NUCLEIC

acId
 list of content

Types of Nucleic Acid Primary Nucleic Acid

Structures

Nucleotides: Structural Building

Blocks for Nucleic Acids
The DNA Double Helix

Nucleotide Formation Replication of DNA

Molecules
 list of content

Overview of Protein
Synthesis
The Genetic Code

Ribonucleic Acids Anticodons and tRNA

Molecules

Transcription: RNA Synthesis Translation: Protein Synthesis

 list of content

Mutations The Polymerase Chain

Reaction

Nucleic Acid and Viruses

Recombinant DNA and

Genetic Engineering
In 1869 while studying the nuclei of white blood
cells, a swiss physiologist Friedrich Miescher
(1844–1895) discovered nucleic acids.

The fact that they were initially found in cell

nuclei and are acidic accounts for the name
nucleic acid
 TYPES OF
NUCLEIC ACID
 TYPES OF
NUCLEIC ACID

Two types of nucleic acids are found within

cells of higher organisms:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
DNA - is found within the cell nucleus. Its
primary function is the storage and transfer of
genetic information. This information is used
(indirectly) to control many functions of a living
cell. In addition, DNA is passed from existing
cells to new cells during cell division
RNA - occurs in all parts of a cell. It functions
primarily in synthesis of proteins, the molecules
that carry out essential cellular functions.
Nucleotides: Structural Building
Blocks for Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acid - is an unbranched polymer in
which the monomer units are nucleotides.

A given nucleic acid molecule can contain in

excess of one million nucleotides units.
Nucleotide - is a three-subunit molecule in
which a pentose sugar is bonded to both a
phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing
heterocyclic base.
A block structural diagram for a nucleotide is,
Pentose Sugars
The sugar unit of a nucleotide is either the
pentose ribose or the pentose 29-deoxyribose.
Structurally, the only difference between these two sugars
occurs at carbon 2'. The -OH group present on this carbon
in ribose becomes a -H atom in 2'-deoxyribose. (The
prefix deoxy- means “without oxygen.”)

RNA and DNA differ in the identity of the sugar unit in

their nucleotides. In RNA, the sugar unit is ribose—hence
the R in RNA. In DNA, the sugar unit is 2'-deoxyribose —
hence the D in DNA.
Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Bases
Five nitrogen-containing heterocyclic bases are nucleotide
components.
Three of them are derivatives of pyrimidine (single ring)
two are derivatives of purine (double ring)
Pyrimidine - monocyclic base with a six membered ring
Purine - a bicyclic base with fused five- and six-membered rings.
The three pyrimidine derivatives found in nucleotides are
Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)
The two purine derivatives found in nucleotides are
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
Both found in DNA and RNA
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine

Found only in RNA

Uracil

Found only in DNA

Thymine
 Phosphate
Phosphate, the third component of a nucleotide, is derived from
phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Under cellular pH conditions, the
phosphoric acid loses two of its hydrogen atoms to give a hydrogen
phosphate ion.
 Nucleic
Formation
The formation of a nucleotide from a sugar, a base, and a
phosphate can be visualized as a two-step process.

Step 1: First, the pentose sugar and nitrogen-containing base

react to form a two-subunit entity called a nucleoside (not
nucleotide, s versus t).
Step 2: The nucleoside reacts with a phosphate group to form
the three-subunit entity called a nucleotide. It is nucleotides
that become the building blocks for nucleic acids.
 nucleoside formation

A nucleoside is a two-subunit molecule in which a pentose

sugar is bonded to a nitrogencontaining heterocyclic base.
 nucleoside formation

Important characteristics of the nucleoside formation process of

combining two molecules into one are:

1. The base is always attached to C-1' of the sugar (the anomeric

carbon atom, which is always in a B-configuration. For purine
bases, attachment is through N9; for pyrimidine bases, N-1 is
involved. The bond connecting the sugar and base is a
B-N-glycosidic linkage.
2. A molecule of water is formed as the two molecules bond
together; a condensation reaction occurs.
 nucleoside formation

Eight nucleosides are associated with nucleic acid chemistry —

four involve ribose (RNA nucleosides) and four involve
deoxyribose (DNA nucleosides).

rna nucleosides Dna nucleosides

Ribose - Adenine Deoxyribose - Adenine
Ribose - Cytosine Deoxyribose - Cytosine
Ribose - Guanine Deoxyribose - Guanine
Ribose - Uracil Deoxyribose - Thymine
 nucleoside formation

Nucleosides are named as derivatives of the base that they

contain; the base’s name is modified using a suffix.

