Module 1 MIW

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MODULE 1
Introduction
Necessity of sewerage system:
Every community produces both liquid and solid waste. The liquid portion, sewage or
wastewater is essentially the water supply of the community after it has been fouled by a variety
of users. The wastewater may be defined as the combination of the liquid or water carrying waste
removed from residences, institutions, commercial and industrial establishment together with
such ground water, surface water and storm water as may be present.
If untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, the decomposition of the organic

materials, its contains can lead to the production of large quantities of mal odorous gases. In
addition, untreated wastewater usually contains numerous pathogenic micro -organisms that
dwell in the human intestinal track or that may be present in certain industrial waste, wastewater
also contains nutrients which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants (and algae) and it may
contains toxic compounds. For these reasons, the immediate a nd nuisance free removal of
wastewater from its source of generation followed by treatment and disposal is not only
desirable but also necessary in an industrialized society.
The fundamental principle of sanitation of the community is to remove all dispo sal
matter, solid waste, liquid or gaseous away from the premises as fast as possible to the safe place
without causing nuisance and dispose it in a suitable manner. So as to make it permanently
harmless.
Methods of domestic waste water disposal
After the waste water is treated it is disposed in the nature in the following two principal
methods
1. Disposal by Dilution where large receiving water bodies area available

2. Land disposal where sufficient land is available
Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 1

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The choice of method of disposal depends on many factors and is discussed later.
Sanitary engg starts at the point where water supply engg. ends.
It can be classified as
• Collection works
• Treatment works
• Disposal works
The collection consists of collecting tall types of waste products of town. Refuse is
collected separately. The collection works should be such that waste matters can be transported
quickly and steadily to the treatment works. The system employed should be self cleaning and
economical.
Treatment is required to treat the sewage before disposal so that it may not pollute the
atmosphere & the water body in which it will be disposed of .The type of treatment processes
depend on the nature of the waste water characteristics and hygiene, aesthetics and economical
aspects. The treated water is disposed of in various ways by irrigating fields or discharging in to
natural water courses.
Systems of sanitation:
Sanitation systems is of two types
i. Old conservancy system

ii. Modern water carriage system [sewerage system]
Old conservancy system: The waste products of society had been collected, carried and
disposed off manually to a safe point of disposal by the sweepers. This system is also known as
dry system.
Modern water carriage system: Waste products are mixed with sufficient quantities of water
and carried through closed conduits to the place from where it is disposed off after giving
suitable treatments. The treated sewage effluents may be disposed either in a running water body
such as stream.

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Advantages of modern water carriage system over conservancy system:
• The water carriage system is more hygienic, because in this system, the societies wastes
have not to be collected and carried in buckets or carts as in conservancy system. The
polluted sewage is carried in closed conduits as soon as it is produced.
• In conservancy system, the waste products are generally buried under ground , which
may sometime pollute the cities water supplies.
• In sewerage system, the sewage is carried through underground pipes and these pipes d o
not occupy floor area an road sides or impair the beauty of the surrounding.
• Water carriage system may allow the use of water closet thus occupying lesser space with
their compact designs.
• Sewerage system is also helpful for multistoried buildings where the water closets one
above the other can be easily constructed and connected to a single vertical pipe.
• No chances of outbreaks or epidemic because flies and other insects do not have direct
access to the sewage.
• The labour required for the operation and maintenance is extremely small, except for the
operation of certain pumps, etc.
• The system permits the use of modern methods of treatment of the sewerage collected
through the sewers. The treated wastewater and sewage can be safely disposed off
without any risk.
• The land required for the disposal of treated wastewater is very much smaller than the
land required for the conservancy system.
• Though the initial cost of installation of the system are very high, the running cost are
very small, since manual labour is much reduced.
Conservancy system Water Carriage system

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Very cheap in initial cost. It involves high initial cost.
Due to foul smells from the latrines, they are to As there is no foul smell latrines remain
be constructed away from living room so clean and neat and hence are constructed with
building cannot be constructed as compact rooms, therefore buildings may be compact.
units.
The aesthetic appearance of the city cannot be Good aesthetic appearance of city can be
improved obtained
For burial of excremental matter large area is Less area is required as compared to
required conservancy system
Excreta is not removed immediately hence its Excreta are removed immediately with
decomposition starts before removal, water, no problem of foul smell or hygienic
causing nuisance smell. trouble.
This system is fully depended on human As no human agency is involved in this
agency . In case of strike by the sweepers; system ,there is no such problem as in case of
there is danger of insanitary conditions in city. conservancy system
Classification of sewerage system:
The sewerage system are classified as
i. Separate system
ii. Combined system
iii. Partially combined or partially separate system
Separate system: when the drainage and sewage are taken independently of each other through
two different sets of conduits, the system is known as separate system. The sewage is carried to
the treatment plant and the storm water is directly discharged into the natural rivers or streams
for disposal.
Advantage:
• The cost of installation is low. The storm water can be disposed off through the open
channels. Thus the sewers carrying sewage will be of smaller size.
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• The load on the treatment units will be lowered.
• The sewage in the separate system will be of more uniform character, so will lead itself
more easily to purification.
• Rain water can be discharged into streams or rivers without any treatment.
Disadvantages:
• The sewers are of small size, it is difficult to clean them.

• Frequent choking problem will be there.
• Two sets of sewers may ultimately prove to be costly.
• Less air contact in small size sewers, foul smell may be there due to the sewage gas
formation.
Suitability:
• Where rainfall is uneven.

• Where sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
• Drainage area is steep, allowing to runoff quickly.
Combined system: When only one set of sewers are used to carry both sanitary sewage and
storm water, the system is known as combined system. The sewage and storm water both a re
carried to the treatment plant in this system.
Advantage:
• System requires only one set of sewers, hence the maintenance cost are reduced.
• The sewers are of larger size and therefore the chances of their choking are rare, it is easy
to clean them.
• The strength of the sewage is reduced by dilution, as storm water is combined with
sewage.
Disadvantage:
• Cost of construction are very high because of large dimensions of the sewers to be
constructed at sufficient depth.

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• Handling and transportation is difficult, due to the large size of sewers.
• Due to the inclusion of storm water, the load on the treatment plant increases.
• It is uneconomical in the circumstances when pumping is required for lifting of sewage.
• During heavy rain, the sewers may lead to unhygienic condition.
• The large sewers gets easily silted if not properly designed. They may become foul in dry
weather, when storm water is not available.
Suitability:
• Rainfall is even throughout the year.

• The area to be sewered is heavily buildup and space fo r laying two sets of pipes is not
available.
• Where effective or quicker flow have to be provided.
Partially combined system: Sometimes a part of storm water especially that originated from
the roofs or paved courtyards of buildings is allowed to be admitted into the sewers and
similarly, the domestic sewage is also allowed to be admitted into the drain off, the resulting
system is called as partially combined or partially separate system.
Advantage:
• The size pf the sewers are not very large as some portio n of storm water is carried
through open drains.
• Silting problem is completely eliminated.
Separate System Combined System

The quantity of sewage to be treated is less, As the treatments of both are done, the
because no treatment of storm water is done. treatment is costly.

