Fundamental of Electrical

Materials
MODULE CODE (EE
6118/9)
Facilitator: Mr. Andrew Mwampulo
Office: 007A Basement (Electrical Department wing)
 Course contents

Introduction to engineering materials

• General classification of engineering materials and properties, atomic
structures of substances, descriptions of metals, non-metals,
conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

Structure and Properties of Metals,

• Distinction of metals from non-metals, crystalline structure of metals,
their physical, chemical and industrial properties, metal alloying and
its effects on electrical, mechanical and chemical properties, iron,
steels and their uses, the use of the metallurgical microscope,
metallic corrosion and its prevention.
 Course contents
Conductors, semiconductors and insulators:
• Conductors; Classification, best metal conductors, their properties and uses
(copper, aluminum, lead and mercury); contact materials; resistance materials;
jointing materials (solders).
• Insulators; Classification, properties and uses of insulating materials; Current
conduction in solids, liquids and gaseous insulating materials; breakdown in
solids, liquids and gaseous insulating materials.
• Semiconductor Materials; Definition; types; properties and their applications.
Effects of environmental conditions on electrical materials:
• Effect of temperature, moisture, dust and chemical agents on solids, liquids and
gaseous conducting, insulating and semiconducting materials.
Heat treatment of metals:
• annealing, quenching, tempering, precipitation hardening and case (surface)
hardening.
 LECTURE 1
Introduction to engineering materials
• General classification of engineering materials and properties,
• atomic structures of substances,
• descriptions of metals, non-metals,
• conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
 Introduction to engineering materials
• Materials are probably more deep seated in our culture than most of
us realize.
• Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and
food production—virtually every segment of our everyday lives is
influenced to one degree or another by materials.
• Historically, the development and advancement of societies have
been intimately tied to the members’ ability to produce and
manipulate materials to fill their needs.
• In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their
materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).
 Introduction to engineering materials
• The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of
materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so
on.
• With time, they discovered techniques for producing materials that
had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new
materials included pottery and various metals.
• Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of a material could
be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other
substances.
 Introduction to engineering materials
• It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to
understand the relationships between the structural elements of
materials and their properties.
• This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100+ years, has
empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of
materials.
• Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with
rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern
and complex society, including metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers.
 Introduction to engineering materials
• The development of many technologies that make our existence so
comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility of
suitable materials.
• An advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the
forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology.
• For example, automobiles would not have been possible without the
availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute.
• In the contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on
components that are made from what are called semiconducting
materials.
 Introduction to engineering materials
• Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science
and engineering into materials science and materials engineering
subdisciplines.
• Strictly speaking, materials science involves investigating the
relationships that exist between the structures and properties of
materials.
• In contrast, materials engineering involves, on the basis of these
structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
 Introduction to engineering materials
• From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to
develop or synthesize new materials,
• whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products
or systems using existing materials and/or to develop techniques for
processing materials.
• Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both
materials scientists and materials engineers.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 Structure
• In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement
of its internal components.
• determines virtually everything about a material
• Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms
and interactions with their nuclei.
• On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms
or molecules relative to one another.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 Property
• While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that
evoke some type of response.
• For example, a specimen subjected to forces experiences
deformation, or a polished metal surface reflects light.
• A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus.
• Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material
shape and size.
 Introduction to engineering materials
NOTE
• Most properties are actually highly structure sensitive.
• Therefore, it is of utmost importance to understand the basis for the
structure of materials to be able to control the properties and
reliability of engineering materials.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six
different categories:
• Mechanical properties - relate deformation to an applied load or force;
examples include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness.
• Electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant,
the stimulus is an electric field
• Thermal properties, represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal
conductivity.
• Magnetic properties, demonstrate the response of a material to the
application of a magnetic field.
• Optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index
of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.
• Deteriorative properties, relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
• The goal of Materials Science and Engineering is to design materials with a
certain set of properties, which gives a certain desired performance.
• Using suitable processing techniques the material can be synthesized and
processed.
• The processing also determines the microstructure of the material.

• Microstructure is a general term used to cover a wide range of structural

features, ranging from those visible to the naked eye (for instance,
macrostructure) to those corresponding to the inter-atomic distances in
the crystal lattice (for instance, nanostructure).

