Introduction to Reinforced

Concrete Design

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 1

 EXPECTED OUTCOMES
Per. 01
1. Learn basic terminology
2. Learn basic concrete technology (cement, aggregates, admixtures)
3. Learn basic properties of concrete (compressive strength, tensile strength,
elastic modulus, ultimate strain)
4. Learn test methods and empirical formulas to determine basic properties of
concrete

Per. 02
1. Understand main functions of steel reinforcement
2. Learn basic properties of steel (stress-strain curve, yield stress, elastic
modulus)
3. Learn typical steel Grades and sizes for rebars
4. Learn basic concepts of LRFD design for r.c. structures

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 2

Reinforced concrete is a composite material which combines concrete and
reinforcement (steel reinforcing bars, embedded in the concrete before it sets).

Resistant reinforced concrete

skeleton of a building

Reinforcement detailing (size and

distribution of reinforcement) www.abovetopsecret.com

The success of reinforced concrete

as a construction material can be
understood if the properties of the
constitutive materials are analyzed.
http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 3

Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held
together in a rocklike mass with a paste of cement and water.

Hardened concrete Fresh plastic concrete

Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients —

water, aggregate, cement, and any additives (admixtures) — to produce
concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed,
workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 4

Clinker (produced by heating limestone with small quantities of clay at 2600F) is
ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland
Cement', the most commonly used type of cement.

The water causes the

hardening of concrete
through a process called

HYDRATION

a chemical reaction in
which the major
compounds in cement
form chemical bonds with
water molecules and
become hydrates or
hydration products.

electron microscope picture of cement

www.geol.lsu.edu

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 5

There are 5 stages of hydrolysis which corresponds to several chemical
reactions. The slow formation of hydrate products occurs and continues as long
as water and unhydrated silicates are present.

~10min ~2 hrs ~6 hrs ~16 hrs

0-10min-------------------2hrs-----------------8hrs----------------24hrs--------------->
General hydration curve
http://www.understanding-cement.com/hydration.html
Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 6
Stage I: Ettringite (gel
consistency) www.fhwa.dot.gov

Stage III: calcium silicate hydrate

and calcium hydroxide crystals
cementlab.com

Stage III: Aggregates (chemically

inert solid bodies) hold together by
the cement cementlab.com
Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 7
Many properties of the concrete can be explained based on its production
process and constitutive materials:

1. Considerable compressive strength and stiffness (per unit cost compared

with most other materials) (+)

1. Very low tensile strength (due to chemical bonding of crystals and

aggregates) which leads to heavy members (-)

2. Ability to be cast into a variety of shapes (+)

3. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place (-)

4. Low maintenance and great resistance to fire (nonflammable, high-

temperature resistant materials) and water (low porosity) (+)

5. Takes advantage of local inexpensive materials (sand, gravel and water) (+)

6. Properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning

and mixing (mix design) (-)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 8

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) recognizes five types of
Portland Cement (ASTM 150):

Type I common all-purpose cement

Type II modified cement with low heat of hydration (less expansion, less
shrinkage) and good resistance to sulfate attack (aggregates contaminated
da gypsum, seawater)

Type III high-early-strength cement (with high heat of hydration)

Type IV cement with very low heat of hydration (for very large structures)

Type V cement with extreme resistance to sulfate attack

Lightweight aggregates may be used

to reduce the weight of the concrete
members (e.g. Expanded clay
aggregate = ceramic shell with
honeycomb core) – less strength, less
stiffness

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 9

Admixtures added during and/or before mixing are used to improve the
performance of concrete:

1. Air-entraining admixtures (cause the

water to foam: e.g. for freezing
weather)

2. Accelerating admixtures (reduce time

for curing-Stage III: e.g. for precast
members)

3. Retarding admixtures (increment

dormancy period-Stage II: e.g. for
large pours)
4. Superplasticizers (reduce water
content/increase slump: e.g. for thin
structural elements)
5. Waterproofing materials (reduce
porosity: e.g. for marine constructions)
Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01
Fly ashes (ash produced during
combustion of coal) also increment
workability and reduce porosity
(because of their more regular
shape compared to clinker cement)
eeg.geoscienceworld.org
CE421 Dr. Lomiento 10
The design of reinforced concrete structure require knowledge of standardized
mechanical properties of the concrete (ASTM C39/C39M).
The compression strength is determined by testing to failure 28-day-old 6-in
diameter by 12-in concrete cylinders (kept under water or in a room with
constant temperature and 100% humidity) at a specific rate of loading.