1. For pyrimidine bases, the suffix -idine is used (cytidine,

thymidine, uridine).
2. For purine bases, the suffix -osine is used (adenosine,
guanosine).
3. The prefix -deoxy is used to indicate that the sugar present is
deoxyribose. No prefi x is used when the sugar present is ribose
 nucleoside formation

The nucleoside containing ribose and adenine is

called adenosine, and
The nucleoside containing deoxyribose and thymine
is called deoxythymidine
 nucleoTide formation

Nucleotides are nucleosides that have a phosphate group

bonded to the pentose sugar present.
Information Concerning the Eight Nucleotides That Are Building Blocks for DNA and RNA
 nucleotide formation

Important characteristics of the nucleotide formation process of

adding a phosphate group to a nucleoside are the following:

1. The phosphate group is attached to the sugar at the C-5'

position through a phosphate-ester linkage.
2. As with nucleoside formation, a molecule of water is produced
in nucleotide formation. Thus, overall, two molecules of water are
produced in combining a sugar, base, and phosphate into a
nucleotide.
 nucleotide formation

Nucleotides are named by appending the term 5'-monophosphate

to the name of the nucleoside from which they are derived.
The abbreviations use the one-letter symbols for the base (A, C, G,
T, and U)
MP for monophosphate
lowercase d at the start of the abbreviation when deoxyribose is
the sugar
PRIMARY NUCLEIC
ACID STRUCTURES
 nucleic acid

Are polymers in which the repeating units, the monomers,

are nucleotides
nucleotide units within a nucleic acid molecule are linked to
each other through sugar-phosphate bonds.
resulting molecular structure involves a chain of alternating
sugar and phosphate groups with a base group protruding
from the chain at regular intervals.
 2 general types of nucleic acid

1. RNA (ribonucleic acid) - is a nucleotide polymer in which

each of the monomers contains ribose, a phosphate group,
and one of the heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine,
guanine, or uracil.
2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - is a nucleotide polvmer in
which each of the monomers contains deoxyribose, a
phosphate group, and one of the heterocyclic bases adenine,
cytosine, guanine, or thymine.
The alternating sugar-
phosphate chain in a nucleic
acid structure is often called
the nucleic acid backbone.
This backbone is constant
throughout the entire nuclei
acid structure.

The alternating sugar-phosphate chain in a nucleic acid

structure is often called the nucleic acid backbone.
 Primary nucleic
acid structure

is the sequence in which nucleotides are linked together in a

nucleic acid.
Because the sugar-phosphate backbone of a given nucleic acid
does not vary, the primary structure of the nucleic acid
depends only on the sequence of bases present.
This backbone consists of a
chain of phosphate and sugar
units, linked together by a
chemical bond called a
phosphodiester bond.
1. The two sugar units in a
nucleotide are connected
by a phosphodiester bond
between the 5' carbon of
one sugar unit and the 3'
carbon of the other sugar
unit.
2. Each nucleotide unit in a nucleic
acid chain has a distinct 5' end and 3'
end, and the nucleotide sequence of a
nucleic acid strand is read from the 5'
end to the 3' end.

3. The phosphorus atom in the

phosphate backbone of a nucleic acid
carries a negative charge, which is
designated by the symbol P -1. This
negative charge makes the backbone
electronegative and allows the
backbone to interact with positively
charged amino acids in proteins.
 A comparison of the general primary structures of
nucleic acids and proteins.