‘’Technology is usually limited by materials, new material enables new

technology’’
 Introduction to engineering materials
Why Material Science & Engineering is important to technologists?
EXAMPLES;
• Mechanical engineers search for high temp material so that gas turbines, jet engines etc.
can operate more efficiently and wear resistance materials to manufacture bearing
materials
• Electrical engineers search for materials by which electrical devices or machines can be
operated at a faster rate with minimum power losses
• Aerospace & automobile engineers search for materials having high strength-to weight
ratio
• Electronic engineers search for material that are useful in the fabrication &
miniaturization of electronic devices
• Chemical engineers search for highly corrosion-resistant materials.
Note:
All these demands may be fulfilled when the internal structure and engineering properties
are known to an engineer or technologist
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic
categories: metals, ceramics, and polymers, a scheme based primarily
on chemical makeup and atomic structure.
• In addition, there are the composites that are engineered
combinations of two or more different materials.
• Another category is advanced materials—those used in high-
technology applications, such as semiconductors, biomaterials, smart
materials, and nanoengineered materials
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Metals
• Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, nickel), and often also nonmetallic
elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
• Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner and
are relatively dense in comparison to the ceramics and polymers
• With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively
stiff and strong yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of
deformation without fracture),
• And are resistant to fracture which accounts for their widespread use in
structural applications.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons—
that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms.
• Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons.
• For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity
and heat, and are not transparent to visible light;
• A polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance.
• In addition, some of the metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable
magnetic properties.
Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements;
• They are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
• For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4), and,
• in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those
composed of clay minerals (e.g., porcelain), as well as cement and
glass.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively
stiff and strong.
• Stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals.
• In addition, they are typically very hard.
• Historically, ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness (lack of
ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture.
• However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved
resistance to fracture; these materials are used for cookware, cutlery,
and even automobile engine parts.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the passage
of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities), and
• Are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments
than are metals and polymers.
• With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent,
translucent, or opaque and
• some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Common objects that are made of ceramic materials
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Polymers
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on
carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si).
• Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often
chainlike in nature, that often have a backbone of carbon atoms.
• These materials typically have low densities, whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to those of the
metallic and ceramic materials
• They are not as stiff or strong as these other material types.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable
(i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex
shapes.
• In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a
large number of environments.
• One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some
instances, limits their use.
• Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic.
Common objects that are made of polymeric materials
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
composite
• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials that
come from the categories previously discussed—metals, ceramics,
and polymers.
• The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of
properties that is not displayed by any single material and also to
incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials.
• A large number of composite types are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are composites—for
example, wood and bone.
• However, most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic
(or human-made) composites.
• One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in
which small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material
(normally an epoxy or polyester).
• The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle),
whereas the polymer is more flexible.
• Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong and flexible. In addition, it has
a low density.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber–
reinforced polymer (CFRP), composite—carbon fibers that are
embedded within a polymer.
• These materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber–reinforced
materials but more expensive.
• CFRP composites are commonly used wherever high strength-to-
weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required.
• such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil
engineering, and an increasing number of consumer and technical
applications.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• As well as in high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs,
tennis rackets, skis/snowboards) and recently in automobile bumpers.
• The new Boeing 787 fuselage is primarily made from such CFRP
composites.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Advanced materials
• Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech)
applications.
• By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or
functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles;
• examples include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players,
etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military
rocketry.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose
properties have been enhanced, and also newly developed, high-
performance materials.
• Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics,
polymers)
• Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what
we may term “materials of the future” (that is, smart materials and
nanoengineered materials)
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between
the electrical conductors (i.e. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e.
ceramics and polymers).
• Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely
sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms,
• for which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial
regions.
• Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that
has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to
mention our lives) over the past three decades.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Biomaterials
• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human
body to replace diseased or damaged body parts.
• These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be
compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological
reactions).
• All of the preceding materials—metals, ceramics, polymers,
composites, and semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials.
• For example, some of the biomaterials are utilized in artificial hip
replacements
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Metals are used as biomaterials due to their excellent thermal conductivity and
mechanical properties.
• Biomaterials are artificial or natural materials, used in the making of structures or
implants, to replace the lost or diseased biological structure to restore form and
function.
• Thus biomaterial helps in improving the quality of life and longevity of human
beings and the field of biomaterials has shown rapid growth to keep with the
demands of an aging population.
• Biomaterials are used in different parts of the human body as artificial valves in
the heart, stents in blood vessels, replacement implants in shoulders, knees, hips,
elbows, ears and orthodental structures.
NOTE:
The main property required of a metal as biomaterial is that it does not illicit an
adverse reaction when placed into services, that means to be a biocompatible
material.
 Introduction to engineering materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Smart Materials
• Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art
materials now being developed that will have a significant influence on
many of our technologies.
• The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to sense changes
in their environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined
manners—traits that are also found in living organisms.
• In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to rather sophisticated
systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials
• Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor
(that detects an input signal), and an actuator (that performs a responsive
and adaptive function).
 Introduction to engineering materials
atomic structures of substances
• Atoms are made up of particles called protons, neutrons, and
electrons, which are responsible for the mass and charge of atoms.
• The nucleus (center) of the atom contains the protons (positively
charged) and the neutrons (no charge).
• The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and
contain the electrons (negatively charged).
• Atoms have different properties based on the arrangement and
number of their basic particles.
 Introduction to engineering materials
atomic structures of substances
 Introduction to engineering materials
atomic structures of substances
• Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67
× 10-24 grams.
• Scientists define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu)
or one Dalton.
• Although similar in mass, protons are positively charged, while
neutrons have no charge.
• Therefore, the number of neutrons in an atom contributes
significantly to its mass, but not to its charge.
 Introduction to engineering materials
atomic structures of substances
• Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11
× 10-28 grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit.
• Therefore, they do not contribute much to an element’s overall
atomic mass.
• When considering atomic mass, it is customary to ignore the mass of
any electrons and calculate the atom’s mass based on the number of
protons and neutrons alone
 Introduction to engineering materials
atomic structures of substances
• Electrons contribute greatly to the atom’s charge, as each electron
has a negative charge equal to the positive charge of a proton.
• Scientists define these charges as “+1” and “-1. ”
• In an uncharged, neutral atom, the number of electrons orbiting the
nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus.
• In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each other
out, leading to an atom with no net charge.
 SUMMARY

• There are six different property classifications of materials that

determine their applicability: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.

