Psych - Chapter 2 Methods in Psych Notes

2.1 Empiricism: How to Know Stuff

Dogmatism: describe tendency 2 cling 2 beliefs

Empiricism: accurate knowledge of world can be acquired by observing it
- Only now that ppl trust eyes and ears rather than elders/those in power
- Right way 2 test hyp, but requires empirical method (set of rules and techniques 4 obs)

Scientific Method:
- Backbone of sci method: procedure 4 use empirical evidence 2 establish facts.
- Suggests theories: idea of how world works, or explanation of natural how/why natural world
works
- Theories have hypotheses (“should” statements). Hyp: falsifiable prediction made by theory
- Theory can never be proven RIGHT. Observations that are consistent w/ theory raise
confidence, but never make us 100% confident that its right

Art of Looking
- Ppl see things sometimes inaccurately and others dont see at all
- Method: technologies that enhance power of senses
- Human behave is easy 2 see, so arent psych methods simple? NO. - very complex, variable,
reactive. This presents challenge 2 sci study of behave. Met challenge thru
● methods of obs: discover what ppl do
● Explanation: discover why ppl do it

A World of Diff
- Lots of men dominate sci field. Why?
● Less women bc employment opps 4 women are limited
● interests/talents of emn may be ones needed 2 become scientists, men are more
variable in visuo-spatial and quantitative ability
- More men at both sides of spectrum. Scientists are from high end, so Men are
overrepresented among scientists in math intensive fields, not sci
- Women earn way less degrees in comp sci but many degrees in social sci
- Nations w/ high gender equality suggest women have choice, just dont choose those fields
Why men have more interest in some topics and variable?
- Could be diff in brain structure or encouraged 2 develop interests and hone quantitative skills
- Men may be more interested in sci topics, more likely 2 be unusually talented when comes 2
math (but no evidence suggests that these sex diffs are innate)

2.2 Methods of Obs: Discovering what ppl do

- Everyday obs are inconsistent and incomplete
- Gists measure things that obs miss and what do w/ obs once made them

Measurement
- Must define property want 2 measure and find way 2 detect it
- Operational definition: description of property in measurable terms
- Detect: instrument/device that detects property as we just defined it
For good operational definition: construct validity 4 OD whose specified operations are considered
good indicators of specified properties. Most beholders agree that its is good indicator of property

Good detector:
- Power: detector’s ability 2 detect presence of diffs or changes in magnitude of property]
- Reliability: detectors ability 2 detect absence of diffs or changes in magnitude of property

Reliability refers to the tendency for a measure to produce consistent results.

Demand Characteristics: aspects of Can measure behave w/ operational definition and detector
- Study question “demands” that ppl give response that may or may not reflect true feels
- Avoiding them:
● Naturalistic observation: gather info by unobstrusively observing ppl in natural enviros
(didnt know being observed). Not practical (some events dont occur naturally, only
observed thru direct interaction w/ ppl)
● Privacy and control: less likely 2 be influenced by DCharas when cant be identified as
author of actions (gists take advantage by telling 2 respond privately). Gists also avoid
DCharas by measure behaves under persons voluntary control
● Unawareness: make sure unaware of true purpose of obs. Ppl cant try 2 behave how
they should if dont know how should behave. Gists also mislead so cant guess

Observed Bias: seeing whats expected

- Measurements revealed precisely what students had expected 2 reveal, tho expectations had
no bsis in reality
● Expectations an influence observations
● Expectations can influence reality

- Observer bias: tendency 4 expectations 2 influence what they believe observed and what
actually observed. 2 avoid, double blind study (neither researcher or participant knows how
participants are expected 2 behave)
- If researcher dont have expectations, then their expectations can influence obs or participants
behave]

Description:
- Gists rarely measure properties of entire pop (complete collection of ppl), but measure
properties of sample (partial collection of ppl drawn from pop)

Graphic represntations: Picturing DAta

 - Make sense of data by create pics or graphic reps (often frequency distribution - shows
number of times that measurement of property takes on each of its poss values)
- Use graphs 2 measure happiness (distributions in middle panel are neg skewed - 2 right), not
pos skewed (2 left), symmetrical skew (in middle, left half is mirror image of right half)
- Normal distribution: mathematically defined distribution when frequency of measurements is
highest in middle and decreases symmetrically on both sides (bell curve, Gaussian
distribution)

Descriptive Frequencies: depict every measurement in sample, provides full/complete pic of that
sample, but show too much info
- Descriptive statistics: brief summary statements that capture essential info from FD.
Common types:
● Central tendency : statements abt value of measurements that tend 2 lie near center
or midpoint of FD
● Variability: which measurements in frequency differ from each other

Central Tendency: where is middle of Dist?

Common descriptions: mode (value of most frequently observed measurement), mean (average
value of all), median (value in middle)
- When skewed, mean gets dragged toward end of long tail, median follows but doesnt get far,
mode stays put @ hump
- Must calculate all otherwise will get misleading pic
- Where measurements in FD tend 2 lie relative 2 valued on y axis

Variability: Hw wide is dist?