DNAs and RNAs, and

proteins all have
backbones that do not vary
in structure.
(nitrogen bases in nucleic
acids and amino acid R
groups in proteins)
Both nucleic acid polvmer
chains and protein polymer
chains have direction-ality;
for nucleic acids, there is a
5' end and a 3' end, and for
proteins, there is an N-
terminal end and a C-
terminal end.
the dnA DOUBLE HELIX
 THE DNA DOUBLE
HELIC
Nucleic acids have secondary and tertiary structure
The secondary structure involves two polynucleotide chains
coiled around each other in a helical fashion
The two polynucleotides run anti-parallel (opposite directions)
to each other, i.e., 5’ - 3’ and 3’ - 5’
The bases are located at the center and hydrogen bonded
(A=T and GΞC)
Base composition: %A = %T and %C = %G) – Example: Human
DNA contains 30% adenine, 30% thymine, 20% guanine and 20%
cytosine
THE DNA DOUBLE
HELIX
 THE DNA DOUBLE
HELIX

BASE PAIRING

A pyrimidine is always paired with purine

Fits inside the DNA double strand
Hydrogen bonding is stronger with A-T and G-C
A-T and G-C are called complementary bases
 THE DNA DOUBLE
HELIX

DNA Sequence: the sequence of bases on one

polynucleotide is complementary to the other
polynucleotide
Complementary bases are pairs of bases in a nucleic acid
structure that can hydrogen-bond to each other.
Complementary DNA strands are strands of DNA in a
double helix with base pairing such that each base is
located opposite to its complementary base.
 THE DNA DOUBLE
HELIX

Example: List of bases in sequential order in the

direction from the 5’ end to 3’ end of the segment:
5’ -A-A-G-C-T-A-G-C-T-T-A-C-T-3’
Complementary strand of this sequence will be:
3’ -TT-C-G-A-T-C-G-A-A-T-G-A-5’
REPLICATION OF DNA
MOLECULE
 5-6

DNA molecules are the carriers of genetic information within

cells; that is, they are the molecules of heredity. each time a
cell divides, an exact copy of the DNA .

Is the biochemical process by which DNA molecules produce

exact duplicates of themselves.
 ORIGINS OF
REPLICATION:

PARENT DNA-
refers to the double-stranded DNA molecule that is being
replicated during the process of DNA replication. It serves as the
starting material from which new DNA strands are synthesized.
EARLY STAGE IN REPLICATION-
Hlelicase:
is an enzyme that unwinds and separates the double-stranded
DNA molecule
LATER STAGE IN REPLICATION-
DNA POLYMERASE:
it adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strands by matching
complementary bases.
LEADING:
is synthesized continuously in the same direction as
replication fork movement (5-3).
LAGGING:
is synthesized discontinuously in the opposite direction (3-5)
as short as Okazaki Fragment.
 Note: LIGASE is an
enzyme that helps to
connect the okazaki
fragment.
DAUGHTER CELLS-
each of the daughter DNA molecules is complementary to one of the
original parent DNA strand
Antimetabolites: Anticancer Drug
that inhibit DNA Synthesis

an anticancer drug that interfere with DNA replication because their structures are
similar to molecules required for normal replication. examples are to be follow:

1. Mercaptopurine: structurally resembles

adenine.
2. Thioguanine: close structural resembles to guanine.
3. Fluorouracil: the structure is close enough to the
thymine.
4. Methotrexate: its structural analog of folic acid, which is one of the B vitamins.
 Overview of
Protein Synthesis
 Overview of
Protein Synthesis

The synthesis of proteins (skin, hair, enzymes,

hormones, and so on) is under the direction of
DNA molecules. It is this role of DNA that
establishes the similarities between parent and
offspring that are regarded as hereditary
characteristics.
 Ribonucleic
Acids