• One aspect of materials science is the investigation of relationships

that exist between the structures and properties of materials.
• By structure we mean how some internal component(s) of the
material is (are) arranged
 SUMMARY

• On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are

classified into three general categories:
metals (metallic elements),
ceramics (compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements),
polymers (compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements).
• In addition, composites are composed of at least two different
material types.
 SUMMARY

• Another materials category is the advanced materials that are used in

high-tech applications. These include;
semiconductors (having electrical conductivities intermediate
between conductors and insulators),
biomaterials (which must be compatible with body tissues),
smart materials (those that sense and respond to changes in their
environments in predetermined manners), and
nanomaterials (those that have structural features on the order of a
nanometer, some of which may be designed on the atomic/molecular
level).
 Introduction to engineering materials
ACTIVITY
Select one among of the following modern items or devices and
conduct an Internet search in order to determine what specific
material(s) is (are) used and what specific properties this (these)
material(s) possess(es) in order for the device/item to function
properly. Finally, write a short essay in which you report your findings
Digital camera batteries, Cell phone displays(Smart phones) , Solar cells,
Wind turbine blades, Fuel cells, Automobile engine blocks (other than
cast iron), Automobile bodies (other than steel alloys), Space telescope
mirrors, Military body armor, Sports equipment, Soccer balls,
Basketballs, Ski poles, Ski boots, Snowboards, Surfboards, Golf clubs,
Golf balls, Kayaks, Lightweight bicycle frames.
 LECTURE 2
Structure and Properties of Metals
• Distinction of metals from non-metals,
• crystalline structure of metals,
• physical, chemical and industrial properties of metals
• metal alloying and its effects on electrical, mechanical and chemical
properties,
• iron, steels and their uses,
• the use of the metallurgical microscope,
• metallic corrosion and its prevention.
 • Atomic structure

Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24%
of the mass of the planet.
They are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires,
aluminum foil, and gold jewelry.
Metals are widely used because of their properties: strength, ductility,
high melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness.
 • Atomic structure

• These properties (e.g strength, electrical conductivity) also

offer clues as to the structure of metals.
• As with all elements, metals are composed of atoms.
• The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are held
together by strong bonds.
• These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise how
could metals be hammered into sheets or drawn into wires?
• A reasonable model would be one in which atoms are held
together by strong, but delocalized, bonds.
 • Atomic structure

Metals are giant structures of atoms held together by metallic

bonds.
"Giant" implies that large but variable numbers of atoms are
involved - depending on the size of the bit of metal.
The electrons from the outer shells of the metal atoms
are delocalised, and are free to move through the whole
structure.
This sharing of delocalised electrons results in strong metallic
bonding
 • Atomic structure
Metallic bonding
 is a term used to describe the collective sharing of a sea of
valence electrons between several positively charged metal
ions.
 Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding and is
responsible for several characteristic properties of metals such
as their shiny lustre, their malleability, and their conductivities
for heat and electricity.
 • Properties Attributed by Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonds impart several important properties to metals that
make them commercially desirable
Electrical Conductivity
• Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to
allow a charge to move through it.
• Since the movement of electrons is not restricted in the electron sea,
any electric current is allowed to pass through the metal.
• Thus When a potential difference is introduced to the metal, the
delocalized electrons start moving towards the positive charge.
• This is the reason why metals are generally good conductors of
electric current.
 Thermal Conductivity

• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability

to conduct/transfer heat.
• When one end of a metallic substance is heated, the kinetic
energy of the electrons in that area increases.
• These electrons transfer their kinetic energies to other electrons
in the sea via collisions.
• The greater the mobility of the electrons, the quicker the transfer
of kinetic energy.
• Due to metallic bonds, the delocalized electrons are highly
mobile, and they transfer the heat through the metallic substance
by colliding with other electrons.
Malleability and Ductility
• Metals are described as malleable (can be beaten into sheets)
and ductile (can be pulled out into wires.
• The sea of electrons in the metallic bond enables the deformation of
the lattice.
• Therefore, when metals are beaten with a hammer, the rigid lattice is
deformed and not fractured.
• This is why metals can be beaten into thin sheets.
• Since these lattices do not fracture easily, metals are said to be highly
ductile.
Metallic Lustre
• When light is incident on a metallic surface, the energy of the photon
is absorbed by the sea of electrons that constitute the metallic bond.
• The absorption of energy excites the electrons, increasing their
energy levels.
• These excited electrons quickly return to their ground states, emitting
light in the process.
• This emission of light due to the de-excitation of electrons attributes a
shiny metallic lustre to the metal.
High Melting and Boiling Points
• As a result of powerful metallic bonding, the attractive force between
the metal atoms is quite strong.
• In order to overcome this force of attraction, a great deal of energy is
required.
• This is the reason why metals tend to have high melting and boiling
points.
• The exceptions to this include zinc, cadmium, and mercury (explained
by their electron configurations, which end with ns2).
 Properties of metals
Properties common to all metals include:
• Metallic lustre.
• Electrical conductivity.
• Thermal conductivity.
• Malleability and ductility
Properties common to most metals include
• High melting point.
• Hardness.
• High strength.
• High density
 Metallic Lustre
• Lustre can be defined as a shininess due to the reflection of light.
• All metals exhibit a shiny surface when freshly cut or polished, often
referred to as a metallic lustre.
• Light rays are reflected off delocalised electrons, causing the metallic
surface to shine.

Examples
• Gold, silver and copper have long been prized for their lustrous
appearance, making them popular in jewellery and decorative
ornaments.
• Chromium plating is common in the automotive and building
industries due to its mirror-like finish.
 Electrical Conductivity of Metals
• Electrical conductivity refers to the flow of electric charge through a
substance.
• Electric current readily passes through metallic materials.
• Delocalised valence electrons in metals are highly mobile and therefore
able to transfer electric charge.

Examples
• Gold and silver are two of the best conductors of electricity, but are
only used in specialised, high-end electronic components.
• Copper and aluminium are the most common metals used in electrical
wiring due to their abundance and low cost.
 Thermal Conductivity of Metals
• Thermal conductivity refers to the transfer of heat through a
substance.
• Heat travels readily from one end of a metal object to another.
• Delocalised valence electrons readily acquire and transfer heat
energy it to neighbouring electrons and cations.

