4.

Superconducting Materials
Superconductivity
Super conductors Properties Type I and, Type II
CS theory of
(Qualitative) ligh Te superconductivity
superconductors
of superconductors
levitation.
SQUID, cryotron, Applieations
magnetie

Introduction

Superconductivity is one of the most exciting phenomena in

physics. It was discovered by Duteh Physicist H.K. Onnes in
the year 1905.

It is an interesting and unusual property of the solids and

it has immense potential of prospective applications.
Superconducting materials have extraordinary electrical and
magnetic characteristics. Several hundreds of superconductors
have been discovered and studied so far.

These materials have many important applications in the

and
field of engineering and technology. Many electronic
superconducting
magnetic devices have bcen fabricated with
materials.

to be the biggest
Superconductivity appears
physical and material
revolution that occurred recently in
transistor.
Sciences since the invention of

4.1 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
of superconductivity, it was thought
Before the discovery
material becomes zero only at
resistivity of a
nat the electrical
absolute zero temperature.
 Engineering Physic
materials, the electrical
4.2

It was
found that in
to zero
some
when they are
sufficiently cooled belo resistance
suddenly falls as critical temperature T
temperature, known
certainlow
The variation of the electrical resistance with temperature
shown in fig.4.1. It is found that the electrical
is
for mercury pure mercury suddenly drops to zero when it i.
resistance of
K.
cooled below 4.2

Superconductor
Electrical
Resistivity
Normal metal

4.2 K
0
To
Temperature (K)
temperature
Fig. 4.1 Variation of Electrical esistivity with

Definition
The phenomenon of suddendisappearance of
electrical resistance in a material, when it is cooled below
a certain temperature is known as superconductivity.
Now, the material is said to make a transition from
normal conducting state to superconducting state.
Superconductor or Superconducting materials
A material which exhibits superconductivity is called
superconductor or superconducting material.
Transition temperature or eritical temperature
The temperature at which a. material at norm
conducting state changes into superconducting state
known as transition temperature or critical temperatur
(T).
Superconducting Materials 4,3

Transition temperature depends on the property of the

material. is found that superconducting transition is
reversible, ie., above critical temperature (T,) a superconductor
material
becomes a normal

Every superconductor has its own transition temperature

at which it changes into superconducting state.

Occurrence of superconductivity
and
Superconductivity occurs in many metallic elements
intermetallic compounds
also in a considerable number of alloys,
and semiconductors.
superconducting element
The transition temperature of a
low. It is in the range of 0K to 9.5K. Transition
is very
superconducting elements above 3K are
temperatures of some
given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Transition temperatures of some
superconducting elements

Critical
temperature
S.No Element
Te(K)
Indium (In) 3.40
1
Tin (Sn) 3.72
2.
Mercury (Hg) 4.15
3.
Tantalum (Ta) 4.48
4
Vanadium () 5.38
5

Lanthanum (La) 6.00

6.

Lead (Pb) 7.19

7.
9.50
8. Niobium (Nb)
 4.4

(Nb)
Engineering Physics
Among these clements, Niobium has the
transition temperature (9.5 K).
highest
It is interesting to note that the metals
which are
normally very good conductors of heat and electricity (e.g.
Cu, Ag, Au) are not superconductors.

Some intermetallic compounds exhibit superconductivity .

relatively high temperatures. The transition
such materials are given in table 4.2. temperatures
of

Table 4.2
Transition temperatures of some
intermetallic compounds
Critical
S. No. Alloy temperature
To (K)
1. Niobiumn Titanium (NbTi) 10.0
2.
Vanadium Gallium (VGa) 16.5
3.
Vanadium Silicon (V,Si) 17.1
4. Niobium Aluminium (Nb,Al) 17.5
5
Niobium Tin (Nb,Sn) 18.1
6
Niobium Germanium (Nb,Ge) 23.2

4.2 PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

1, Zero electrical resistance
The first characteristic property of a
clectrical resistance. The
superconductor 1s
electrical resistance of the
superconductor 1s zero below the transition temperature
(T). It is the 'quickest test' to prove the superconductivity.
Superconducting Materials 4.5

2. Effect of magnetic field

Below transition temperature (T) of a superconducting
material, its superconductivity can be destroyed by the
application of a strong magnetic field.
The minimum magnetic field strength required to
destroy the superconducting property is known as critical
magnetic field (H).
The critical magnetic field (H) depends upon the
The relation
temperature of the superconducting material.
between critical magnetic field and temperature is given by
2