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In the cities of more rainfall this system is In the cities of less rainfall this system is
more suitable. suitable.
As two sets of sewer lines are to laid, this Overall construction cost is higher than
system is cheaper because sewage is carried separate system.
in underground sewers and storm water in
open drains.
In narrow streets, it is difficult to use this It is more suitable in narrow streets.
system
Less degree of sanitation is achieved in this High degree of sanitation is achieved in this
system, as storm water is disposed without system.
any treatment.
Sources of Sewage:
Sanitary sewage is produced from the following sources:
1. When the water is supplied by water works authorities or provided from private
sources, it is used for various purposes like bathing, utensil cleaning, for flushing
water closets and urinals or washing clothes or any other domestic use. The spent
water for all the above needs forms the sewage.
2. Industries use the water for manufacturing various products and thus develop the
sewage.
3. Water supplied to schools, cinemas, hotels, railway stations, etc., when gets used
develops sewage.
4. Ground water infiltration into sewers through loose joints.
5. Unauthorized entrance of rain water in sewer lines.
Nature of Sewage:
Sewage is a dilute mixture of the various types of wastes from the residential, public and
industrial places. The characteristics and composition i.e. the nature of sewage mainly

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depends on this source. Sewage contains organic and inorganic matters which may be
dissolved, suspension and colloidal state. Sewage also contains various types of bacteria,
Design period:
A sewerage scheme involves the laying of underground sewer pipes and construction of
costly treatment units, which cannot be replaced or increased in their capacities easily or
conveniently at a later date. In order to avoid such future complications and to take care of the
future expansions of the city and consequent increase in the quantity of sewage pro duced, it is
necessary to design the various component of the scheme larger than their present day
requirements and of such sizes, as to serve the community, satisfactory, for a reasonable number
of years to come. This future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities
of the various components of the sewerage system is known as the design period.
The design period depends upon the following:
• Ease and difficulty in expansion,

• Amount and availability of investment,
• Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities,
industries and commercial investments,
• Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
• Life of the material and equipment.
Dry weather flow:
Dry weather flow is the quantity of the wastewater that f lows through a sewers in dry
weather or non-rainy season. It is also known as sanitary sewage.
Factors affecting dry weather flow:
Various factors tha affect dry weather flow are as follows
a) Rate of water supply

b) Population growth

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c) Type of area served
d) Infiltration of ground water
Rate of water supply:
The quantity of wastewater produced from a community would naturally depend upon the
rate of water supply per capita per day. The quantity of wastewater entering the sewers would
be less than the total quantity of water supplied. The wastewater quantity may be assumed to
be 80% of the quantity of water supply. The sewers should be designed f or a minimum of
150 liters per capita per day.
Population growth:
The sewerage system is designed for the quantity of wastewater not only of the present
population but also of the population a few year. Hence, considering a population of one
generation i.e. 30 years. The population of this period is forecasted may be done by the
following method:
i. Arithmetical increase method

ii. Geometrical increase method
iii. Incremental increase method
iv. Decreasing rate method
v. Simple graphical method
vi. Comparative graphical method
vii. Master plan method
viii. Logistic curve method
Type of area served:
The quantity of wastewater produced depend upon weather the area to be served is
residential, commercial or industrial. The wastewater from the residential area directly depend
upon the rate of water supply and it may be assumed to be equal to 70 to 80% of the water
supply. The amount of wastewater produced from the industrial locality depends upon the types
of industries and their corresponding industrial processes.

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Infiltration of ground water:
Ground water may infiltrate into the sewers through the leaky joints, due to which the
flow through sewers increases. Infiltration unnecessarily increase the load on the treatment
plants.
Variation in sewage flow and their effects:
Typical hourly variations in sewage flow
The flow in these sanitary sewers, though fluctuate seasonally, monthly, daily as well as
hourly, with the water consumption, yet they are sometimes delayed and less pronounced they
are damped because of the storage space in the sewers and because of the time required f or the
sewage to reach the point of gauging. The time as to when the peak flow occurs will depend
upon the flow time in sewers and the type of district served. Hence, if the sewage is gauged near
its origin, the peak flow will be quite pronounced. If the sewage must travel a long distance
before being gauged, the peak will be deferred. The peak flow will be much greater for the
smaller lateral sewers as compared to these for larger trunk sewers.
Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow
Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow
= 3 times the average daily flow

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Peak hourly flow will decreases, as the tributary area increases. The peak flow at the
outfall of a city sewer system will be much less usually about 1.5 times the average.
The sizes of the sewers can then be easily designed for carrying the computed maximum
hourly flows, with sewer running ¾ th full.
18+√P
Qmax = Qavg
4+√P
Where,
P = population in thousands
The minimum flow passing through a sewers is also an important factor in the design of
the particular sewer. Because at low flow, the velocity will be reduced considerably, which may
cause silting. The minimum flows through laterals may be even lesser than 25% of the average
while in the mains, they can be 50 to 70% of the average.
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 x average daily f low
Minimum hourly flow = ½ times the minimum daily flow
= 1/3 times the average daily flow
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer
Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean
depth (r) varies. Due to the change in the hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity (which
depends directly on r2/3) gets affected from time to time. It is necessary to check the sewer f or
maintaining a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/s at the time of minimum flow (assumed to be
1/3 rd of average flow). The designer should also ensure that a velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed at
least at the time of maximum flow and preferably during the average flow periods also.
Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of maximum flow, the velocity generated
does not exceed the scouring value.

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Quantity of storm water flow:
When rain falls over the ground surface, a part of it percolates into the ground, a part is
evaporated in the atmosphere and the remaining part overflows as storm water. This quantity of
storm water is very large as compared with sanitary sewage.
Factors affecting storm water:
The following are factors which affect the quantity of storm water:
1. Rainfall intensity and duration.

2. Area of the catchment.
3. Slope and shape of the catchment area.
4. Nature of the soil and the degree of porosity.
5. Initial state of catchment
If rainfall intensity and duration is more, large will be the quantity of storm water
available. If the rainfall takes place very slowly even though it continues for the whole day, the
quantity of storm water available will be less.
Harder surface yield more runoff than soft, rough surfaces. Greater the catchment area
greater will be the amount of storm water. Fan shaped and steep areas contribute more q uantity
of storm water. In addition to the above it also depends on the temperature, humidity, wind etc.
Computing the peak drainage discharge by the use of rational formula:
If a rainfall is applied to an impervious surface at a constant rate, the resultant runoff

from the surface would finally reach a rate equal to the rainfall. It has been established that the
maximum runoff will be obtained from the rain having a duration equal to the time of
concentration, this is called the critical rainfall duration.
Assumptions and Limitations of rational formula:

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Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations:
• Precipitation is uniform over the entire basin.