Examples
Copper and aluminium are two of the best thermal conductors. They
are often used in heating elements, usually as alloys including other
metals such as nickel and chromium.
 Malleability and Ductility of Metals
• Malleability refers to the ability of a material to be reshaped or flattened.
• Ductility refers to the ability of a material to be drawn out into wires.
• Metals are malleable and ductile (as opposed to brittle), but the amount of forces
required varies.
• For example, thin pieces of lead can readily be bent into shape by hand, whereas
iron requires heating and hammering.
• If sufficient force is applied, layers within the metal lattice are able to slide over
each other, due to the mobility of electrons and subsequent non-directional
nature of metallic bonds.

Examples
• Copper is an excellent material for electrical wiring due to its ductility.
• Gold is extremely malleable. Gilding is a decorative technique of applying gold
leaf – very thin layers of gold – to materials including other metals, wood,
porcelain and stone.
• While highly malleable metals are often highly ductile, this is not always the case.
For example, lead has high malleability but low ductility.
 Melting Point of Metals
• Melting point refers to the temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid.
• Almost all metals are solids with high or very high melting points.
• Bond strength (and therefore the energy required to overcome these bonds) is generally
high in metals, due to the attraction between electrons and cations.
• The strength of metallic bonds varies between metals.
• Bond strength is directly related not only to melting point, but also hardness and tensile
strength.
• Therefore, metals with lower melting points are generally not as hard or strong.

Examples
• Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point – more than 3400°C.
• Iron, titanium and platinum all have melting points above 1500°C.

Exceptions
• Mercury is the only metal that is not a solid at room temperature.
• Group 1 metals have relatively low melting points, decreasing down the group to caesium,
which has a melting point of 28°C.
• Gallium has a melting point of 30°C.
 Hardness of Metals
• Hardness can be defined as resistance to scratching or abrasion.
• Most metals are hard, particularly the transition metals; main group
metals tend to be softer.
• The hardness of metals is related to bond strength – the level of
attraction between electrons and cations.

Examples
• Chromium and tungsten (group 6) are two of the hardest metals.

Exceptions
• Sodium and potassium (group 1) are two of the softest metals – they
can easily be cut with a knife.
 Strength of Metals
The are several ways that the strength of a metal can be defined and measured.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance to permanent deformation.
• Tensile strength is a measure of resistance to stretching.
• Compressive strength is a measure of resistance to compression (being squashed).
• Impact strength is a measure of resistance to fracture due to impact.
• Many metals have a high strength, but it varies considerably.
• The strength of metals is related to bond strength – the level of attraction between
electrons and cations.

Examples
• Iron,steel, titanium and tungsten are high-strength metals.

Exceptions
• Aluminium, zinc and gold are low-strength metals.
 Density of Metals
• Density refers to the amount of mass in a given volume.
• Most metals have a high or very high density, but there is a wide range.
• Density of metals is affected by how closely atoms are packed in the lattice, as
well as the density of atoms.
• Atoms are generally tightly packed in metals.
• Atomic density generally increases down periodic groups, as the neutron-proton
ratio increases.

Examples
• Osmium, iridium and platinum (period 6) have the highest densities – more than
20 g/cm3.

Exceptions
• Lithium, sodium and potassium (group 1) have the lowest densities – less than 1
g/cm3, which means they float on water.
 Metal alloying

• Alloying is a process in which two or more metal elements are melted

together in a precise combination to form a specific material, or alloy.
• An alloy is a mixture of a metal and one or more other elements,
which may be metals or non-metals.
• Alloys can be described as solid solutions, as they are usually formed
by melting and combining the components, then allowing them to
cool and solidify.
• Alloys are metallic structures with enhanced physical and chemical
properties.
• Alloys often have greater resistance to corrosion, due to the
incorporation of less reactive elements.
• Their enhanced properties make alloys useful for a wide variety of
purposes.
 Why Are Alloys Used?

• Metal alloys are used because they typically have enhanced mechanical or
chemical properties.
• Alloying elements can be added to a metal to increase a number of properties
including hardness, strength, corrosion resistance, machinability, and much more.
 Types of alloys
Substitutional alloys are alloys where atoms of the added element substitute
atoms of the main metal in the lattice.
• The atoms of the substitutional element are of a similar size to atoms of the main
metal.
• Bronze and brass are examples of substitutional alloys – copper atoms are
substituted by tin and zinc atoms respectively.
Interstitial alloys are alloys where atoms of the added element occupy spaces
(interstices) between atoms in the lattice, rather than displace atoms of the main
metal.
• The atoms of the interstitial element are much smaller than the atoms of the
main metal.
• Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy – carbon atoms occupy spaces within
the iron lattice.
• Some alloys are both substitutional and interstitial.
• Stainless steel is an example of an alloy that contains substitutional and
interstitial elements – iron atoms are substituted by chromium atoms while
carbon atoms occupy spaces within the iron-chromium lattice.
 What are Some Common Alloying Elements?

• There are a wide variety of alloying elements that serve different purposes
for different base materials.
Chromium is a metal frequently used to help alloys resist corrosion.
Depending on the material, it can also increase hardness and strength.
Nickel is a metal often added to materials to increase toughness. Austenitic
stainless steels have high additions of nickel which also acts as an
austenite-promoter.
Copper is a metal used to make materials, such as aluminum,
precipitation-hardenable.
• In steel, copper can increase corrosion-resistance, but can decrease the
corrosion-resistance of aluminum.
Manganese is a metal usually alloyed to improve strength. Manganese
alone as an alloying element is not affected very much by heat treatment,
making it suitable for higher temperature applications.
Tungsten is a metal alloying element used to improve wear resistance
(especially at high temperatures), toughness, and strength.
Lead is a metal alloying element that is used to improve machinability.
Silicon is a nonmetal alloying element. It is often used as a deoxidizer in
metals. Silicon also increases strength and can reduce melting
temperature.
Carbon is a nonmetal alloying element that is a necessary element to
manufacture steel. Carbon additions are often used in steel and cast iron
alloys to increase strength and hardness.
 Common Metal Alloys
Bronze
• Bronze was the first alloy to be made.
• It is formed by combining a small amount of tin with copper.
• Bronze is stronger and more durable than either copper or tin.
• It was a popular material for making tools and weapons during the Bronze Age.