- Where points lie relative 2 each other
- Tell how much measurements differ from each other or how wide dist is
- Measure using range: value of largest measurement in FD minus value of smallest
measurement
- Standard deviation: stat describes how each of measurements differs from MEAN. an
estimate of how far (on av) various measurements ae from center of distribution

2.3 Methods of Explanation: Discovering Why People Do What They Do

Correlation: technique tell us 2 properties that are related - mutual connection between things
Causation: tell if one properties actually CAUSES another (one event is the result of the occurrence
of the other event)
Draw conclusions: kinds of conclusions these 2 techniques do and dont allow us 2 draw
Causality: relation of cause and effect

Synchronized PAtterns of Variation:

- Variables: properties that can have more than one value, cna vary
 - Did series of measurements
- Looked at measurements, saw pattern

Correlation: relationship between variables in which variations in value of one variable are
synchronized w/ variations in the value of the other
● If know one variable, can predict value of oher variable without having 2 measure it
● Time savers which lead us 2 make educated guesses
● Powerful, but predictions arent always perfectly accurate

Measure direction and strength of correlation:

- Direction: of correlation is either pos or neg (pos: “more is more” relation, neg: “more is less”)
- Strength:
● Correlation coefficient: math measure of both direction and strength of correlation ( r ).
Has limited range (values outside of range are impossible)
● Positive correlation: value of 2 variable increases by certain amount (r=1)
● Perfect negative correlation: value of variable increases and value of another decreases
(r= -1)
● No corr: value increases, second doesnt increase/decreease systematically (r=0)
● Correlations of 1 and -1 are very common, not in real world
● When r hits 0, predictions become random guesses
● Sign of r (+/-) tells direction of relationship, and absolute value of r (between 0 and 1)
tells number adn size of exceptions 2 rule

Causation:
- Natural correlation: correlation observed in natural world. Can tell us if 2 variables have
relationship, but cnat tell if causal relationship (if one causes another)
- Correlation is not causation!

- confounding/Third variable problem: correlation between 2 variables cant be taken as

evidence as causal relationship between them bc third variable could be causing both
- Experimentation: technique for establish causal relationship between 2 variables (eliminate 2,
1 must be real). Eliminate by manipulation and random assignment
● Manipulation: making diff conditions. Determines causal power of variable by actively
changing its value (manipulate one to measure the other). Use conditions. Compute
correlation between ,anipulated variable (exposure) and variable we measured
(aggressiveness)
- Can establish a causal relation between variables using:
1. Manipulate: a variable. Variable manipulated is independent variable (determined by
experimenter, doesnt depend on anything else). Manipulation creates 2 conditions
2. Measure: a variable. Dependent variable: variable being measured (depends on value
of IV)
 3. Compare: DV in one condition with DV in another. Values differ on average, then
change in IV caused changes to DV

Random Assignment
- Manipulation is imp
- Cant let ppl choose IV, not truly independent
- Self selection: where anything abt participant determines value of IV 2 which part was
exposed
- Random assignment: assigns ppl 2 conditions BY CHANCE (so no bias) (can expect 2
conditions 2 have roughly equal numbers). Will be same on average for both conditions

Stat testing: make sure conditions dont differ by chance

- Random assignment is powerful, doesnt work every time
- Randomization is done w/ device
- Cant know if random assignment has failed (can calculate odds that these diffs are due to
dumb luck)
- Gists dont accept results unless theres 5 or less% chance that results were bc dumb luck
(p < .5)
- Interval validity: attribute of exp that allows 2 est causal relations (high in validity, everything
work exact as wanted)
- External validity: attribute in which variables have been oper. Defined in representative way
- Theories allow 2 generate hyps under circumstances (create circumstance, test hyp, give
evidence)
- Case method: procedure 2 gather sci info by study single individ
- Random sampling: technique 2 select random participants ensure that everyone has equal
chance of being included in sample
- Sometimes representativeness of sample doesnt matter, sometimes repress of sample is
reasonable starting assumption
- Replication: exp uses same procedures as previous one but uses new sample from same
pop
- Type1 error: conclude CAUSAL RELATION between variables when isnt (false positive)
- Type 2 error: conclude not a CAUSALL RELATION when there is (false negative) (flukes and
flunks)

2.4
Critical thinking: the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment.

2.5
- Must respect ppl w/ informed consent, respect animals, truth

With animals
- Replacement: prove no alt 2 use animals and animal use is justified by value of study
- Reduction: smallest number of animals possible
- Refinement: procedures modified 2 minimize discomfort, infection, illness, pain of animals
(treated humanely)
- Truth: research ethic boards ensure data collected ethically, but who ensure honestly analyzed
and thoroughly reported? No one. Work on honour system (report truthfully, cant
 fabricate/fudge results, cant mislead by omission, must share credit fairly by including all
co-authors)

Rules 2 follow:
- Informed consent: verbal agreement 2 participate in study made by adult whos been
informed of all risks that participation might entail (must know everything, esp harmful)
- Freedom from coercion; gists may not coerce participation (not only physical and psych, but
monetary)
- Coerce: persuade using threats (pressure)
- Protection from harm: take every possible precaution 2 protect (must use safer method if
choice. If not available, no study)
- risk -benefit analysis: accept small risks (must be showed risks are outweighed by social
benefits of new knowledge)
- Deception: only use when justified by sci, educational, applied value when alt methods not
feasible (may never deceive that causes harm)
- Debriefing: if deceived in any way, must provide w/ debriefing: verbal description of true
nature/purpose of study. If changed i any way, must undo change
- Confidentiality: obligated 2 keep private/personal info confidential