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Conductivity of a solution
« Previous / Next » Andy Connelly / July 14, 2017 / Laboratory Techniques, Science

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First published 14th July 2017.

Introduction
Conductivity of a solution appears a very simple measurement. Probe goes in, number comes
out. Simple? However, whether that number has any meaning requires slightly more careful
handling. In order to get reliable data, there are certain ideas that need to be taken into
account.

DISCLAIMER: I am not an expert in conductivity measurements. The content of this blog is

what I have discovered through my e orts to understand the subject. I have done my best to
make the information here in as accurate as possible. If you spot any errors or admissions, or
have any comments, please let me know.

Conductivity
Conductivity is an important measurement for many applications [1,2]. When done properly it
is a quick and easy way to measure the purity of water. However, there are some key ideas
that must be understood before starting to make conductivity measurements.

To start there are three important de nitions:

Electrical current is the movement of charged particles (measured in Amps, A).

Conductance is a measure of how easily those charge particles move through a
solution/material (measured in Siemens, S).
Conductivity is the conductance (S) measured across a speci ed distance through a
material/solution (measured in Siemens per centimetre, S/cm)

In a metal wire it is electrons that are the charged particles moving through the material, in a
solution it is ions. Examples of these ions are shown in Figure 1.

The size of the current depends on [3, 5]:

Nature of the ions: charge, size and mobility

Nature of the solvent: dielectric constant and viscosity
Concentration of ions: the more ions the greater the conductivity and so conductivity
can be used as a measure of concentration.
Temperature

In general the more ions present in a solution the greater the conductivity; however, not all
additions to aqueous solutions reliably form ions ( e.g. sugar and alcohol). Further,
conductivity only increases with concentration up to a maximum value, after which, the
conductivity may actually decrease with increasing concentration [8].

The stability and purity of the sample, and how it is handled, can a ect the accuracy of the
sample reading. Low-level samples can be easily e ected by contamination, CO2 absorption,
and degassing [3].

Figure 1: Formation of ions in solution [7]

Resistivity
For some solutions, such as pure water, the conductivity is so low that it is sometimes easier
to use resistivity and resistance as the measure.

Resistance is a measurement of a material or solutions opposition to the ow of a

current (measured in Ohms (Ω)) . This is the reciprocal of conductance.
Resistivity is the resistance measured across a speci ed distance (measured in
Siemens per centimeter (Ωcm)). This is the reciprocal of conductivity.

See Figure 2 for comparison of conductivity and resistivitiy. These values range from ultra
clean water with a conductivity of 0.055 μS/cm to 30 wt% nitric acid with a conductivity of
861,000 μS/cm.

Figure 2: Electrical conductivity of common solutions. Conductivity ranges of probe constants will
vary between manufactures and probe types.

Concentration and Total dissolved Solids (TDS)

The relationship between conductivity and the number of ions in solution means that it can
be used to measure solution concentration and give a value for Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
However, conductivity is non-speci c; all ions contribute to the electrolytic conductivity of
the solution and one set of ions cannot be distinguished from another [3]. This means that
measurements are of the total concentration of ions in solution not the concentration of any
one ion.

Concentration: Some species ionize more completely in water (e.g. NaCl & HCl) than
others do [5]. This means that their solutions are more conductive as a result. Each acid,
base, or salt has its own characteristic curve for concentration vs. conductivity. A
calibration is required with solutions of known composition and concentration.
TDS: There are lots of assumptions when calculating a TDS value from a conductivity
value [5]. In general, a conversion factor is used which will vary depending on the nature
of the solution. These conversion factors can be calibrated, usually using NaCl solutions.
If a NaCl solution is used that makes the assumption that the main ions present are Na+
and Cl-. See [1] for more information.

Conductivity and temperature

Conductivity increases with temperature. This increase is signi cant, between 1.5 and 5.0%
per °C. So, if you measure the same solution at di erent temperatures you will get a di erent
conductivity unless a temperature correction is used. For this reason, conductivity readings
must be temperature compensated.

Temperature compensation is generally carried out by adjusting the readings to a reference

temperature, typically 25°C. Conductivity probes should have an integrated temperature
sensor to aid this compensation.

There are two main temperature correction algorithms in common use [4,5,6]:

Linear temperature coe cient: used in most applications

Non-linear temperature coe cient: used when measuring low conductivity water

Neither of these are perfect, and so ideally all your solutions would be measured at the same,
reference temperature. However, that is clearly not always possible. Errors in temperature
measurement will also contribute to issues in compensation and so it is vital to let your
conductivity probe and solution come into thermal equilibrium.

Temperature coe cient

The change in conductivity with temperature is expressed as the change in conductivity (as
a percentage) per degree celsius. This is generally referred to as the temperature coe cient
(α). The value of α varies depending on solution, solution concentration, and temperature
(see Table 1 & 2).

Table 1: Examples of conductivity temperature coe cients for various solutions [5].

Table 2: Temperature dependence of conductivity temperature coe cient [5].