Steel
• Steel is the most abundantly produced metal in the world.
• It is formed by mixing small amounts of carbon (<2%) with iron.
• The result is a stronger, harder and more durable material.
• Steel is used widely in the construction and transportation industries.
• Stainless steel is steel that also contains chromium (>10%) and smaller amount of
other elements, such as nickel.
• Stainless steel has a shiny, polished surface which is much more resistant to
corrosion.
Brass
• Brass is an alloy containing copper a significant proportion of zinc (usually a third
or more).
• Brass is more malleable than either copper or zinc, and has a smooth, shiny and
durable appearance.
• This makes it a suitable material for many applications, such as musical
instruments, ornaments, gears and fittings.
Aluminium Alloys
• A wide variety of aluminium alloys exist, which are formed by mixing aluminium
with small amount of other elements, such as copper, magnesium, manganese,
silicon, tin and zinc.
• Aluminium alloys have improved properties, such as greater strength, hardness
and corrosion resistance.
• Aluminium alloys have a wide range of uses, particularly in the construction,
transportation and aerospace industries.
Titanium Alloys
• Similar to aluminium, a wide range of titanium alloys are available, which are
formed by mixing titanium with small amount of other elements, such as tin,
aluminium, molybdenum, silicon and vanadium.
• Titanium alloys have superior strength to weight ratios, durability and corrosion
resistance.
• This makes them ideal materials for many uses, such as the military, airline and
aerospace industries, as well as consumer electronics and sporting goods.
• They are also non-toxic, leading to their use in medical and dental implants.
• Although an ideal material for many applications, titanium mining and production
is laborious and expensive, making it a more specialised than widely used
material.
Titanium alloys have many superior properties.
 Summary

• Metals are a large group of elements with a common atomic arrangement

and similar properties.
• Metallic structures consist of lattices of metal ions surrounded by
delocalised electrons.
• These structures are held together by strong metallic bonds.
 Physical properties common to all metals include:

• Metallic lustre – a mirror-like shininess when freshly cut or polished.

• Malleability – the ability to be bent into different shapes.
• Ductility – the ability to be drawn into wires.
• Electrical conductivity – the ability to conduct electric charge.
• Thermal conductivity – the ability to transfer heat.
Other properties common to most metals include:

• High melting point.

• Hardness.
• High strength.
• High density.
• Alloys are mixtures containing a metal and one or more other elements.
• Substitutional alloys are those where atoms within the metallic lattice are
replaced by other atoms.
• Interstitial alloys are those where additional atoms occupy spaces within
the metallic lattice.
• Alloys are metallic structures with enhanced properties compared to their
components.
 metallic corrosion and its prevention.

• Corrosion is one of the most common phenomena that we observe in our daily lives.
• You must have noticed that some objects made of iron are covered with an orange or
reddish-brown coloured layer at some point in time.
• The formation of this layer is the result of a chemical process known as rusting, which is
a form of corrosion.
• Corrosion, in general, is a process through which refined metals are converted into more
stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal hydroxides.
• Likewise, the rusting of iron involves the formation of iron oxides via the action of
atmospheric moisture and oxygen.
• If we look at the science behind corrosion then we can say that it is a spontaneous/
irreversible process wherein the metals turn into a much stable chemical compound like
oxides, sulphides, hydroxides, etc.
Why do metals corrode?
• Most metals are found in nature as ores.
• The manufacturing process of converting these ores into metals involves the
input of energy.
• During the corrosion reaction the energy added in manufacturing is released, and
the metal is returned to its oxide state.
• What is Corrosion?

 It is basically defined as a natural process that causes the transformation of pure

metals into undesirable substances when they react with substances like water or
air.
 This reaction causes damage and disintegration of the metal starting from the
portion of the metal exposed to the environment and spreading to the entire bulk
of the metal.
 Corrosion is usually an undesirable phenomenon since it negatively affects the
desirable properties of the metal.
 For example, iron is known to have good tensile strength and rigidity (especially
alloyed with a few other elements). However, when subjected to rusting, iron
objects become brittle, and structurally unsound.
• Do All Metals Corrode?
 Metals placed higher in the reactivity series such as iron, zinc, etc. get corroded
very easily and metals placed lower in the reactivity series like gold, platinum and
palladium do not corrode.
 The explanation lies in the fact that corrosion involves the oxidation of metals.
 As we go down the reactivity series tendency to get oxidised is very low
(oxidation potentials is very low).
 Interestingly, aluminium doesn’t corrode unlike other metals even though it is
reactive.
 This is because aluminium is covered by a layer of aluminium oxide already.
 This layer of aluminium oxide protects it from further corrosion.
 Factors Affecting Corrosion

• Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
• Exposure of metals to moisture especially salt water (which increases the rate of
corrosion).
• Presence of impurities like salt (eg. NaCl).
• Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.
• Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: some oxides like Al2O3 forms an insoluble
protecting layer that can prevent further corrosion.
• Presence of acid in the atmosphere: acids can easily accelerate the process of corrosion.
 Prevention of Corrosion
 Corrosion requires three conditions:
• Electrolyte
• Exposed metal surface
• Electron acceptor
Thus it is only necessary to remove one of these in order to prevent corrosion.