4 Major differences exist between RNA and DNA molecules:

1. The sugar unit in the backbone of RNA is ribose; it is deoxyribose in

DNA.
2. The base thymine found in DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA. In RNA,
uracil, instead of thymine, pairs with (form hydrogen bond with)
adenine.
3. RNA is single- stranded molecule; DNA is double- stranded. Thus
RNA, unlike DNA, does not contain equal amount of specific bases.
4. RNA molecule are much smaller than DNA molecules, ranging from 75
nucleotides to few thousand nucleotides.
Single- stranded nature of RNA does not prevent portionS
of RNA molecule from folding back upon itself and forming
double- helical regions. If the base sequences along two
portion of an RNA strand are complementary, a structure
with a hairpin loop results. The amount of double- helical
structure present in an RNA varies with RNA type, but a
value of 50% is not atypical.
 TYPES OF RNA MOLECULE
Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) is RNA formed directly by DNA
transcription. Post-transcription processing converts the
heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is RNA that carries instructions for protein

synthesis (genetic information) to the sites for protein synthesis. The
molecular mass of messenger RNA varies with the length of the protein
whose synthesis it will direct.

Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) is RNA that facilitates the conversion of

heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA. It contains from 100 to
200 nucleotides.
 TYPES OF RNA MOLECULE

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is RNA that combines with specific proteins to

form ribosomes, the physical sites for protein synthesis. Ribosomes have
molecular masses on the order of 3 million amu. The rRNA present in
ribosomes has no informational function.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is RNA that delivers amino acids to the sites for
protein synthesis.
Transfer RNAs are the smallest of the RNAs, possessing only 75-90
nucleotide units.
 Transcription:
rna synthesis
Transcription
- is a process by which DNA directs the synthesis of
hnRNA/mRNA molecules that carry the coded information
needed for protein synthesis.
Gene
- is a segment of a DNA strand that contains the base
sequence for the production of a specific hnRNA/mRNA
molecule.
Genome
- is all of the genetic material (the total DNA) contained
in the chromosomes of an organism.
 Steps in the
transcription
process

1. A portion of the DNA double helix unwinds, exposing a sequence of bases

(a gene). The unwinding process is governed by the enzyme RNA polymerase
rather than by DNA helicase (replication enzyme).
2. Free ribonucleotides, one nucleotide at a time, align along one of the
exposed strands of DNA bases, the template strand, forming new base pairs.
In this process, U rather than T aligns with A in the base-pairing process.
3 RNA polymerase is involved in the linkage of ribonucleotides, one by one,
to the growing hnRNA molecule.
4 Transcription ends when the RNA polymerase enzyme encounters a
sequence of bases that is "red" as a stop signal. The newly formed hnRNA
molecule and the RNA polymerase enzyme are released, and the DNA then
rewinds to re-form the original double helix.
Exon
- is a gene segment that conveys (codes for) genetic
information.

Intron
- is a gene segment that does not convey (code for) genetic
information.

Splicing
- is the process of removing introns from an hnRNA
molecule and joining the remaining exons together to form
an mRNA molecule.
 Alternative
splicing

Alternative splicing
- is a process by which several different proteins that are
variations of a basic structural motif can be produced
from a single gene.
5-10

Genetic Code
 WHAT IS GENETIC CODE?

Genetic code is the system of

nucleotides sequences of mRNA
that determines the sequences of
amino acids in protien.

The nucleotide (base) sequence of an mRNA

molecule is the informational part of such a
molecule. This base sequence in a given mRNA
determines the amino acid sequence for the
protein synthesized under that mRNA's
direction.
 For 20 amino acids there should 20
codons
each codons should have 3 nucleotides
to impart specificity to each the amino
acid for a specific codon

1.nucleotide-4 combination
2. Nucleotides 16 combination
3.Nucleotides- 64 combination
(most suited for 20 amino acid)
 Three nucleotides in mRNA
molecules specify the amino
acids that go into synthesis of
a protein. Such three-
nucleotide sequences are
called Codons.

A Codon is a three-nucleotide
sequence in an mRNA
molecule that codes for a
specific
amino acid.
 THE GENETIC CODE
The code consists of 64 three-
nucleotide sequences (Codons),
which can be accessed from a
table. The left-hand column
indicates the base in the first
position, while the right-hand
column indicates the nucleotide in
the middle position. For example,
codon ACG encodes for amino acid
Thr, and codon GGG codes for
amino acid Gly.
 It was found that 61 of the 64 codons
formed by various combinations of the
bases A. C, G, and U were related to
specific amino acids: the other three
combinations were termination codons
("stop" signals) for protein synthesis
Collectively, these relationships
between three-nucleotide sequences in
mRNA and amino acid identities are
known as the genetic code.
The Genetic code is the assignment
of the 64 mRNA codons to specific
amino acids (or stop signals).