• Precipitation does not vary with time or space.
• Storm duration is equal to the time of concentration.
• A design storm of a specified frequency produces a design flood of
the same frequency.
• The basin area increases roughly in proportion to increases in length.
• The time of concentration is relatively short and independent of storm
intensity. The runoff coefficient does not vary with storm intensity or
antecedent soil moisture.
• Runoff is dominated by overland flow.
• Basin storage effects are negligible.
• The minimum duration to be used for computation of rainfall intensity is 10
minutes. If the time of concentration computed for the drainage area is less than
10 minutes, then 10 minutes should be adopted for rainfall intensity
computations.
Based upon these basic principles, the rational formula was evolved by Fruhling, Kuichling and
Lloyd David. The formula states that,
1
Qp = [ ]K.PC.A
36
Where,
Qp = Peak rate of runoff in cumecs

K = Co – efficient of runoff
A = Catchment area in Hectare
PC = Critical rainfall intensity

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Computation of peak drainage discharge by Empirical formulae:
The rational formula described is also quite empirical in the sense that the value of K
considerably depends upon the judgment of the designer. This method gives reliable results only
for smaller areas. Hence various empirical formula for calculating storm water runoff have been
suggested by various investigators.
a. Burkli – Ziegler formula: This is the oldest empirical formula used for determing the
peak runoff rate.
1 So
Qp = K.P.A√
455 A
Where,

K = Runoff Co – efficient depending upon the permeability
P = Maximum rainfall intensity
A = Drainage area in hectares
So = Slope of the ground surface in meter per thousand meter
b. Dicken’s formula: Generally used in North India.
Qp = CM3/4
Where,
C = A constant depending upon all the factors
M = Catchment area in square kilometer
c. Ryve’s formula: Generally used in south India

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Qp = CM2/3
Where,
d. Inglis formula:
123M
Qp = = 123√M
√M+10.4
Where,
e. Nawab Jung Bahadur formula:
Qp = CM[0.93 – 1/14 log M]
Where,
f. Dredge or Burge’s formula:
M
Qp = 19.6
L 2/3
Where,

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L = Length of the drainage basin in kilometer.
Co – efficient of runoff:
The impervious factor of runoff representing, the ratio of precipitation to runoff.

The value of K increases as the imperviousness of the area increases. It is generally
taken as equal to 0.9 for paved areas and 0.15 for lawns and gardens. The value of K can
also be worked out for different localities having different population densities.

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Intensity of rainfall:
Intensity of the rain is the rate at which it is falling, the duration is the time for
which it falls with that given intensity and frequency is the number of times it falls. The
intensity of a rain is expressed in cm/hr, but rate at which the rainfalls, changes
continuously throughout the storm period. The intensity of rainfall can be determined
with the help of rain gauges.
Time of concentration:
The time of concentration for a given storm water drain generally consists of two
parts.
i. The inlet time or overland flow time or time of equilibrium: The time taken by
the water to flow overland from the critical point upto the point where it enters
the drain mouth.

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L3
Ti = [0.855 ]0.385
H
Where,
Ti = inlet time in hours
L = Length of overland flow in kilometers from the critical point to the
mouth of the drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to the mouth of the drain in
meters
ii. The channel flow time or gutter flow time[Tf] : The time taken by the water to
flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the considered point.
Lenght of the drain

Tf =
velocity in the drain
The total time of concentration at the given point in the drain
Tc = Ti +Tf
Problems:
1. Assuming that the surface on which the rainfalls in a district is classified as follows: 20%
of the area consists of roof for which the runoff ratio is 0.9, 20% of the area consists of
pavement for which runoff ratio is 0.85, 5% of area consists of paved yards of houses f or
which runoff ratio is 0.80, 15% of area consists of macadam roads for which runoff ratio
is 0.40, 35% of the area consists of lawns, gardens and vegetable plants for which the
runoff ratio is 0.10 and the remaining 5% of the area is wooded for which the runoff is

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0.05, determine the co – efficient of runoff for the area. If the total area of the district is
36 hectares and the maximum rain intensity is taken as 5 cm/hr; what is the total runof f
for the district. The density of population is 250 per hectare and quota of water supply per
day is 225L. calculate the quantity of sewage for which the sewers of a separate system
should be designed.
Solution:
Let, A be the total area and A1, A2, - - - - An are small area having runoff ratio of
K1,K2, - - - - - Kn
K1A1+K2A2+ − − −KnAn
K=
A1+A2+ − − −An
∑ KA
K=
A
K1A1 = 20/100 x A x 0.9 = 0.18A

K2A2 = 0.17A
K3A3 = 0.04A
K4A4 = 0.06A
K5A5 = 0.035A
K6A6 = 0.0025A
0.18A+0.17A+0.04A+0.06A+0.035A+0.0025A
∴ K=
A
= 0.4875A
1
Qp = [ ]K.PC.A
36

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1
Qp = 0.4875 x 5 x 36 = 2.4375 cumecs
36
Population density = 250 / hectare
Total population = 36 x 250 =9000
Average water supply per day = 225 L/ person
∴ Average water supply to the district per day = 250 x 9000

= 2025000L = 2025 cu.m
2025
∴ Rate of water supply = = 0.0234 cumecs
24 x 60 x60
Assuming the sewage discharge as 0.8 times the water supplied
∴ Average rate of sewage produced = 0.8 x 0.0234

= 0.0187 cumecs
Now assuming the peak rate of sewage as 3 times the average
Peak rate of sewage flow = 3 x 0.0187 = 0.056 cumec
2. The drainage area of one sector of a town is 12 hectare. The classification of the surface
of this area is as follows.

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Percent of total surface area Type of surface Co – efficient of runoff
20% Hard pavement 0.85
20% Roof surface 0.80
15% Unpaved street 0.20
30% Garden and lawn 0.20
15% Wooden area 0.15
If the time of concentration for the area is 30 minute. Find the maximum runoff use
900
formula. R = . The density of population is 200 per hectare and quota of water supply
t+60
per day is 180L. Calculate the quantity of sewage for which the sewers of a partially
separate system should be designed.
Solution:
K1A1 = 0.17A
K2A2 = 0.16A
K3A3 = 0.03A
K4A4 = 0.06A
K5A5 = 0.0225A
∴ K = 0.4425
900 900
R= = = 10 mm/hr = 1 cm/hr
t+60 30+60
∴ Pc = 1 cm/hr
1
Qp = [ ]K.PC.A
36

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= 1/36 x 0.4425 x 1 x 12 = 0.1475 cumecs
Population density = 200 / hectare
Total population = 12 x 200 =2400
Average water supply per day = 180 L/ person
∴ Average water supply to the district per day = 180 x 2400

= 4,32,000 L = 432 cu.m
432
∴ Rate of water supply = = 0.005 cumecs
24 x 60 x60
Assuming the sewage discharge as 0.8 times the water supplied
∴ Average rate of sewage produced = 0.8 x 0.005

= 0.004 cumecs
Now assuming the peak rate of sewage as 3 times the average
Peak rate of sewage flow = 3 x 0.004 = 0.012 cumec
The storm water from roofs and paved yards of houses will be allowed to enter the
sewers.
= [ 1/36 x 0.85 x 1 x 0.2 x12] + [ 1/36 x 0.80 x 1 x 0.2 x 12]
= 0.11 cumec