1. Barrier Films
Most commonly the exposed metal surface is treated by applying a barrier of paint
or enamel between the metal surface and the environmental moisture.
2. Electrochemical Methods
3. Design and Materials Selection
Materials must be selected on the basis of their ability to resist specific corrosive
environments
Metallic corrosion and its prevention
Metallic corrosion and its prevention
 INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
Ready and write short notes on the following
i. Crystalline structure of metals
ii. Iron, steel and their uses
iii. Application of metallurgical microscope
• differentiate between metallography and metallurgy
• Tutorial questions
1. Why is glass brittle, while copper is ductile? What is meant by a ductile
material?
2. If we take two rods, one of Al and one of steel, why is it easier to bend the Al
rod as compared to the steel rod?
3. How can I change properties like hardness, without changing the composition
(say of 0.8% C steel)?
4. Why is wire of copper conducting, while piece of brick or wood non-
conducting?
5. Why is glass transparent, while any typical metal is opaque?
6. Usually, good thermal conductors are also good electrical conductors. Why is
this so?
7. Why is brass harder than either of its component metals, copper and zinc?
8. Explain why metals are good conductors of electricity.
9. Explain why metals are also good conductors of heat
 LECTURE THREE

Conductors, semiconductors and insulators:

• Conductors; Classification, best metal conductors, their properties
and uses (copper, aluminum, lead and mercury); contact materials;
resistance materials; jointing materials (solders).
• Insulators; Classification, properties and uses of insulating materials;
Current conduction in solids, liquids and gaseous insulating materials;
breakdown in solids, liquids and gaseous insulating materials.
• Semiconductor Materials; Definition; types; properties and their
applications.
 Electrical properties of materials
• The Electrical properties of a material are those which determine the
ability of material to be suitable for a particular Electrical Engineering
Application.
• Some of the typical Electrical properties of engineering materials are
listed below-
Resistivity
Conductivity
Temperature coefficient of Resistance
Dielectric Strength
Thermoelectricity
  Resistivity
It is the property of material which resists the flow of electric current
through material. It is the reciprocal of conductivity.
It is dented by ‘ρ’.
Resistivity of a material of a conductor can be determined as below

Where, ‘R’ is the resistance of conductor in Ω.

‘A’ is the cross sectional area of conductor in m2
‘l’ is the length of the conductor in meter
SI unit of resistivity of is Ω-meter
 Resistivity of some materials is listed below
Examples
1. Find the resistance of a hollow cylindrical pipe of length 1m whose inner and
outer radii are 10cm and 20 cm respectively. Assume that the cylindrical pipe is
made of a material of resistivity 2 x 10-8 ohm m.
2. The area of cross section of wire becomes half when its length is stretched to
double. How the resistance of wire is affected in new condition?
3. A wire of length 3 m and area of cross-section 1.7 × 10-6 m2 has a resistance 3 ×
10-2 ohm. Calculate the resistivity of the wire
4. The table given below shows the resistivity of three Material X, Y and Z?

a. Arrange the samples in increasing order of conductivity

b. b. Which of these is best conductor?
c. c. Which are these is best insulator?
 conductivity
It is the property of material which allows the flow of electric current
through material.
It is a parameter which indicates that how easily electric current can
flow through the material.
It is denoted by ‘σ’.
Conductivity of material is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Conductivity of material can be determined by,

Mhom-1
 Dielectric Strength
It is the property of material which indicates the ability of material to
withstand at high voltages.
Generally it is specified for insulating material to represent their
operating voltage.
A material having high dielectric strength can withstand at high
voltages.
Generally, it is represented in the unit of KV/cm.
Dielectric strength of some insulating materials are listed below-
Dielectric Strength
 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material indicates the change in
resistance of material with change in temperature.
Resistance of conductor changes with change of temperature.
• Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?
The resistance of a conductor increases with an increase in temperature because
the thermal velocity of the free electrons increases as the temperature increases.
This results in an increase in the number of collisions between the free electrons.
The rise in resistance of a material with rise in temperature depends on following
things,
1. R2 – R1 ∝ R1
2. R2 – R1 ∝ t2 – t1
3. Property of material of conductor.
Where, R1 is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t10C and R2
is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t20C.
Hence, from above,
R2 – R1 ∝ R1 (t2 – t1)
R2 – R1 = αR1 (t2 – t1) ⇒
R2 = R1 *1 + α (t2 – t1)]
• Where, α is temperature coefficient of resistance of material. Its unit
is /0C.
 Thermoelectricity
• is the direct or spontaneous conversion of heat into electrical energy.
• If the junction formed by joining two metals, is heated, a small
voltage in the range of millivolt is produced.
• This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect.
• This effect forms the basis of operation of thermocouples and some
temperature based transducers.
• This effect can be used to generate electricity, to measure the
temperature and to measure the change is temperature of objects.
• The thermoelectricity is caused by charge carriers within the material
(either electrons, or places where an electron is missing, known as
“holes”) diffusing from the hotter side to the cooler side, similarly to
the way gas expands when it is heated.
Examples
1. A platinum resistance thermometer uses the change in R to
measure temperature. Suppose R0 = 50Ω at T0=20 ºC. α for Pt is
3.92×10-3 (ºC)-1 in this temperature range. What is R when T = 50.0
ºC?
2. A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance R0 = 50.0 Ω at
T0=20 ºC. α for Pt is 3.92×10-3 (ºC)-1. The thermometer is immersed
in a vessel containing melting tin, at which point R increases to
91.6Ω.
Electrical conducting materials
 Classification
  Classification
Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting Material
• Material having low resistivity or high conductivity are very useful in
electrical engineering products.
• These material are used as conductors for all kind of windings required in
electrical machines, apparatus and devices. These material are also used as
conductor in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
• Examples;
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Mercury
lead
  Classification
High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting Material

• Materials having High resistivity or Low conductivity conducting are

very useful for electrical engineering products.
• These material are used to manufacture the filaments for
incandescent lamp, heating elements for electric heaters, space
heaters and electric irons etc.
• Examples
Tungsten
Carbon
Nichrome or Brightray – B
Nichrome – Vor Brightray – C
Manganin
  Classification
Based on Area of Application
Materials used as conductor for coils of electrical machines
Materials for heating elements
Materials for lamp filaments
Material used for transmission line
Bimetals
Electrical Contact Materials
Electrical Carbon Materials
Material for Brushes used in Electrical Machines
Materials used for fuses
A classification chart of conducting materials based on their applications
Materials Used as Conductor for Coils of Electrical Machines

• Materials having low resistivity or high conductivity such as copper,

silver and aluminum can be used for making coils for electrical
machines.