The determination of this code

during the early 1960s is one of the
most remarkable twentieth-
century scientific achievements. A
1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry was
awarded to Marshall Nirenberg and
Har Gobind Khorana for their work
in illuminating how mRNA encodes
for proteins
The genetic code has several remarkable features:

1. THE GENETIC CODE IS HIGHLY DEGENERATE

many amino acids are designated by more than one codon. Three
amino acids (Arg. Leu, and Ser) are represented by six codons. Two or
more codons exist for all other amino acids except Met and Trp, which
have only a single codon. Codons that specify the same amino acid
are called synonyms
 2. There is a pattern to the arrangement of syninyms in
the genetic code table.

All synonyms for an amino acid fall within a single box in unless
there are more than four synonyms, where two boxes are
needed. The significance of the "single box pattern is that with
synonyms, the first two bases of the codon are the same they
differ only in the third base.

For example, the four synonyms for the amino acid proline
(Pro) are CCU, CCC, CCA, and CCG.
 3.The genetic code is almost universal

studies of many organisms indicate that with minor

exceptions, the code is the same in all of them. The same
codon specifies the same amino acid whether the cell is a
bacterial cell, a corn plant cell, or a human cell.
4. An initiation codon exists

The existence of "stop" codons (UAG, UAA, and UGA)

suggests the existence of "start" codons. There is one
initiation codon. Besides coding for the amino acid
methionine, the codon AUG functions as an initiator of
protein synthesis when it occurs as the first codon in an
amino acid sequence
5-11

ANTICODONS
AND Trna
molecules
 Anticodons and tRNA Molecules

The amino acids used in protein

synthesis DO NOT directly
interact with the codons of an
ALL RNA molecules have the same general shape. It has a
mRNA molecule. Instead, tRNA
CLOVERLEAF shape produced by molecule's folding and twisting
molecules function as
into regions of parallel strands and regions of hairpin loops
intermediaries that deliver
amino acids to the mRNA
ANTICODONS AND tRNA MOLECULES
Two features of the tRNA structure are of particular importance:

1. The 3' end of the open part of the cloverleaf structure is where
an amino acid becomes covalently bonded to the tRNA molecule.
AMINO-ACYL tRNA SYNTHETHASE ENZYME recognizes the one
kind of amino acid that belongs with the particular tRNA and
facilitate it's bonding to tRNA.

2. The loop opposite the open end of the cloverleaf is the site
for a sequence of three bases called an anticodon. An
ANTICODON is a three-nucleotide sequence on a tRNA
molecule that is complementary to a codon on an mRNA
molecule.
 The interaction between the anticodon of the tRNA and the
codon of the mRNA leads to the proper placement of an
amino acid into a growing peptide chain during protein
synthesis. This interaction involves COMPLEMENTARY base-
pairing.
5-12
Translation: Protein
 5-12
Translation is the process by which mRNA codons are deciphered and a
particular protein molecule is synthesized. The substances needed for the
translation phase of protein synthesis are mRNA molecules, tRNA
molecules, amino acids, ribosomes, and a number of different enzymes

Ribosome is an rRNA–protein complex that serves as the site for the

translation phase of protein synthesis
 5-12
Recent research concerning ribosome structure suggests the following
for such structures:
1. They contain four rRNA molecules and about 80 proteins that are
packed into two rRNA-protein subunits, one small subunit, and one large
subunit
 5-12
2. Each subunit contains approximately 65% rRNA and 35% protein by
mass.
3. A ribosome’s active site, the location where proteins are synthesized
by oneat-a-time addition of amino acids to a growing peptide chain, is
located in the large ribosomal subunit.
4. The active site is mostly rRNA, with only one of the ribosome’s many
protein components being present.
5. Because rRNA is so predominant at the active site, the ribosome is
thought to be an RNA enzyme that is, a ribozyme.
6. The mRNA involved in the translation phase of protein synthesis binds
to the small subunit of the ribosome.
 5-12
There are five general steps to the translation process:

1. Activation of tRNA
2. Initiation
3. Elongation
4. Termination
5. Post-translational processing.
 5-12
Activation of tRNA

The activation of tRNA involves two steps. An activator molecule and an

amino acid first interact to create a highly energetic complex. A tRNA
molecule that has an amino acid covalently attached to it at its 39 end
through an ester linkage is created when this complex reacts with the
appropriate tRNA molecule.
 5-12
Initiation

In human cells, protein synthesis starts when mRNA binds to the surface
of a small ribosomal subunit in such a way that its first codon, which is
always the initiating codon AUG, occupies a region known as the P site.
 5-12
5-12
Elongation

The A site (aminoacyl site), where

the following mRNA codon is
exposed and a tRNA with the proper
anticodon binds, is the second
binding site in an mRNA-ribosome
complex. The P site amino acid and
the A site amino acid are joined by
the enzyme peptidyl transferase to
create a dipeptide. The tRNA is left
empty by this peptide bond, while
the tRNA at the A site is carrying
the dipeptide.
Elongation
5-12
The mRNA's third codon is positioned at
site A and the newly formed dipeptide is
placed at site P by the empty tRNA, which
is also accepting a tRNA molecule with its
anticodon. Translocation is the part of
translation in which a ribosome moves
down an mRNA molecule three base
positions (one codon) so that a new codon
can occupy the ribosomal A site. The empty
tRNA is then released, and the ribosome
moves along the mRNA as this process
continues.
 5-12
Termination

Translocation allows the polypeptide to keep expanding until all of the

required amino acids are present and bound to one another. The process
comes to an end when one of the three stop codons (UAA, UAG, or UGA)
appears in the sequence of the mRNA. These stop codons cannot base pair
with any tRNA's anticodon. Hydrolysis is then used to separate the
polypeptide from the tRNA.
Post-Translation Processing
5-12
Proteins typically undergo some modification following translation. The protein is given
the final form necessary for complete functionality during this post-translational
processing. The following are some aspects of post-translation processing:

1. Most proteins undergo a hydrolysis reaction in which a specialized enzyme

eliminates the methionine (Met) residue that started protein synthesis. A subsequent
hydrolysis reaction frees the polypeptide chain from its tRNA carrier.
2. A protein may undergo some covalent modification, such as the building of disulfide
bridges between cysteine residues.
3. Folding of polypeptides into their active forms is complete occurs. In reality, protein
folding starts as the polypeptide chain lengthens within the ribosome. the quaternary
structure of proteins, the A combination of parts is put together.
 5-12
Recent studies suggest that the genetic
code's synonymous codons and protein
folding might be related. The way that
emerging proteins fold into their three-
dimensional shapes (tertiary structure) as
they elongate and then leave a ribosome is
now known to be influenced by
synonymous codons, even though they
translate into the same amino acids during
protein synthesis. This means that two
stretches of mRNA that differ only in
synonymous codons can produce proteins
with identical amino acid sequences but
different folding patterns.
 5-12
Efficiency of mRNA Utilization

The simultaneous movement of numerous ribosomes along a single mRNA molecule enables
the production of multiple identical protein chains from a single strand of mRNA almost
simultaneously. The cell uses fewer resources and less energy to make the necessary proteins
by utilizing mRNA molecules multiple times. These complexes with numerous ribosomes and
mRNA are known as polyribosomes or polysomes. A polyribosome is a grouping of several
ribosomes and mRNA. The Chemistry at a
Glance section on the previous page
provides an overview of the steps in protein
synthesis. The focus on relevance article
Chemical Connections 22-B on the following
page explains how using antibiotics can
efficiently eliminate dangerous bacteria that
are present in the body by interfering with the
process of protein synthesis in bacteria
 5-13