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Flow rate of the partial flow = 0.11 + 0.012
= 0.122 cumecs
3.A certain district of a city has a projected population of 50,000 residing over an area of 40
hectares. Find the design discharge for the sewer line, for the following data.
i. Rate of water supply =200 Liter per capita per day
ii. Average impermeability co – efficient for the entire area = 0.3
iii. Time of concentration = 50 minutes
The sewer line is to be designed for a flow equivalent to the wet weather flow plus twice the dry
weather flow. Assume that 75% of water supply reaches in sewer as wastewater.
Solution:
The sewage flow is equal to 75% of rate of water supply.
∴ Sewage flow = 0.75 x 200 = 150 L/capita/day
150 𝑋 50000
∴ Rate of sewage flow = = 86.8 L/s
24 𝑋 60 𝑋 60
The rainfall intensity is given by,
25.4 𝑋 𝑎
Ri = mm/hr
𝑡 +𝑏
t = 50 minutes, a= 40 and b = 20 (Refer wastewater treatment : B C Punmia, Page no. 34)
25.4 𝑋 40
Ri = mm/hr
50 +20
= 14.5 mm/hr = 1.45 cm/hr
Wet weather flow is given by
Q = 28AI Ri
= 28 x 40 x 0.3 x 1.45

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= 487.2 L/s
∴ Design discharge is given by
Q = (2xDWF) + WWF
= (2x 86.8) + 487.2
= 660.8 L/s
Shapes of sewer pipes:
The sewer pipes are normally circular in section, although some other sections such as
basket handled shape, egg shape, horse shoe shape, parabolic shape, semicircu lar shape, semi
elliptical shape, rectangular shape, etc. Out of these egg shaped sections may be preferred f or
combined sewers and rectangular shaped sewers are preferably constructed at site and normally
used as independent covered storm water surface drains, and not as sewers. All other f orms of
sewers are almost out – dated and rarely used these days.

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The circular sections are generally preferred to all other shapes, because of their f ollowing
advantages:
• They can be manufactured most easily and conveniently.

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• A circular sewer provides the maximum area for a given perimeter, and thus providing
the maximum hydraulic mean depth when running full or half full
• It utilizes the minimum quantities of materials, hence it is cheapest and most economical.
• A circular section, being of uniform curvature all round, offers less opportunities for
deposits.
All these advantages of circular sections are obtained only when the section runs at least half
full. When the depth in a circular section goes less than half full, its merits are lost, as the
velocity and discharge reduce considerably with the reduction in depth. Lesser the discharge,
poorer the performance.
The circular sections, will therefore, be the best when discharge does not vary too much, and
the chances of sewers running with very low depths are less.
Egg shaped sewers, is suitable for low discharges maintain hydraulic depth nearly
uniform and give 2 to 15% higher. Velocities then provided by hydraulically equivalent circular
sections carrying the same low discharges, are preferred for combined sewers. However, the
increase in velocities is quite small compared to their other disadvantages and, therefore, such
sewers, which were quite often used in olden days, are becoming obsolete these days. There
disadvantages over circular sewers are:
1) They are more difficult to construct.
2) Since the smaller base has to support the weight of the upper broader section,
they are less stable.
3) They require more material and are, therefore, more costly
Forces Acting on sewer pipes:
The structural design of the sewer pipes should be such as to enable them to withstand the
various forces likely to come on them. The following forces generally, come into play in the
sewer pipes:
• Internal pressure of sewage;

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• Pressure due to external loads;
• Temperature stresses;
• Flexural stresses.
Internal pressure of sewage:
The pressure exerted by the sewage from inside the pipe when running full is called internal
pressure. Such a pressure may be exerted due to either chancy surcharge or due to over f low of
sewers flowing under gravity, or it may be exerted in out fall sewers which have to flow full
under pressure. Since most of the sewers of a sewerage scheme are designed as gravity conduits,
the internal pressure of water is not of much problem. However, it may be mentioned here that
the tendency of the internal pressure is to cause bursting of the pipe and to induce tensile stresses
in the pipe material. Hence, when pipes are to be used as pressure pipes, they must be strong in
tension.
Pressures due to external loads:
Sewer pipes are mostly buried under the ground and placed in trenches, which are back
filled. The weight of the pipe, the weight of the back fill and the superimposed traffic loads if
any, will then be transferred to the pipe. This will produce compressive stresses in the pipe
material and the material may fail in compression, if it exceeds the allowable compressive stress
of the pipe material. The pipes should, be checked for this possible failure.
Temperature stresses:
When pipes are laid above the ground, they are exposed to the atmosphere; and are,
therefore, subjected to temperature changes. They expand during day time and contract at night.
If this expansion or contraction is prevented due to fixation or friction over the supports,
longitudinal stresses are produced in the pipe materials.

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Special types of expansion joints at suitable intervals must be provided to counter act these
stresses. However, since the sewer pipes are mostly buried underground, these temperature
stresses do not come in to picture.
Flexural stresses:
Sewer pipes may have to be carried supported between trestles, or piers, like beams.
Similarly, sometimes the rain water, etc. may wash off the ground from below the pipes resting
on the ground, thus exposing them like beams supported between two supports. Under all such
circumstances, bending stresses get produced in the pipe, since the pipe acts like a beam with
loads resulting from the weight of the pipe, weight of the sewage in the pipe, and any other
superimposed loads. The stresses caused by this beam action may be determined by usual
methods of structural analysis applied to beams. However, in normal circumstances, the stresses
produce are small for smaller spans, and hence often neglected except for long spans or where
there are huge superimposed loads.
Sewer Materials:
Vitrified clay (or stone ware), cement concrete, asbestos cement and cast iron are the most
common materials used for constructing sewer pipes. Factors considering while selecting a
particular material for constructing the sewer pipes are as follows:
• Resistance to corrosion: The sewer pipes are likely to be acted upon by sewer gases, and
thus get corroded, due to the presence of acids and other impurities in sewage. Therefore,
be such as to be resistance to corrosion, and thus to last for a longer life.
• Resistance to abrasion: When the sewage contains a lot of grit and sand particles, moving
at a high velocity at the sewer invert, a lot of wear and tear of the sewer material may be
caused due to abrasion.
• Strength and durability: Since they are laid well below the ground level, they are
subjected to considerable external loads. However, they are generally not subjected to the
internal pressure of water. The pipe materials must be durable as not to give way quickly

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due to normal wear and tear, and thus to provide a longer life span and to avoid their
frequent replacement.
• Light weight: The material used for sewers should be light, so that the sewers can be
easily handled and transported.
• Imperviousness: The sewer material should be impervious as not to allow any seepage of
the sewage from the sewer.
• The economy and cost: The sewer material must be cheaper and less costly as to cause
overall economy in their construction.
• Hydraulically efficient: The sewer material should be such as to provide a smooth interior
surface, so as to provide an hydraulically efficient surface.
Asbestos cement sewers:
Asbestos cement pipes are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fiber, silica and
cement, converted under pressure to a dense homogenous material, possessing considerable
strength, called asbestos cement. These pipes are normally available in sizes say f rom 10 to 90
cm in diameter and 4 meter in length.
The advantages of A.C. pipes are:
• They are light in weight and hence easy to transport.
• They can be easily cut and assembled without skilled labour.
• Their interior surface is exceptionally smooth (with Manning’s N=0.011), thus
providing an excellent hydraulically efficient sewer.
The disadvantages of A.C. pipes are:
• They are structurally not strong enough to bear the huge compressive strength
induced by the heavy external loads to which the deeply buried sewers may be
subjected to.
• They are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid from hydrogen sulphide gas
generated in sanitary waste water or by some industrial chemical.
Plain cement concrete and Reinforced cement concrete Sewers:

