIBODY

B LYMPHOCYTES
● recognizes the antigens and produce antibodies that bind with specific antigens,
causing the foreign antigens to agglutinate and precipitate

NEUTROPHILS and MACROPHAGES

● phagocytic white blood cells that come along and eat the antigens up by the
phagocytosis, eliminating them from the body

T LYMPHOCYTES
● activated to form clones by binding with an antigen, but it is not able to bind with
free antigens
● ANTIGEN PRESENTATION is a major role for macrophages
 ● Type of Antibodies:

IMMUNOGLOBULIN G (IgG)
● found in tissue fluids and plasma
● attacks viruses , bacteria, and toxins
● activates COMPLEMENT, a set of enzyme that attacks foreign antigens

IMMUNOGLOBULIN A (IgA)
● found in exocrine gland secretions, nasal fluids, tears, gastric and intestinal
juice, bile, breastmilk, and urine

IMMUNOGLOBULIN M (IgM)
● develops in blood plasma as a response to bacteria or antigens in food

IMMUNOGLOBULIN E (IgE)
● found in exocrine gland secretions and is associated with allergic reactions,
attacking allergy-causing antigens

IMMUNOGLOBULIN D (IgD)
● found on the surface of B lymphocytes and is important in B cell activation

DISORDERS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

ELEPHANTIASIS
● painful disease that occurs when tiny parasite larvae are transferred to the body
through mosquito bites that can transmit a microscopic filarial nematode worm
known as WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI
 ● lives in lymphatics and lymph nodes where it reproduces and multiply

ALLERGY
● hypersensitive reaction to common, normal, and usually harmless environment
substances referred to as ALLERGEN (house dust, pollen, and cigarette
smoke)
● the reaction to inhaled allergens can damage body tissue
● when the nose is affected: hay fever
● lungs: asthma
● eyes: allergic conjunctivitis
● severe allergic reactions can result in ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK that may lead
to death
● treatment can use desensitization, antihistamines

LYMPHOMA
● tumor of lymphatic tissue
● usually malignant
● benign as an enlarged mass of lymph nodes, usually with no accompanying
pain
● the enlarged nodes will compress surrounding structures, causing further
complications
● immune responses becomes depressed = susceptible to opportunistic infections
● treatment: drugs and radiation

LYMPHADENITIS
● inflammation of lymph nodes or glands = enlarged and tender
● when microorganisms are being trapped and attacked in lymph nodes, they
enlarge = a swollen lymph gland in indicative of an infection

LYMPHANGITIS
● inflammation of the lymphatic vessels with accompanying red streaks visible in
the skin

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY

SYNDROME
● caused by infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
● transmitted by contact with body fluids containing virus

SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS

● autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks its own tissue,
causing widespread inflammation and tissue damage in the affected organ