• However, looking to optimum conductivity, mechanical strength and

cost, copper is much suitable for making coils for electrical machines.
Materials for Heating Elements
• Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as
Nichrome, Kanthal, Cupronickel and Platinum etc. are used for making
heating elements.
• Materials used for heating elements must possess following
properties-

High melting point

Free from oxidation in operating atmosphere
High tensile strength
Sufficient ductility to draw the metal or alloy in the form of wire
 Materials for Lamp Filaments

• Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity such as Carbon,

Tantalum and Tungsten etc. are used for making incandescent lamp
filament.
• Materials used for making incandescent lamp filament must possess
following properties-
High melting point
Low vapour pressure
Free from oxidation in inert gas (argon, nitrogen etc.) medium at
operating temperature
High resistivity
 Materials for Lamp Filaments

• Low thermal coefficient of expansion

• Low temperature coefficient of resistance
• Should have high young modulus and tensile strength
• Sufficient ductility so that can be drawn in the form of very thin wire
• Ability to be converted in the shape of filament
• High fatigue resistance against thermally induced fluctuating stresses
• Cost should minimum
 Material Used for Transmission Line

• Materials used for making conductor for transmission line must

possess following properties –
High conductivity
High tensile strength
Light weight
High resistance to corrosion
High thermal stability
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
Low cost
 Material Used for Transmission Line

• Materials use for transmission lines are listed below-

Copper
Aluminum
Cadmium-Copper alloys
Phosphor bronze
Galvanized steel
Steel core copper
Steel core aluminum
Materials Used for Fuse Elements
• Fuse element is primary requirement of a fuse unit. The fuse element
should have following properties-
Low resistance – to avoid the undesirable voltage drop across the fuse
element, so that it should effects the normal functioning or performance of
circuit or device or equipment
Low melting point – the fuse element must have low melting point. So that
it blow out due to heating by excess current during over load or short
circuit.
Different types of metals and alloys are used for fuse element. Some of these
elements are listed below –
Aluminum
Lead and tin
Copper
Silver
 Best metal conductors
• conductors are good distributors of heat and electricity.
• The electric conductors possess portable electrically charged particles
which we refer to as electrons. Similarly, when we apply an electric
charge to metal, these electrons move to allow the flow of electricity.
• Similarly, the substances that have high electron mobility are known
as good conductors. And, the ones which do not have good electron
mobility are known as bad conductors or insulators.
Copper and Silver Are Most Common
• Silver is the best conductor of electricity because it contains a higher
number of movable atoms (free electrons), the more free electrons in
a metal, the greater its conductivity.
• However, silver is more expensive than other materials and is not
normally used unless it is required for specialized equipment like
satellites or circuit boards.
 Copper and Silver Are Most Common
• Copper is less conductive than silver but is cheaper and commonly used as
an effective conductor in household appliances.
• Copper is also easy to solder and wrap into wires, so it is often used when a
large amount of conductive material is required.
Aluminum Works Well, But Has Risks
• Aluminum, when compared by unit weight, is actually more conductive
than copper and costs less.
• Aluminum material is used in household products or in wiring but it is not a
common choice because it has several structural flaws.
• For example, aluminum has the tendency to form an electrically resistant
oxide surface in electrical connections, which may cause the connection to
overheat.
• Aluminum is instead used for high-voltage transmission lines (such as
overhead phone cables) which can be encased in steel for additional
protection.
 Gold Is Effective But Expensive
• Gold is a good electric conductor and does not tarnish like other
metals when exposed to the air, for example, steel or copper may
oxidize (corrode) when in prolonged conduct with oxygen.
• Gold is especially expensive and is only used for certain materials,
such as circuit board components or small electrical connectors.
• Some materials may receive gold plating as an electric conductor, or
use a small amount of gold which is then plated in another material
to reduce manufacturing costs.
 Electrical contact materials
• Electrical contact materials refer to a class of metals that are used in the electrical
interfaces of electrical connectors and electrical switches.
• These materials are characterized by superior electrical conductivity properties
• Electrical contacts are common in electrical mechanical devices that operate with
a broad range of voltages and functions. Some of their most important uses
include in:
Household appliances
Motors
Control centers
Power plants
Assembly lines
Presses
Conveyors
Cranes
NB: Electrical contacts are present in any system in which a transfer of electricity
occurs
 Electrical contact materials
• Building property functioning electrical contacts requires the use of materials
with:
Good conductivity
Resistance against oxidation, corrosion, and mechanical wear
Cost efficiency
Application-specific properties
• Among the common metals used to create electrical contacts are:
Silver
Copper
Gold
Platinum
Palladium
Brass
How to Choose the Right Electrical Contact for Your Application
• Choosing the right electrical contact for your application will significantly
improve its reliability and performance within the system
• There are six essential properties to consider when making this choice:
 Conductivity: This measures a metal’s ability to resist or conduct electric
currents as specified by the International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS); in this system, copper establishes the baseline at 100% conductivity,
and other metals are rated in accordance to their capacities
Corrosion resistance: This relates to the ability of the contacts to resist
chemically induced corrosion over time
Hardness: is the measure of how resistant the material is to various kinds
of permanent deformations resulting from an applied force. Hardness is
dependent on a material’s ductility, elasticity, plasticity, tensile strength,
and toughness
Current load: is the maximum recommended current load that the
material is capable of handling.
Form: This specifies the various shaping capacities of the material for
its specific application
Size: This measures the length, width, and thickness of the material
or its outside diameter in relation to its application
 INSULATORS
• Electrical insulators are different from electrical conductors.
• Electrical conductors are those materials that propagate the ease of
flow of electricity throughout them. They allow charges to flow
easily through them.
• Insulators, on the other hand, are materials that do not allow electric
charges to flow freely through them.
• Conductors have a property called conductivity which defines their
ability to conduct electricity.
• For insulators, their effectiveness is determined based on how much
resistance they offer to the flow of electricity. This property, in
contrast to conductivity, is called resistivity.
 INSULATORS
Examples for Insulators are given below
• Plastic
• Rubber
• Wax
• Wood
• Glass
• Air
• Styrofoam
 INSULATORS
• Most non-metals are poor conductors and therefore good insulators.
• They do not have free electrons available to conduct electricity.
• Materials with larger resistivity values, offer greater resistance to the
flow of electric current and are therefore better insulators.
• For example, glass has a resistivity value of 1012 Ωm (ohmmeter), and
copper has a value of resistivity of 10-12 Ωm.
 INSULATORS
Uses of Insulators
• Insulators are mainly used in applications where the prevention of the
flow of electric charges is required.
• These materials work as effective non-conductors since they lack
movable electric charges required to propagate electric current.
• Electrical insulators are used mainly as parts of electrical equipment.
• For example, the electrical wires which transfer electricity through
households, are covered with insulation material to prevent any
safety hazards.
• The electrical plugs have an insulated covering to prevent electricity
flowing from the metal socket (conductor) to your body (also a
conductor) by stopping the flow of electrons.
 INSULATORS
Application of Electric Insulators