H, critical magnetic field at absolute zero temperature

(0 K) of the material.
material.
superconducting transition temperature of the
material.
T - temperature below T, of the superconducting
temperature of a material
It is noted that when the
decreases
increases, the value of critical magnetic field
fields at absolute
correspondingly. The value of critical magnetic materials. (Refer
zero temperature are different for different
Table 4.3)

Ho
Normalstate

Super
conducting
Ho phase

To

Fig. 4.2 Variation of Hc with T

 4.6
Engineering Physics - I|
The critical magnetic field is Zero at superconducting
transition temperature, i.e., at T=T, H,=0. The variation of
H, with temperature T in a superconductor is shown in fig.
4.2.

Table 4.3
Critical magnetic field at 0K for
some superconduçting materials

Critical magnetic
S.No. Element field at 0K (H,)
(milli tesla)
Niobium (Nb) 198.0
1.
Vanadium (V) 142.0
2.
Lanthanum (La) 110.0
3.
Lead (Pb) 80.3
4.
41.2
5. Mercury (Hg)
30.9
6. Tin (Sn)
 5. Meissner effect in its normal
conducting material
When a super
placed in a uniform
magnetic field of conducting
flux density B
tate is penelrates through the material
magnetic ines of force
the
shown in fig. 4.5 (a).

B=0
B#0

T> Tc
H> HÍ T<Tç
H<He
(a) Normal conducting state (b) Superconducting
Fig. 4.5 state

However, when the material is cooled below its transition

temperature i.e., T< Tr the magnetic flux (1<H
originally present in the specimen is pushed out from the
specimen as shown in fig. 4.5 (b).
Thus, inside superconducting specimen, magnetic inducue
(B) is zero. This
phenomenon is known as Meissner eifecl.
" This ans that
means that
superconducting materials
perfect diamagnetism.
exhibit
 4.12 Engineering Physics |
4.3 Bcs THEORY (QUALITATIVE)
The microscopie theory of superconductivity developed
J. Bardeen, L.N. Cooper and J.R. Schrieffer in
by
successfully explained the eflects like zero resistivity, 1957,
effect etc. This theory is known as BCS theory. Meissner
Important features of BCS theory
Electrons form pairs (called Cooper pairs) which
propogate throughout the lattice
The cooper pairs are propagated through the lattice
without resistance because the electrons move n
resonance with phonons.
Therefore, the interaction described by the BCS theory is
known as the electron - phonon - electron interaction.
To explain the formation of cooper pair, consider the model
in fig. 4.8 (a), in which two electrons propagate along a single
lattice row. Each electron experiences an attraction towards its
nearest positive ion.
When the electrons get very close to each other in the
region between ions, they repcl each other due to their mutual
coulomb force.

In an equilibrium condition, a balance between attraction

and repulsion is established and the two electrons combine to
form cooper pair.

Electron
Ion row)
lon row (+) Blectron
Electron
lon row(+)
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.8 Movement of electrons

(a) in a one-dimensional lattice
(b) betuween rows of a two-dimensional lattice
Superconducting Materials 4.13

In order to explain the zero resistivity exhibited by the

superconductors, consider one of the electrons of the cooper pair
propagating through the lattice as shown in fig. 4.8(b). The
coulomb attraction between the electron and ions deforms the
latice which is propagated along with the clectron.
This propagating wave 1 associated with phonon
transmission and the electron - phonon resonance allows the
with its pair elsewhere in the lattice to move
electron along
without resistance.

Predictions of BCS Theory

predict the observed
i) BOS theory could successfully variation of critical
the
phenonmenon of isotope effect and
tenperature.
magnetic field with
BCS theory explains the existence of an energy gap
(ii)
ground state (superconducting state) and first
between the energy required to
energy gap represents the
excited state. The
pair. Hence, larger energy gaps correspond to
break a cooper
superconductors. According to BOS theory, the
more stable
given by
energy gap at T=0K is
..(1)
E, (0)=3.54 k Te
prediction was verified by studying the absorption of
This
electromagnetic radiation by superconductors.
Further, the BCS theory explains quantization of the
(üi)
superconducting ring. It is given by
magnetic flux ¢through a
nh ...(2)
= nYo 2e

where n is an integer and

quantum
Tm is referred to as the
15 2
= 2.068 × 10
2
luxoid.
 Engineering Physics
4.14
The quantization of magnetic flux has been confirmed
experimentally.
parameter associated
(iv) Another important with
superconductivity which follows from BCS theory is the presence
coherence length. lt is defined as the distance over which
of Cooper pair.
two electrons combine to forn a
dimension over which
In other words, it is the smallest
destroyed.
superconductivity can be cstablished or
TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
4.4
conductors
Based on the magnetisation behaviour of super types.
classified into two
in an external magnetic field, they are
(i) Type- Isuperconductors
(ii) Type - II superconductors