Servo controlled concrete Typical compression failure

compression testing machine www. iam.uic.edu
www.essie.ufl.edu
Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 11
Discussion:
Will the compression test provide the “actual” compressive strength of the
concrete? What if we collect a sample from the hardened concrete from the
structure and test it to failure: will we find the same compressive strength?

Answer:

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 12

Discussion:
What is the stress distribution in a generic section of the concrete cylinder
during the compression test?

Answer:
Compression (sigma = P/A)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 13

Discussion:
The compression test on a standard cylinder (6” diameter x 12” height) showed
a maximum force of 120,000 lb at failure. What is the compressive strength of
the concrete?

Answer:

SEE NOTEBOOK NOTES

ANS: 4,244 PSI

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 14

The concrete compression capacity (in terms of stiffness, strength and
deformation) is obtained from the compressive stress-strain behavior of the
specimen.
Initial linear typically Conventionally (ACI 318)
elastic behavior ec‘ = 0.002 in/in ecu = 0.003 in/in
(up to 0.5 fc’)

Small tension
strength
COMPRESSION

TENSION

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building Code Requirements is the

reference standard for reinforced concrete design in the US.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 15

 Idealized stress-strain (f-e) curve for a concrete material with compressive
strength fc’.

fc’= Compressive
strength

CONCRETE
CRUSHES
0.5 fc’= End of
linear elastic
behavior Ec = Elastic
modulus
1 COMPRESSION
CONCRETE fr = Modulus of ecu = 0.003 in/in TENSION
CRACKS rupture (tensile
strength)
ec‘ = 0.002 in/in

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 16

Discussion:
What is the longitudinal contraction DL (in) of a 12in-long cylinder made of
4,000psi concrete at its compressive strength and at crushing? (recall that
e=DL/L)

Answer:

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 17

Capacity in terms of compressive strength:

The compressive strength capacity increases with time. For prestressed

members requires evaluation of the initial Compressive Strength (at the
prestressing stage), which for typical moist-cured Type I cement concrete is:

(Eq. 3)

where t is in days and f’c is the 28-day compressive strength.

7.0 1.2

6.0 1.0

5.0
0.8

21 days = 96%
14 days = 88%
7 days = 70%
4.0

f'ci/f'c
f'c = 6 ksi f'c = 6 ksi
f'ci

0.6
3.0 f'c = 5 ksi f'c = 5 ksi
f'c = 4 ksi 0.4 f'c = 4 ksi
2.0 f'c = 3 ksi f'c = 3 ksi

1.0 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Time, t (Days) Time, t (Days)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 18

Compression capacity in terms of ultimate strength:

Regardless of strengths, all the concretes typically reach their ultimate strength
at about ec‘ = 0.002 in/in.

Typical values of f’c:

3,000 – 4,000 psi for conventional construction

5,000 – 6,000 psi for prestressed construction

For very high compressive strength f’c = 10, 000 to 20,000 psi

According to ACI 318, the average compressive strength of concrete

produced f’cr should always exceed the specified value of f’c used in the
structural design calculations (statistic criteria are given in Table 5.3.2.2), which
is called nominal strength.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 19

Compression capacity in terms of stiffness:

The curves are roughly straight while the load is increased from zero to about
one-third to one-half the concrete ultimate’s strength. Beyond this range the
behavior is non linear.
ACI 318 Code defines the modulus of
elasticity as the secant modulus
corresponding to a stress of 0.45f’c

(Eq. 1)

where wc = unit weight of concrete (in

lb/ft3 from 90 to 155 lb/ft3), f’c = 28-day
compressive strength (psi, not to
exceed 6,000 psi), Ec in psi

For Normal Weight (NW) concrete, wc

≈ 145 lb/ft3, Eq.1 becomes:

(Eq. 2)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 20

Compression capacity in terms of stiffness:

Eqs. 1 and 2 are derived from

regression analyses on
experimental data.