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Plain cement concrete pipes are manufactured in small sizes, while they are reinforced
with steel reinforcement for larger diameter pipes. RCC pipes are easily available in sizes up to
diameters say 1.8 meters, and may be got manufactured for larger diameters say upto about 4.5
meters. They are known as cast in - situ pipes in the former case, and precast pipes in the latter
case. Cast in-situ pipes are useful when the site conditions are difficult and there it may be
difficult to carry the pipes. But since such pipes are cast at site, lesser supervision and check is
1
possible as compared to the case of precast pipes. The usual mix is 1: 1 : 3 with maximum size
2
of aggregate limited to 6mm. The water: cement ratio varies between 0.5 to 0.7 depending upon
the thickness of the pipe section, and the equipment used for placing and compacting the cement.
RCC pipes are those concrete pipes which are provided with circumferential
reinforcement to carry internal and external stresses, and a nominal longitudinal rei nforcement
equal to 0.25% of the cross – section area of concrete.
The non pressure RCC pipes are classified according to IS: 458 -1988 into 3 categories:
i. NP2 pipes: They are light weight RCC non pressure pipes, normally used for
drainage and irrigation use for culverts carrying light traffic.
ii. NP3 pipes: They are medium duty non pressure pipes, normally used for
drainage and irrigation use for culverts carrying medium traffic.
iii. NP4 pipes: They are heavy duty non pressure pipes, normally used for drainag e
and irrigation use for culverts carrying heavy traffic, such as railway loading.
Hume steel pipes:
It is also the RCC pipes patented under this name and consists of thin steel shell coated
from inside with cement mortar by centrifugal process. The thickness of the inside coating varies
from 12 mm to 30 mm depending upon the size of the pipe
Advantages of concrete pipes:

• Strong in tension as well as in compression.

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• Resistant to erosion and abrasion
• Easily moulded and manufactured either at site or in the factory
• They can be made of any desired strength by proper design and proportioning of concrete
mixes.
• Cast – insitu forms may be easily used at places where, owing to ground water or running
sand conditions, brick sewers or cast at site concrete sewers can not be used.
• Economical in medium and large sizes.
Disadvantages of concrete pipes:

• Easily get corroded and pitted by the action of sulphuric acid produced f rom hydrogen
sulphide gas or from such other chemicals present in sewage.
• Not only reduces the life span of the sewers but also reduces their carrying capacities
with time.
• They are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing too much silt and grit.
The concrete sewers can be protected from such action by lining their interiors with vertified
clay linings.
Methods of protecting concrete sewers from hydrogen sulphide corrosion are:

• Prohibiting the waste containing sulphides.
• Reducing the sulphides contents by pre – treating the sewage
• Aerating and chlorinating the sewage
• By adequately ventilating the sewers
• By making the sewers to run full
• By adding such chemicals to sewage as may neutralize the already present sulphur
compounds.
Vitrified clay or stoneware or salt – glazed sewers:
Vitrified clay pipes are widely used for carrying sewage and drainage, as house
connections as well as lateral sewers. They are available in size of 5 cm increments f rom 10 to

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30 cm and in 7.5 cm increments from 30 to 90 cm. these pipes are manufactured from clays and
shales of special qualities, which are pulverized and mixed thoroughly with water.
Advantages of vitrified clay pipes:
• Highly resistant to sulphide corrosion

• Interiors are very smooth and they are hydraulically very efficient
• Highly impervious and do not allow any sewage to seep out of them
• Though weak in tension, yet quite strong in compression, hence quite suitable for
withstanding compressive stresses caused by traffic and back – fills.
• Quite cheap, durable, easily available and can be easily laid and jointed
• Non adsorbant, so as not to adsorb water more than 5% of their own weight.
Disadvantages of vitrified clay pipes:
• They are heavy, bulky and brittle, therefore difficult to transport. Hence they are cast
only in smaller sizes and smaller lengths. Due to their shorter lengths, numerous joints
are required in laying such pipes.
• They cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension.
Brick sewers:
Bricks had been used as sewer material since ancient days. Now – a days been almost
replaced by cement concrete sewers. They may still be used at places where the sewers are
required to the constructed at the site and ingradients required for cement concre ting may not be
easily available.
Cast iron sewers:

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Cast iron pipes are structurally stronger and capable of withstanding greater tensile,
compressive, as well as bending stresses, but are costlier, compared to cement concrete or stone
ware pipes. CI pipes are though structurally quite stronger and durable, yet cannot withstand the
corrosive action of gases and other acids present in sewage, hence generally lined f rom inside
with cement concrete, or painted with coal tar, etc. although the sewer pipes are not subjected to
high pressures, but still they are made as heavy or even heavier than the water pipes, so as the
resist the corrosive action of sewage. CI pipes are manufactured by two methods. One is the
ordinary sand moulding method and the other is the centrifugal process.
Lead sewers:
Lead pipes are smooth, soft and can be easily bent to take odd shapes. They are also not
affected by acid or alkaline sewage discharges and can resist sulphide corrosion. But they are
very costly and occasionally used in smaller sizes.
Plastic sewers:
The use of plastics for non – pressure sewer pipes is of comparatively recent origin, and
is still in the experimental stages. The test results on uPVC pipes have shown that:
• Pipes get deformed up to about 2 years, the rate of deformation decreasing with time.
• Deformation is predominantly influenced by the type of backfill material and its method
of application.
• Traffic loading has a little effect on the final deformations, but it reduces the time to
achieve equilibrium conditions
• At no time, a PVC pipe failed to operate as part of an operational sewer system due to
excessive deformations.
Laying and testing of sewer pipes:

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During planning a sewerage system for a city or a town, the alignment of various laterals,
branches and main sewers are, first of all, decided on a contour map of the area. The population
or catchment areas, to be drained by each pipes are marked. The required sizes of the pipe
sections and their gradients are then computed. After finalizing all the details of the different
sewer pipe lines on the maps, the work is approved and finally executed.
Laying of sewer pipes:
All the sewer pipes are generally laid starting from their outfall ends, towards their
starting ends. The advantages gained in starting from tail end is the utilization of the tail length
even during the initial periods of its construction, thus ensuring that the functioning of the
sewerage scheme has not to wait till the completion of the entire scheme. Locate the points
where manholes are required to be constructed and then laying the sewer pipe between the two
manholes. The center line of the sewer is marked either by drawing a line on the ground parallel
to it, at a suitable fixed horizontal distance of 2 to 3 m away from it.
Excavating trenches:
Road pavements are removed, the earth or rock from below the pavements is then
excavated so as to dug the required trench. The width of the excavation at any level will depend
upon the width of the trench at the bottom, and the addition due to side slopes and timbering etc.
After completing the laying of the sewer between two manholes, further excavations are carried
out for laying the pipes between the next consecutive manholes.
The width of the trench at the bottom is generally kept 15 cm more than the diameter of
the sewer pipe, minimum value of about 60 to 75 cm for smaller diameter pipes, so as to
facilitate laying and jointing of pipe lengths. The trenches are excavated with vertical sides or
with sloping sides, keeping in view the fact that the soil may cave in, posing dangers to the
labourers working in the trenches. Trenches with vertical sides are excavated in depths more than
2 m and to support the soil by sheeting and bracing the trenches. The bracing will absorb the soil
pressure and prevent it from collapsing.