Some key applications of electric insulators are given below:

• Coating of electric wires
• Coating for electric poles on the streets
• Circuit boards
• Coating of cables
• High voltage appliances
 Insulating Materials
• Electrical insulating materials are defined as materials which offer a
very large resistance to flow of current,
• and for that reason they are used to keep the current in its proper
path along the conductor.
• in some applications the insulating material in addition to its function
as an insulator may have to act as a rigid mechanical support to the
conductor and may be installed out of doors,
• In which case the insulating qualities must be retained under all
atmospheric conditions, in other cases extreme flexibility is required.
• In electric heaters the insulating materials must maintain their
insulating qualities over a wide range of temperatures extending in
some cases to 1100°C, and for radio purposes the insulating qualities
must be maintained up to very high frequencies.
• In electrical machines and transformers the insulating materials applied to
the conductors are required to be flexible, to have high specific electric
strength (to reduce thickness to minimum) and ability to withstand
unlimited cycles of heating and cooling.

Characteristics of a Good Insulating Material:

 Large insulating resistance.
High dialectic strength.
 Uniform viscosity—it gives uniform electrical and thermal properties.
 Should be uniform throughout—it keeps the electric losses as low as
possible and electric stresses uniform under high voltage difference.
Least thermal expansion.
 When exposed to arcing should be non-ignitable.
 Should be resistance to oils or liquids, gas fumes, acids and alkalies.
 Should have no deteriorating effect on the material, in contact with it.
 Low dissipation factor (loss tangent).
High mechanical strength.
High thermal conductivity.
 Low permittivity.
 High thermal strength.
 Free from gaseous insulation to avoid discharges (for solids and
gases).
 Should be homogeneous to avoid local stress concentration.
 Should be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.
 Classification of Insulating Materials:
• Classification according to substances and materials.
Solids (Inorganic and Organic):
Mica, wood, slate, glass, porcelain, rubber, cotton, silk, rayon, terylene,
paper and cellulose materials etc.
Liquids (Oils and Varnishes):
Linseed oil, refined hydrocarbon mineral oils, spirit and synthetic
varnishes etc
Gases:
Dry air, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen etc.

• Classification according to temperature.

 Fun Facts

• You would be surprised to know that the diamond necklace you wear
on a special occasion is an excellent electrical insulator material.

• A high-voltage area, which is dangerous, is enclosed in fiberglass or

glass to prevent the conductivity of charges to pass.

• Your electrician uses a special screwdriver with a plastic coating to

check the passage of electrical charges without getting electrocuted.
QN1. Which properties make an electrical insulator useful?
The job of an electrical insulator is to make high electric charges non-
conductive. Thus, electrical insulator material should have the
following properties.
Resistive – When two volt produces 2 amperes of current, the
electrical insulator should also produce 1 ohm of resistance. Thus,
electrical insulator materials, such as glass, paper, wood, etc. prevent
electrons’ conductivity from passing through.
Dielectric Strength – The electrical insulator materials should have
been mechanically strong to withstand and carry the tension and
weight of electrical conductors. They should be able to provide
insulation as well as withstand the pressure without breakdown or
failure.
QN2. Which electrical insulator material is best for performing substantial
duty voltage?
• Usually, household appliances are found to have a heavy plastic coating to
perform the duty of an electrical insulator.
• It is because these instruments do not have extremely high-voltage.
• The plastic or porcelain insulators are perfect for withstanding free flow of
electric currents or charges.
• However, factories using heavy machinery require high-voltage. In such
cases, a plastic or porcelain electrical insulator would not suffice.
• Glass and mica are more useful insulators for industrial purposes, as it has
a high breakdown voltage.
• Mica’s dielectric strength is 500 kV/inches, whereas glass has 2000 to 3000
kV/inches dielectric strength, which makes them fit for use in high-voltage
industrial uses.