Example:
The specified (nominal)
compressive strength of BW
concrete for a specific job is
4,000 psi. Determine the
modulus of elasticity of this
concrete.

Solution:

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 21

Compression capacity in terms of ultimate strain:

Concrete does not have a definite yield strength. The stress-strain curves run
smoothly on to the point of rupture at strains from 0.003 to 0.04 in/in. According
to ACI 318, we will assume for the purpose of future calculations that concrete
fails at ecu = 0.003 in/in (ACI 318 10.2.3).

It should be further noticed that weaker concrete are is brittle than stronger
ones, that is they will take larger strains before crushing.

Note:
The ecu = 0.003 in/in value is conservative for normal-strength concretes, but
may not be conservative for higher-strength concrete in the 8000-psi-and-above
range.

The Posson’s ratio varies from about 0.11 for the higher strength concrete (less
water cement ratio = less microscopic compactness) to as high as 0.21 for the
weaker grades of concretes, with average values of 0.16.

Under sustained compressive loads, concrete will continue to deform for long
periods of time (the additional deformation is called creep or plastic flow).

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 22

Due to gripping problems, two indirect tests have been developed to measure
the concrete’ tensile strength (ASTM):

Modulus of rupture: flexural

tensile strength measured by
testing to failure a 6-in x 6-in x
30-in plain rectangular beam
(simple support placed at 24-in
on center and equal
concentrated loads at its one-
third points).
civil-engg-world.blogspot.com
It’s the stress at which a concrete
beam cracks in a flexure test
F/2 F/2
(typically 3rd point loading test)

𝐹𝐿
𝑓𝑟 = FL/6
𝑏𝑑 2
Moment

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 23

Due to gripping problems, two indirect tests have been developed to measure
the concrete’ tensile strength (ASTM):

Split cylinder test: test to failure

of a cylinder with compressive
load applied uniformly along the
length of the cylinder (less
accurate).

aerospace.illinois.edu

2𝑃
𝑓𝑡 =
𝜋𝐿𝐷

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 24

Tensile strength:

Different relationships between tensile and compressive strength are derived

from regression analyses from modulus of rupture and split cylinder tests

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 25

Tensile strength:

In a conservative way, based on modulus of rupture tests ACI 318 Code defined
the normal weight concrete tensile strength (modulus of rupture):

𝑓𝑟 = 7.5𝜆 𝑓′𝑐

Where fr and fc‘ are in psi, and l reduces the modulus of rupture when
lightweight aggregates are used.

Note:
The modulus of rupture is used when evaluating if a concrete element has
cracked (i.e., you calculate the maximum tensile stress in the x-section; if it is >
fr, then the section is cracked). In all other cases (analysis/design), we neglect
the tensile strength of concrete.

Example:
Calculate the modulus of rupture fr for a 4,000 psi concrete that has a
compressive strength of 4 ksi.

Solution:
Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 26
Conclusion:

Concrete is very good in compression but weak in tension.

In the reinforced concrete, steel reinforcement is added to concrete to carry the

tension stresses.