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The ranger or waless are the planks which transfer the load from the sheeting boards to
the cross braces by jointing the sheeting boards together. This entire assembly of sheeting,
boards and rangers is called timbering or shoring of the trench.
Dewatering of trenches:
While excavating a trench, the ground water may apper, if the water – table happens to be
high or if the sewer happens to be laid very deep. This ground water will create problem in
further excavations and also in laying and jointing the pipes. This ground water is likely to
infiltrate into the sewers, thus considerably increasing the load on them. To avoid these troubles,
ground water must be removed. The ground water may be removed through an open jointed
drain constructed below the sewer trench. Ground water is removed by pumping out the water
from the sump constructed in the trench.
Shaping the trench bottom to correct levels:
The trench should be excavated up to a level equal to the bottom of the embedding
concrete or up to the invert level of the sewer pipe if no embedding concrete is provided. When
the trench excavation reaches the final stages, the bottom most portion of the trench should be
excavated carefully, so as not to dug more than the required. The designed invert levels at
different RDs and the designed slope between them, as per the longitudinal section of the sewer,
precisely transferred to the trench bottom.
After the bedding concrete has been laid in the required alignment and levels, the sewer
pipes are lowered down into the trench. Smaller pipe lengths of sizes less than 40 cm diameter
can be directly handled by masons and their helpers, and larger pipe lengths can be lowered by
passing ropes around each end of the pipe length. The sewer pipe lengths are usually laid f rom
the lowest point with their socket ends facing upstream.

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Testing of sewer pipes:
The sewers after being laid and jointed, are tested for watertight joints, and also for
correct straight alignment.
Test for leakage or water test:
The sewers are tested to ensure no leakage through their joints after giving a sufficient
time to these joints to set in. The sewer pipe sections are tested between manhole to manhole
under a test pressure of about 1.5 m of water head. In order to carry – out this test on a sewer line
between two manholes, the lower end of the sewer is, first of all plugged. The water is now filled
in the manhole at the upper end and is allowed to flow through the sewer line. The depth of water
in the manhole is maintained to the testing head of about 1.5 m. The sewer line is watched by
moving along the trench and the joints which leak or sweat, are repaired. The leaking pipes will
be replaced.
Test for straightness of alignment and obstruction:
The straightness of the sewer pipe can be tested by placing a mirror at one end of the
sewer line and a lamp at the other end. If pipe line is straight, the full circle of light will be
observed. If the pipe line is not straight, this would be apparent, mirror will also indicate any
obstruction in the pipe barrel.
Any obstruction present in the pipe can also be tested by inserting at the upper end of the
sewer, a smooth ball of diameter 13 mm less than the internal diameter of the sewer pipe. In the

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absence of any obstruction, yarn or mortar projecting through the joints, etc. the ball shall roll
down the invert of the sewer pipe and emerge at the lower end.
Back – filling of the trenches:
After the sewer line has been laid and tested, the trenches are back filled. While back
filling the excavated earth in the trench, the earth should be laid equally on either side of the
sewer, and the earth should be filled up in layers of about 15 cm thickness. The earth filling
above the sewer pipe should be carefully carried out. After a few months of exposure, when this
top layer gets fully settled, the road pavements may be constructed. This will prevent their
subsidence and cracking.
Ventilation of the sewer:
The sewer must be properly ventilated for the following reasons:
• The decomposition and putrefaction of sewage inside the sewers may result in the
production of various sewer gases such as, carbon di oxide, carbon monoxide, methane,
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, nitrogen, etc. These gases are disposed of into the
atmosphere by exposing the sewage to the outside atmosphere by suitable methods of
ventilation.
• Ventilating sewers is to ensure a continuous flow sewage inside the sewer. This is
achieved by ventilation by keeping the surface of sewage in contact with free air and thus
preventing the formation of air – locks in the sewage.
Methods of ventilation:
Methods adopted for ventilating the sewers:
Use of ventilating columns:

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In order to achieve proper ventilation, ventilating columns are generally placed at
intervals of 150 to 300 m along the sewer lines. They are also provided at the upper end of every
branch sewer, also at every change in the size of the sewers.
The ventilating columns are generally designed to serve two purposes together, one for
ventilating the sewer and other for working as a support for street lamps, sign boards, etc. The
presence of ventilating columns will not be detected at a glance by the general public, hence, will
not look unaesthetic to the eyes.
Use of ventilating manhole covers:
The manhole covers are sometimes provided with perforations, through which the sewer
gets exposed to the atmosphere. This will no doubt help in achieving some ventilation, but will
cause more nuisance, as the bad smells continue to erupt from them.
Proper design of sewers:
The sewers should be properly designed as running half or two third full, thus reserving
the top space for the sewer gases.

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Use of mechanical devices:
Forced draught is sometimes provided by exhaust fans to expel out the f oul gases f rom
the sewers. It requires supervision and skill.
Unobstructed outlets:
It is used for storm water drains or sewers, they can also act as partial ventilators.
House vent and soil pipes:
It help in ventilating house drains and public sewers, particularly where interceptors are
not provided on the sewers connecting houses and nuildings.
Artificial ventilation:
It is resorted to at site before entering a sewer, by blowing fresh air supply into the sewer
through mechanical means such as blowers having suitably protected and encased motors and
fitted with canvas air pipe suspended into the sewer.
Sewer appurtenances:
Sewage flowing in the sewer line contains a large number of impurities in the form of silt,
fats, oils, rags etc. Under normal flows they are not likely to settle and choke the sewers, but
during small flows self-cleansing velocity is not likely to develop and the chances of choking of
the sewers are increased. Chokings have to be removed time to time, and facilities should be
provided on the sewer lines for this purpose. Therefore, for proper functioning and to f acilitate
maintenance of the sewage system, various additional structures have to be constructed on the
sewer lines. These structures are known as sewer appurtenances. Following are the important
appurtenances,
1. Manholes
2. Inlets
3. Catch basins

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4. Flushing devices
5. Regulators
6. Inverted siphons
7. Grease and oil traps
8. Lamp holes
9. Leaping weirs
Catch basin:
Catch basin
Catch basin are nothing but street inlets provided with additional small settling basins.
Grit, Sand, debris, etc, do settle in these basins and their entry into the sewer is thus prevented. In
addition to this, a hood is also provided, which prevents the escape of foul gases, which may find
its way through the sewer line.
Catch basin needs periodical cleaning, as otherwise, the settled organic matter may
decompose, producing foul odours and may also become a breeding place for mosquitoes.