MUTATIONS
 5-13 MUTATIONS

Mutations are alterations in the DNA sequence that

may lead to changes in the phenotype of an
organism.
 5-13 MUTATIONS
Point mutations:
Point mutations involve changes in a single nucleotide base in the
DNA sequence.
They can be further categorized into:
Missense mutation: This type of point mutation results in the
substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein product,
which may or may not affect its function.
Nonsense mutation: Here, a point mutation results in a premature
stop codon, leading to the early termination of protein synthesis.
Silent mutation: These mutations do not lead to a change in the
amino acid sequence due to the degeneracy of the genetic code.
 5-13 MUTATIONS
Frameshift mutations:
Frameshift mutations occur when nucleotides are inserted
or deleted from the DNA sequence, causing a shift in the
reading frame.
This alteration can significantly change the amino acid
sequence of the resulting protein beyond the point of the
mutation, often leading to a nonfunctional or severely
impaired protein.
Frameshift mutations can have more severe consequences
than point mutations.
 5-13 MUTATIONS
Mutagens:
Mutagens are agents that can induce mutations in the genetic
material (DNA) of an organism.
They can be classified into several categories:
Chemical Mutagens: These include substances such as certain
pesticides, industrial chemicals, and some natural plant
alkaloids.
Radiation Mutagens: These include ionizing radiation (such as
X-rays and gamma rays) and ultraviolet radiation (UV light).
Biological Mutagens: These are biological agents that can
induce mutations, such as certain viruses.
5-13 MUTATIONS
5-13 MUTATIONS
 5-14

NUCLEIC ACIDS
AND VITAMINS
5-14 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND VITAMINS

Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules that are essential for
all known forms of life. They include two types: deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA stores genetic information and is responsible for the
inheritance of traits. It is found primarily in the nucleus of a cell.
RNA plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and comes in various
forms, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
5-14 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND VITAMINS

Viruses:
Viruses are small infectious agents that can only replicate inside
the living cells of other organisms.
They consist of a nucleic acid genome surrounded by a protein
coat, known as a capsid.
Viruses are not considered living organisms because they cannot
carry out essential life processes on their own.
5-14 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND VITAMINS

Viral Infection Method:

Viruses infect cells by attaching to specific receptors on the
surface of the host cell.
Once attached, the virus injects its genetic material into the host
cell, taking over the cell's machinery to replicate itself.
The newly formed viruses then assemble within the host cell and
can either cause the cell to burst open, releasing new viral
particles, or be released through a process known as budding.
5-14 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND VITAMINS

Vaccine:
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active
acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.
It typically contains a harmless form of the pathogen, its surface
proteins, or its toxins, which stimulate the immune system to
recognize the pathogen as a threat and produce antibodies
against it.
Vaccines can be administered through various routes, including
injection, oral administration, or nasal spray.
5-14 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND VITAMINS
How Vaccines Work:
When a vaccine is introduced into the body, it triggers an immune
response without causing the disease itself.
The immune system recognizes the vaccine components as
foreign and produces an immune response, including the
production of antibodies and the activation of specific immune
cells.
If the body is later exposed to the actual pathogen, the immune
system can recognize and respond to it more effectively,
preventing or reducing the severity of the disease.
5.15
 RECOMBINANT DNA
&
GENETIC ENGINEERING

Recombinant DNA - is a DNA that contains

genetic material from two different organisms.
 RECOMBINANT DNA
&
GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic Engineering - is the process whereby

an organism is intentionally changed at the molecular
level so that it exhibits different traits.
 RECOMBINANT DNA
&
GENETIC ENGINEERING

In 2011, the United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) gave approval of planting corn
that is genetically modified to produce enzyme which
is a-amelase. The first genetically engineered are
bacteria (1973) and Mice (1974).
 EPO (ERYTHROPROTEIN)

It is a protein hormone produced by the

kidney, and to a lesser extent by the liver, that
promotes the development of RBCs and initiates the
synthesis of hemoglobin.
 SELECTED HUMAN PROTEINS
PRODUCED USING RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY AND THEIR USES
 THE BENEFITS OF THIS
TECHNOLOGICAL METHOD

Insulin Producing Bacteria

- Such Bacterias act as PLANT AND AGRICULTURE
Protein Factories ~ Disease Resistance
~ Drought Resistance
~ Predator Resistance
~ Frost Resistance
~ Deterioration Resistance
Recombinant DNA Production Using a Bacteria Plasmid

🔲 Dissolution of Cells:
- E. coli cells of a specific strain containing the plasmid of
interest are treated with chemicals to dissolve their membranes
and release the cellular contents.