M C M

Reinforcement bars (rebars)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 27

3 main functions of steel reinforcement

1. Carry tension stresses after concrete cracks

(reinforcement bars in tension regions)

2. Reduce shrinkage/temperature cracks

(reinforcements bars to form a grid that hold concrete in place)

3. Reduce creep deflections

(reinforcement in compression regions)

+ additional rebars may be added to create a solid steel cage

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 28

1. Carry tension stresses after concrete cracks
(reinforcement bars in tension regions)

Need to identify tension regions (from structural analysis)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 29

1. Carry tension stresses after concrete cracks
(reinforcement bars in tension regions)

Need to identify cracking patterns

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 30

1. Carry tension stresses after concrete cracks
(reinforcement bars in tension regions)

Vertical (shear) reinforcement and longitudinal (flexural) reinforcement are

organized in a “reinforcement cage”, which is placed inside the formwork before
concrete is cast

http://www.lemon-gs.co.uk/ http://minipilingsystems.co.uk/

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 31

1. Carry tension stresses after concrete cracks
(reinforcement bars in tension regions)

NOTE: some minimum longitudinal reinforcement has to be provided in all the

tension regions, to avoid abrupt failure in case of cracking for flexural moments

Minimum longitudinal reinforcement

needed in the tension regions

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 32

2. Reduce shrinkage and temperature cracks
(reinforcements bars to form a grid that hold concrete in place)

Drying shrinkage is defined as the contracting of a hardened concrete mixture

due to the loss of capillary water. Because of a loss in volume, concrete
shrinkage can lead to cracking when some restraints occur (usually slabs and
other members are joined rigidly to other parts of the structure and cannot
contract freely: this results in tension stresses).

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 33

2. Reduce shrinkage and temperature cracks
(reinforcements bars to form a grid that hold concrete in place)

A decrease in temperature relative to that at which the slab was cast,

particularly in outdoor structures such as bridge, may have an effect similar to
shrinkage

A grid of shrinkage/temperature reinforcement is provided to hold the concrete

in place. This way, a few large cracks are replaced by multiple cracks with
limited width (hair cracks)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 34

3. Reduce creep deflections
(reinforcement in compression regions)

Concrete creep is the long term deformation of the concrete under sustained
compressive load. Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste
which is responsible for the creep (because of loss of capillary water due to
applied stresses)

Compression reinforcement is
added to reduce compression
stresses in the concrete (and
reduce creep deformation)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 35

Concrete and steel reinforcing work together perfectly in reinforced concrete
structures:

1. Concrete takes advantage of the high (about 100 times higher) tensile
strength of the steel reinforcement

2. Steel is protected by surrounding concrete from corrosion and fire

3. The two materials bond together for chemical adhesion, natural roughness of
the bars, and the rib-shaped deformation rolled onto bars’ surfaces

4. The two materials are thermally compatible (coefficient of thermal expansion

is 6.5x10-6-F-1 for steel and 5.5x10-6-F-1 for steel (important for large
structural element)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 36

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with high tensile capacity (same as in
compression).

Rebars = deformed bars:

Deformations are pressed into the bars to improve the bonding between the
steel and concrete.

The most important properties of reinforcing steel are:

1. Material properties: Steel Grade Designation – Young’s Modulus, Yield

Strength (fy) and Ultimate Strength (fu), Ultimate Strain (eu)

2. Size (number #) or diameter of bar or wire

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 37

Steel Grade Designation:

Several grades of steel are available (Gr. 40, 50, 60, 75, 80), but the most
commonly used is the Gr. 60 rebar (yield strength, fy = 60 ksi).

Yield strength fy Ultimate strength ft

Ultimate strain eu

Tension tests on rebar Stress-strain behavior

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 38

In reinforced concrete design, the actual stress-strain behavior is approximated
through an idealized bilinear stress strain behavior

Stress, fs
This is neglected

fy

Es = 29,000 ksi (independent from steel grade)

1
ey Strain, et

Note: Material stress-strain curve for steel in compression is same as in

tension.

Example: What is the yield strain of a Gr. 60 rebar?

Solution:

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 39

Bar Sizes (Diameter): (See Tables 1.1 or A.2 in textbook).

Recall that the unit weight of

concrete (unreinforced), is
wc = 145 lb/ft3.