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Catch basins were considered necessary in old combined sewerage system, but in modern
days, they are not considered as very essential, because the modern well paved streets offer very
less grit and debris with storm runoff and the same can be conveyed easily in storm water sewers
laid at suitable gradients to provide self cleansing velocities.
Flushing tank:
Wherever, there are any chances of blockage of sewer pipes, such as in the case of sewers
laid on flat gradients not producing self cleansing velocities or near the dead end points of
sewers, flushing devices are installed. These devices store water temporarily and throw it into the
sewer for the purposes of flushing and cleaning the sewer.
Two types flushing operations are normally used
i. Flushing operation using automatic flushing tank

ii. Hand operated flushing operation
Automatic flushing tank:

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In rhis type of flushing tank, the flushing operation is carried automatically at regular
intervals. The entry of water is so regulated as to fill the tank upto the drainage point in a period
equal to the flushing interval. An overflow pipe is also provided to drain away water in the case
thetank fails to discharge and thereby overflows.
Hand operated flushing operation:
The flushing and cleaning of sewers can be carried out at suitable intervals by means of
manual labours also. It is carried out as follows:
• The outlet end of the manhole is closed by a sluice valve, etc. the sewage entering the
manhole from the inlet end will then start collecting in the manhole. When sufficient
quantity of sewerage gets accumulated, the outlet end of the manhole is suddenly o pened
and the sewage is thus allowed to enter the sewer, causing flushing operation.
• The inlet and as well outlet end of the manhole are closed by sluice valve etc. the water
from the outside is now made to enter into the manhole. The flushing of sewer ca n then
be carried out by opening the outlet and the inlet ends.
• One end of a hose pipe is connected to a nearby fire hydrant, and the other end may be
placed in the manhole to obtain the flushing operation.
Manhole:

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Manholes are masonry or RCC chambers, constructed at suitable intervals along the
sewer line. Manholes helps in joining sewer length, in inspection, cleaning and maintenance.
Manholes are generally provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or change of
sewer diameter. When the sewer line runs straight, the manholes are provided at regular
intervals. The spacing between the manholes depends upon the size of sewer line, larger the
diameter greater will be the spacing.
Depending upon their depth the manhole may be classified as
i. Shallow manhole
ii. Normal manhole
iii. Deep manhole
Shallow manhole is about 0.7 to 0.9 m in depth, is constructed at the start of a branch
sewer or at places, which are not subjected to heavy traffic.
A normal manhole is about 1.5 m in depth and is constructed either square or rectangular
in cross section.
Deep manhole is having depth more than 1.5 m. the size in the upper portion is reduced
by providing an offset.

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Components of a manhole :
a) Access shaft: The upper portion of a deep manhole is called access shaft. Its minimum
size for a rectangular manhole is about 0.75 x 0.6 m and for a circular manhole, the
minimum diameter is about 0.6 to 0.75 m. its depth depends upon the depth of the
manhole and the height required for the working chamber.
b) Working chamber: The lower portion of the manhole is known as the working, as its
provides a working space for inspecting and cleaning operations. The minimum size of a
rectangular manhole is 1.2 m x 0.9 m. and for a circular manhole is 1.2 m.
c) Benching: The bottom portion of the manhole is constructed in cement concrete. A
semicircular or a U – shaped channel is generally constructed and the sides are made to
slope towards it. The concreting is known as benching and facilitates the entry of sewage
into the main sewer.
d) Side wall: The side walls of the manholes are made of brick or stone masonry of RCC.
The minimum thickness of the brick wall should be 22.5 cm. the approximate thickness
may be computed by using empirical thumb rule.
t = 10 + 4d
t = Thickness of the wall in cm.
d = Depth of excavation in meters

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e) Steps and ladders: Steps are generally provided for descending into the manhole. The
steps are made of cast iron and placed staggered at a horizontal distance of about 20 cm
and at a vertical center to center distance of about 30 cm. The steps should be fully
embedded in wall. For deeper manhole, ladders are provided in place of steps. It gives a
high sense of security to the labours descending into the manhole.
f) Cover and frame: The manhole is provided with a cast iron cover and a cast iron frame at
its top. The thickness of the frame is about 20 to 25 cm, and its base about 10 cm wide. It
is firmly embedded in the pavement. The manhole cover may be rectangular or circular.
The size of the rectangular cover is about 0.6 x 0.45 m, and that of a circular cover being
0.5 to 0.6 m in diameter. The top surface of the cover is roughened, so as to avoid
slipping of the persons walking on it. The top surface of the cover also carries an arrow
mark, and the cover is so placed as to place the direction of the arrow in the direction of

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the flow of sewage. The top level of the cover should flush with the road or the pavement
level, so as not to cause any inconvenience to the traffic.
Grease and oil traps:
Grease and oil traps are those trap chambers which are constructed in a sewerage system
to remove oil and grease from the sewage before it enters into the sewer line. Such traps are
located near the sources contributing grease and oil to the sewage.
Oil and Grease trap
The remove of oil and grease from the sewage before it enters into the sewer pipe is
considered necessary because of the following reasons.
• The grease and oil will stick to the sewer sides and thus reducing the sewer capacity
• The suspended matter which would have flown along with the sewage, also sticks to the
sides of the sewer, due to sticky nature of oil and grease, thus reducing the sewer
capacity.
• The presence of oil and grease, adds the possibilities of explosions in the sewe rs.

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• The presence of oil and grease in sewage makes the sewage treatment difficult, as their
presence adversely affects the biochemical reaction.
The principle on which the oil and grease traps work: The grease and oil being lighter in
weight, float on the top surface of the sewage. If an outlet draws the sewage from lower level
grease and oil will get excluded. These traps should be cleaned periodically, otherwise they
would not function properly and sewage will not flow freely.
Low cost waste treatment:
Low cost wastewater treatment method for different sources of wastewater being an
alternative to conventional treatment method that have operational and financial restriction.
Oxidation pond or Stabilization pond:
Stabilization ponds are open flow through earthern basins, specifically designe and
constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable industrial wastewaters. It provides comparatively
long detention periods, extending from a few days to several days, during which time the wastes
get stabilized by the action of natural forces. Stabilization ponds may be classified as aerobic,
facultative or anaerobic, depending upon the mechanism of purification.
Aerobic pond:
The stabilization of wastes is brought about by aerobic bacteria, which flourish in the
presence of oxygen. The oxygen demand of such bacteria in a pond is met by the combined
action of algae and other micro – organisms called algal – photosynthesis. The end products of
the process are carbon dioxide, ammonia and phosphates, which are required b y the algae to
grow and continue to produce oxygen. The depth of the pond is very small of 0.5 m and requires
occasional stirring, to prevent anaerobic conditions in the settled sludges.
Anaerobic pond:

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The stabilization of waste is mainly brought about by the usual anaerobic conversion of
organic wastes to carbon dioxide, methane and gaseous end products, with eruption of foul
odours and pungent smells.depth ranges from 2.5 to 4 m
Facultative pond:
Upper layers work under aerobic conditions, while the anaerobic conditions, prevails in
the bottom layers. The upper aerobic layer of the pond acts as a good check against the evolution
of the foul odours from a pond.
The effluents from oxidation ponds can be easily used for land irrigation, particularly at
places, where they cannot be discharged into river streams. The detention period is usually 2 to 6
weeks, depending upon sunlight and temperature. Better efficiency of the treatment is obtained if
several ponds are placed in series, so the sewage flows from one to another unit. The ef fluent
should be entered at center above or below the liquid surface for a uniform mixing of the influent
with the oxygen saturated pond liquor. The outlet should provide withdrawal of ef fluent f rom
different depths of pond.
Organic loading may range from 300 – 150 kg/hec./day. The length of the tank may be
kept at about twice the width. A free – board of about 1 m may also be provided above a capacity
corresponding to 20 – 30 day of detention period. Organic loading and per capita daily BOD
production of about 0.08 kg.