Superconductor

TypeISuperconductor Type l Superconductor

Type I- Superconductor
expelled
In this superconductor, the magnetic field is totally
magnetising
from the interior of the material below the critical
superconductivity
field H. At H, the material loses its
abruptly and the magnetic field penetrates fully.
The magnetisation curve for a type - I superconductor is
shown in fig. 4.9.
It is found that the transition from superconducting state
to normal state in the presence of magnetic field occurs sharply
at the critical magnetic field H
Superconducting Materials 415

Type I
M

Magnetization
Super conducting Normal
state

H ’ HÍ Applied Magnetic field

Magnetisation curve for type-Isuperconductor

Fis. 4.9

superconductors
Characteristics of type-I
effect i.e., they are
They exhibit complete Meissner
completely diamagnetic.

one critical magnetic field. The value of

They have only
very low.
the critical magnetic field H, is

maximum known critical magnetic field for type-I

. The Tesla.
superconductor is of the order of 0.1
superconductors because
They are often called as soft supercondcting
relatively low magnetic field can
destroy
state.

magnetisation curve shows that transition at H, is

The
magnetic field is
reversible. This means that if the
superconducting
reduced below H, the material acquires
again and the magnetic field is expelled.
property
H,, the material behaves as a superconductor and
" Below
conductor.
above H, it behaves as a normal

Example: are type - I

Most of the elemental superconductors
Superconductors (except Niobium (Nb) and Vanadium (D).
 4.16
Engneering Physc
Disadrantages
) Tpel superconductors have only a limited
applications because they cannot
(as critical current is low).
carry high practieal
currenta
(in) Due to low value of H these
materials are not suitable
for use in high-field
superconducting magnets.
Type - II Superconductor
Type - II superconductor is one in which the
material loses
its magnetisation gradually ather than suddenly.
The magnetisation curve for type-II
shown in fig. 4.10.
superconductor is

They have two critical fields: H, (lower critical field)

and H (upper critical field). The specimen is perfect
diamagnetic below H, i.e, magnetic field is completely expelled
below Hr;

- M
Magnetisation

Mixed Normal
Buper state state
conducting
state
H,
Applied Field (H)

4.10 Magnetisation curve for type Il superconductor

Fig.
Supecondueting Materiala 4.17

At H,magnetic lux begins Lo penetrate the specimen and

penelration of lux continues until the upper critical field
the
is reached.

returns
At H,, , mugnetisntion vanishes and the specimen
to normal condueting slato.
(fig. 4.10).

Characteristics of type II superconductors

Meissner effect.
" They do not show complete
-superconductors because they
" They are called as hard
field to destroy
require a large amount of magnetic
superconducting state.

They do not behave as perfect diamagnetic materials

"
above Hc,:
Magnetization curve is reversible.

Examples
type - II superconductors are Nb-Zr, Nb - Ti alloys
Typical
compounds.
and Va - Ga and Nb - Sn intermetallic

Applications of type - II superconductors

are of great practical interest because they can
They
carry high current density.
used for power transmission without any loss.
" They are
type - I
They are technically more useful than fields.
magnetic
superconductors due to toleration of high
and type - II
The differences between type- I
Superconductors are given in the table 4.4.
418

Table 4.4
Engineering Physics-M
Differenees betwcen type-l and
type-II
S.
No.
Type I
superconductor Type
superconducto
Il superconductor
rs
1. The material loses itsThe
magnetisation material loses its
suddenly. magnetisation gradually.
2. They exhibit
complete|
Meissner effect They do not exhibit
i.e., Meissner complete
they are effect
completely
diamagnetic
3. There is only
oneThere are two critical mnagnetic
critical magnetic field fields i.e., lower critical field
(H. and upper critical field