The unit weight of

REINFORCED CONCRETE
is taken as
150 lb/ft3. This is used for
self-weight calculations.
Typical
Most common length of
rebars: 20’, 30’, 40’, 60’

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 40

Bar marking

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 41

Objective of Design:
To select a structural element or system of elements that resists all possible
loads without failing or deforming excessively, that is cost-effective and satisfies
physical/geometric constraints.

The design requires a

CONTINUOUS LOAD PATH
from the point of load
application to the
foundation, and that all
DEMAND-CAPACITY
relationships are satisfied
throughout.

Image, if copyrighted, is credited to

respective ownership

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 42

Demand vs. Capacity:

Demand = the amount of axial force, shear, moment, etc. that the structural
component should resist. This is usually determined using structural analysis.

Capacity = the resistance of the structural element designed.

The capacity should ALWAYS be greater than or equal to the Demand.

Capacity > Demand

In design offices, the term D/C (Demand-Capacity Ratio, or DCR for short) is
used extensively. The goal is to have a DCR < 1.0

What happens when the demand exceeds the capacity (DCR>1)?

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 43

 Photo, if copyrighted, is credited to respective Photo, if copyrighted, is credited to respective
ownership. ownership.

Northridge Earthquake, Jan. 17, 1994. Kobe Earthquake Jan. 16, 2005. An
Structural collapse of parking structure office building with a partially
at CSUN. collapsed first floor.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 44

How is Demand estimated? Typically, from analysis using loading prescribed
in Building Codes (Design Loads).

In CA, we use the California Building Code (2013 CBC), which is based on the
International Building Code (IBC 2012). These codes refer to
ASCE 7-10 for minimum loads to design to.

Types of Loads:

Dead Loads (D) – Self wt. of structure and permanent fixtures

Floors, Roofs, Ceilings
Frames, Walls
Stairways
Ducts, Plumbing

Live Loads (L) – Loads that can be moved on or off a structure

Occupancy Loads (i.e., people)
Furniture
Vehicles
Construction Loads

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 45

Wind Loads (W) – Pressures on the surface areas of a structure

Earthquake (E) – Inertia forces

Snow (S)
On roofs
Rain (R)

Soil Pressure (H) – Retaining walls

Hydrostatic Pressure (F) – Loads due to the weight and pressure of fluids
Dams and Levies

Combined Temperature, creep, shrinkage, differential settlement (T)

How is Capacity estimated? Using the provisions of structural codes. For

reinforced concrete, we use ACI 318. In this class, we will be referring to the
ACI 318-14 code.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 46

DESIGN PROCESS

Structural Element Checks &

Preliminary design
analysis design drawings

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 47

DESIGN PROCESS

Structural Element Checks &

Preliminary design
analysis design drawings

COURSES: CE 305L

PROFESSIONALS: Architects & Engineers

OUTCOMES: Materials, Structural Layout (vertical/lateral force resisting

systems) with main dimensions (beam spans, column height, preliminary
sections, points of support) and Loads (ASCE 7-10)

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 48

DESIGN PROCESS

Structural Element Checks &

Preliminary design
analysis design drawings

COURSES: CE 304, CE 305, CE 306L

PROFESSIONALS: Engineers

OUTCOMES: Structural Model based on structural layout and loads, internal

forces (P, M, V) and deflections.

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 49

DESIGN PROCESS

Structural Element Checks &

Preliminary design
analysis design drawings

COURSES: CE 421

PROFESSIONALS: Engineers

OUTCOMES: Final element sizes, steel reinforcement (based on LFRD

factored/ultimate loads):

1. Final height/width of sections

2. Bar sizes
3. Number of bars
4. Bar placement

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 50

DESIGN PROCESS

Structural Element Checks &

Preliminary design
analysis design drawings

COURSES: CE 421 + Senior Project

PROFESSIONALS: Engineers

OUTCOMES: Code checks (ACI 318), serviceability checks, technical

drawings

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design – Handout 01 CE421 Dr. Lomiento 51