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Advantages and disadvantages:
• It is very cheap, the capital cost being 10 to30% of that of the conventional plant.
• No skilled supervision is required.
• Quite flexible and do not get upset due to fluctuation in organic loading.
• Causes nuisance due to mosquito breeding and bad odours.
Septic tank:
A septic tank may be defined as a primary sedimentation tank, with a longer detention
period and with extra provisions for digestion of the settled sludge. The digestion of the settled
sludge is carried out by anaerobic decomposition process. Septic tank unit is generally classif ied
under the units which work on the principle of anaerobic decomposition. A septic tank is a
horizontal continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank, directly admitting raw sewage and
removing about 60 to 70% of the dissolved matter from it. The effluent from a tank will be
sufficiently foul in nature and will have to be disposed of either for sub – surface irrigation.
Sludge settled at the bottom of the tank and the oil and greasy matter rising to the top
surface of sewage as scum, are allowed to remain in the tank for a period of several months,
during which they are decomposed by the anaerobic bacteria to form gases and liquid s by the
process of sludge digestion. The digested sludge from the tank is periodically removed and taken

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to a nearby sump. It is pumped up to the ground and disposed of in a sanitary manner, after
drying. Septic tank are generally provided area where sewers have not been laid.
The tank is designed to prevent direct currents between the tank inlet and outlet. This
ensures effective sedimentation, and is achieved by using pipe tees with submerged ends as inlet
and outlet. A better arrangement is to provide hanging baffles in front of inlet and before the
outlet. The T – pipe or the baffle at the outlet will also help in retaining the scum in the tank.
Holding the scum in the tank not only frees the effluent from it, but also hold back odours and to
create a sort of heat insulation which aids the bacterial action. The tank is generally covered at
top with a RCC slab. The RCC cover prevents the escape of foul gases and odours from the tank
on to the ground, prevents the chances of accidents and wind agitation . The foul gases generated
by the ansaerobic decomposition of deposited sludge are separately removed through a vent pipe
projecting sufficiently high above the ground.
The sludge deposited and digested, is removed at an interval of 6 to 12 months, into a

side sump – well through a pipe under hydrostatic head with the help of a portable pump. A
septic tank should be capable of storing the sewage flow during the detention period, and a
additional volume of sludge for 6 months to 3 years, depending upon th e periodicity of cleaning.

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The rate of accumulation of sludge has been recommended as 30 L/person/year. A free – board
of about 0.3 m may be provided above the top sewage line in the tank. The inlet should penetrate
by about 30 cm below the top sewage line, and the outlet should penetrate to about 40% of the
depth of sewage, outlet invert level should be kept 5 to 7.5 cm below the inlet invert level.
Detention period for septic tank generally varies between 12 to 32 hours, but is commonly
adopted as 24 hours. Septic tanks are generally rectangular with their length at about 2 to 3 times
the width. Width should not be less than 90 cm. The depth of the tank generally ranges between
1.2 to 1.8 cm.
The effluent coming out from a septic tank should be disposed carefully, to minimize the
risk to the health of the people. The following three methods of disposal of septic tank ef fluent
are usually adopted:
• Soil absorption system

• Biological filters
• Upflow anaerobic filters
Basic principles of house drainage:
The various sanitary fitting provided in buildings, such as wash basin, bath tubs or bath
rooms, kitchen sinks, etc. A system of pipes should be laid and connected with the sanitary
fittings in such a way that the sewage automatically flows by gravity through th is system, and
ultimately discharge into the municipal sewer. Such a plumbing system, should be designed
keeping into consideration the following general principles.
• The house sewer pipes should preferably be laid by the side of the building rather than in
walls or underground. But in modern days in small houses, they are generally embedded
in walls and in large buildings, kept outside and accommodation in shaft, to avoid their
bad appurtenance.
• Drains should be laid straight between the manholes. All sharp bends and junction, which
tend to become dead ends for collection of sewage solids, should be avoided except
through manholes.
• The entire system should be properly ventilated from the start to the end.

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• The house sewer should be connected to the public sewer, keeping the outfall level of the
house sewer sufficiently higher than the water level of the public sewer to avoid back
flow and inefficient building drainage
• The plumbing system should contain enough number of traps, at suitable points for its
efficient functioning or to avoid evolution of foul smells.
• The house sewer should be disconnected from the public sewer by the provision of an
intercepting traps, so as not to allow foul gases from public sewer to enter the house
sewer.
• Joints of sewer should be water tight and should be properly checked so.
• Lateral sewers should be laid at sufficient slopes, so as to develop self cleansing
velocities.
• High quality sewer pipes should be used in the system.
• Possibilities of formation of air – locks, siphonage, undue deposits, etc. should be
properly studied and remedies should be accommodated in the design to avoid them.
• The size of lateral sewers should be such that they will not overflow at the time of
maximum discharge.
• Rain water from roofs or open courtyards should not be allowed to mix with house
sewage or sullage, but should be separately discharged.
Typical layout plan showing house drainage system:

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Module 1 MIW

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Necessity of sewerage system:

If untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, the decomposition of the organic

Methods of domestic waste water disposal

1. Disposal by Dilution where large receiving water bodies area available

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 1

Sanitation systems is of two types

i. Old conservancy system

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 2

Conservancy system Water Carriage system

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 3

Classification of sewerage system:

The sewerage system are classified as

• The sewers are of small size, it is difficult to clean them.

• Where rainfall is uneven.

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 5

• Rainfall is even throughout the year.

Separate System Combined System

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 6

Sanitary sewage is produced from the following sources:

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 7

The design period depends upon the following:

• Ease and difficulty in expansion,

Dry weather flow:

Factors affecting dry weather flow:

Various factors tha affect dry weather flow are as follows

a) Rate of water supply

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 8

Rate of water supply:

i. Arithmetical increase method

Type of area served:

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 9

Variation in sewage flow and their effects:

Typical hourly variations in sewage flow

Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow

Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow

= 3 times the average daily flow

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 10

Minimum daily flow = 2/3 x average daily f low

Minimum hourly flow = ½ times the minimum daily flow

= 1/3 times the average daily flow

Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 11

Factors affecting storm water:

1. Rainfall intensity and duration.

Computing the peak drainage discharge by the use of rational formula:

If a rainfall is applied to an impervious surface at a constant rate, the resultant runoff

Assumptions and Limitations of rational formula:

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 12

• Precipitation is uniform over the entire basin.

Qp = Peak rate of runoff in cumecs

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 13

Computation of peak drainage discharge by Empirical formulae:

Qp = Peak rate of runoff in cumecs

b. Dicken’s formula: Generally used in North India.

c. Ryve’s formula: Generally used in south India

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 14

e. Nawab Jung Bahadur formula:

Qp = CM[0.93 – 1/14 log M]

f. Dredge or Burge’s formula:

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 15

The impervious factor of runoff representing, the ratio of precipitation to runoff.

Coorg Institute of Technology, Ponnampet. Page 16