🔲 Isolation or Plasmid Fraction:

- The cellular contents are fractioned to obtain plasmids.

🔲 Cleavage of Plasmid DNA:

- Restriction enzymes are used to cleave the double stranded
DNA.
Recombinant DNA Production Using a Bacteria Plasmid
🔲 Gene Removal from another Organism
- Using the same restriction enzyme the gene ot interest is
removed from a chromosome or another organism.

🔲 Gene-plasmid splicing
- The gene and the opened plasmid are mixed in the presence
of the enzyme DNA ligase to splice them together.

🔲 Uptake of Recombinant DNA

- The recombinant DNA prepared in step 5 are transferred to
a live E. Coli culture where they can be replicated , transcribed
and translated.
 RECOMBINANT DNA
&
GENETIC ENGINEERING

◻️Transformed cell can reproduce a large number of identical

cells –clones:
- CLONES are the cells that have descended from a single
cell and have identical DNA
◻️ Given bacteria grow very fast, within few hours 1000s of clones
will be produced
◻️ Each clone can synthesize the protein directed by foreign gene
it carries
 - Recombinant DNA is
made by inserting a gene
obtained from DNA of one
organism in to the DNA
from another kind of
organism.
 The Polymerase chain reaction

🦠The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): A method

for rapidly producing multiple copies of a DNA
nucleotide sequence (gene).

🦠This method allows to produce billions of copies

of a specific gene in a few hours.
The Polymerase chain reaction
PCR is very easy to carryout and the requirements
are:
🧬 Source of gene to be copied
🧬 Thermostable DNA polymerase
🧬 Deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dATP, dGTP,
dCTP and dTTP)
🧬 A set of two oligonucleotides with complementary
sequence to the gene (primers)
🧬 Thermostable plastic container and
🧬 Source of heat
🌳 The Basic Steps, in
simplified terms of
the PCR process.
Each cycle of the
PCR doubles the
number of copies of
the target DNA
sequence.
Thank You
Quiz TIME!
 Quiz

1.In what year did the swiss physiologist Friedrich

Miescher discovered nucleic acids?

a. 1869
b. 1969
c. 1888
d. 1789
 Quiz

2 - 3. Give the 2 types of nucleic acids

 Quiz

4. Which of the following is present in nucleotides

but not in nucleosides?

a. heterocyclic group
b. phosphate group
c. pentose sugar
d. purine
 Quiz

5. The alternating sugar-phosphate chain in a

nucleic acid structure is often called the?

a. nucleic acid backbone

b. nucleotides
c. nucleosides
d. guanine
 Quiz

6. The sequence of bases on one polynucleotide is

complementary to the other polynucleotide

a. double bond
d. DNA Sequence
c. arithmetic sequence
d. basic sequence
 Quiz

7. A type of RNA that carries instructions for

protein synthesis (genetic information) to the sites
for protein synthesis.

a. large nuclear RNA (lgRNA)

b. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)
c. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
d. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Quiz

8. A process by which several different proteins

that are variations of a basic structural motif can
be produced from a single gene.

a. Project ENCODE
b. Transcription
c. Human genome
d. Alternative Splicing
 Quiz

9. A three-nucleotide sequence in an mRNA

molecule that codes for a specific amino acid.

a. Codon
b. Genes
c. Chromosomes
d. synonyms
 Quiz

10. A point mutation results in a premature stop

codon, leading to the early termination of protein
synthesis

a. Useless mutation
b. Nonsense mutation
c. Silent mutation
d. Sleeping mutation
 Quiz

BONUS QUESTION
 Quiz
Answers
1.a
2. RNA
3. DNA
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. d
9. a
10. b
GOD BLESS