4. No mixed state.
Mixed state
present. is
5. Highest known
critical|Critical magnetic field is much
magnetic field is 0.1greater i.e., upto 30 tesla.
telsa.
6. They are called soft They are called hard
superconductors superconductors because they
because of their require large magnetic field to
|tendency to give away destroy the super conducting
their property to lowstate.
magnetic field.
7. Examples: |Examples:
lead, tin and mercury, Nb - Sn, Nb - Zr, Nb -Ti, and Va
etc., Ga, etc.
4.5 HIGH -TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTOR
or High Tc
Superconductors
In a
high ie.,
superconductor if the transition
temperature is
greater than 30 K, then it is called as high
temperature superconductor.
Earlier it was believed that the
possible only in metals. Surprisingly insuperconductivity was
1986, Muller and
Bednorz discovered high -temperature
ceramics. superconductor in
They produced a particular type of ceramic material from
a compound of barium, lanthanum, copper and oxygen (Ba -
La
-Cu -0). This compound superconductor showed
superconductivity even at atemperature as high as 30K. It was
a major break through in this field.
 4.20

Subsequently, a Engineering Physics-|

large number of metal oxide compuunda
(ceramics) with a range of high T, values,
were reported.
The oxide Y
Ba,Cu,0, with a Tç of 90K was the most
extensively studied high T,
superconductor.
Some of the high T,
are given in table 4.5. superconductors and their T. values
Table 4.5
Examples for High T,
superconductors
No.
High To Transitiom
superconduetors LEmperatuIe
(K)
1. Las;Ba,.15CuO4 36
2. |YBa,Cu,O89 90
3. TL,Ba,Ca,Cu,0,0 125
4. HgBa,CaCu,O; 133

Characteristics
superconductors
of high - temperature

They have high transition temperatures.

They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.
They are oxides of copper in combination with other
elements.
" They are reactive, brittle and cannot be easily modified.
 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

4.6 SQUID

SQUID stands for Superconducting QUantum Interference

Device. It is an ultra - sensitive instrument used to
- 14
measure very weak magnetic field of the order of 10
tesla.

Principle
It is based on the flux quantization in a superconducting
ring. A small change in mnagnetic feld produces variation in the
quantum flux.
 Superconducting Materials
4.23

Deseription and Working

1 is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two
Josephson junctions mounted on a superconducting ring form
this interferometer (Fig. 4.12). The superconducting ring can
have magnetic fields of quantum values (1, 2, 3...) of flux.

When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the

plane of the ring, the current is induced at the two Josephson
junctions.
The induced current produces the interference pattern and
it flows around the ring. The total magnetic flux passing through
the ring is quantized.

Magnetic field

Super conductor ring Josephson junctionl

-
Biasing
current

Josephson junction2
V

Fig. 4.12 sQUID

very minute
SQUID is used to detect the variation of
magnetic signals in terms of quantum flux.

Applications
magnetic tlux.
SQUID is used as storage device for

in the study of earthquakes, removing

1 t is useful
magnetic Signals
Paramagnetic impurities, detection of
from the brain, heart etc.
Superconducting Materials
4.25
4.8 MAGNETIC LEVITATION
Wo know that a
Meissner effect. Due to this superconducting
effect,
material shows the
strongly repel external magnets. This
leads superconducting
to a
materials
effect. levitation
When a magnet is placed over a
asste gs shown in fig. 4.14. This superconductor, it
magmetic phenomenon
levitation. This principle is used in
is known
as
levitated trains (super - fast trains). magnetically
Magnet

Super
conductor

Fig. 4.14 Magnet floats over a superconduetor bowl

Magnetic Levitated Train (Maglev train)

The magnetic levitated train does not move over the rails
but it floats above the rails.

Description and Working

This train has superconducting magnets built into its base
g. 4.15). An aluminium guideway, above which the train will
be set afloat by magnetic levitation.
Carriage

Wheel Wheel

Superconducting
Aluminium magnet
guideway

Fig. 4.15 Guideway of maglev train

(cross-sectional view)
4.26 Engineering Physics |
Magnetic levitation is brought about by enormous repulsion
between two highly powerful magnetic fields, one produced by
the superconducting magnet inside the train and the other hr
ihe electric current in the aluminium guideway.
The current in the guideway produces the necessary
magnetic field to levitate the train and helps in propelling the
1rain forward.

Note
|A prototype maglev train constructed in Japan which reached
a speed surpassing 400 km / h. The superconducting magnets
ere cooled with liquid helium. A maglev train is expected to
begin service between Osaka and Tokyo.