The linear temperature correction is widely used. It is based on the observation that the
conductivity of an electrolyte changes by the same percentage for every °C change in
temperature. A single temperature coe cient can only be used with reasonable
accuracy over a small range of 30° or 40°C. The most accurate way is to calculate a
coe cient speci cally for the sample temperature for your solution. Tabulated values can
vary for the same solution depending on source.

To calculate a coe cient one method is described below (see [5] or [8] for more details):

. Check the conductivity of a representative sample at a reference temperature (generally

25°C). This temperature is generally the temperature your calibration standard is quoted
at.
. Using the same sample, nd the conductivity at another temperature. Generally this is
the temperature you will be measuring other samples at.
. Calculate the percent change per °C
. Enter this value into the settings of the meter.

Measuring conductivity
Measuring conductivity can be achieved in a variety of ways. The most common method is
using a conductivity probe as seen in Figure 1. These use two or more platinum electrodes
and measure the conductivity directly.

Figure 1: Conductivity probe diagram.

The other main method used for measuring conductivity is the toroidal “inductive” method.
More information can be found on this in references [2] & [5].

In the simplest arrangement of a platinum electrode type probe (a 2-electrode cell), a voltage
is applied to two at plates immersed in the solution, and the resulting current is measured
and then conductivity, G, can then be calculated using inverted Ohm’s law [5]. Where R is the
resistance, V = voltage and I = current:

and

In principle a DC voltage could be used. However, a DC voltage would soon deplete the ions
near the plates, causing polarization, and a higher than actual resistance to be measured. As
such, an AC voltage is generally used to avoid this problem (see ref. [3] for more details).

A more advanced conductivity cell uses four electrodes (see Figure 2). These probes use an
alternating current through the outer electrodes and measures the voltage across the inner
electrodes [5]. The four electrode system gives a lower current and so has less charge
transfer at the metal-liquid interface. This allows a much wider dynamic range to be
measured than a two-electrode sensor. Such measurements are volume dependent and the
outer sheath of the probe ensures that the volume of sample solution remains constant for
all analysis.

Figure 2: Diagram of conductivity probe with 4 electrodes.

Conductivity cell
Figure 3 shows the set up of a basic conductivity probe with two square platinum electrodes.
The speci c design of the probe will vary depending on the range of conductivities to be
measured. The area of the electrodes and the distance between them de nes this range.
These values are encapsulated in the Cell Constant, K.

The conductivity, C, between electrodes in given by the expression:

C = conductitivty (S/cm), G = conductance (S), d = distance between electrodes (cm), and A =

plate area of electrodes (cm2).

Figure 3: Diagram showing the operation of a conductivity probe.

Cell constant
The cell constant (K) is de ned as the ratio of the distance between the electrodes (d) to the
electrode area (A). However, the fringe- eld e ect (AF) alters the electrode area, therefore:

For solutions with low conductivity the electrodes can be placed closer together or made
larger so that the cell constant is less than one. This has the e ect of raising the
conductance to produce a value more easily interpreted by the meter. The reverse also
applies, in high conductivity solutions, the electrodes are placed farther apart or made
smaller to reduce the conductance of the sample.

The ideal K value for a probe varies with the range of conductances being measured.
Typically, a cell with K = 0.1 cm–1 is chosen for pure water measurements, while for
environmental water and industrial solutions. Cells with up to K = 10 cm–1 are better for very
high conductivity samples (see Figure 1).

In theory, the cell constant can be applied directly out of the box without calibration.
Unfortunately, the fringe eld, and other e ects, can result in the cell constant varying as
much as 10% from the nominal cell constant; it may also vary over time. This means that the
cell constant has to be calculated using a standard solution with a known conductivity (see
below).

Choice of probe
The key decision in choosing a probe is the cell constant. Di erent cell constants will cover
di erent ranges of conductance. Details of this are given above. Otherwise, the choice
depends on issues including [5]:

. Robustness of the probe

. Probe body material
. Precision level you require,
. Various other factors depending on the probe and meter which will vary between
manufacturer.

Cleaning and replatinization

Your probe may require cleaning if it becomes contaminated, details of this process can be
found in references [3] & [5].

Some probes have a coating of platinum black on the surface of some platinum electrodes to
create a more e ective surface area for conductivity measurements. If a probe is treated
badly the platinum may require replatinization.

Replatinization is required when measurements become slow, erratic or inconsistent or when

the cell constant shifts more than 10% from the nominal cell constant. Platinizing the cell
deposits a complete, fresh layer of platinum black on the plate surface that restores
performance and reliability. A kit can normally be purchased for this task depending on the
manufacturer of your probe.

Storage
Conductivity probes should be rinsed in deionised water between measurements. The probe
can be stored in the deionised water between measurements; however, for overnight
storage, or longer term storage, the probe should be rinsed and stored dry. The probe can be
dried carefully using appropriate tissue.

Standards for conductivity

It is generally accepted that a one-point calibration of the cell constant at a representative
conductivity is su cient for accurate conductivity readings. If the samples cover a large
range of conductivity levels, one or more points can be made.

Calibration frequency depends on the type of conductivity cell and application. It does not
generally need to be done as regularly as for pH measurements using a pH probe.

Conductivity standards are usually sodium chloride solutions of various concentrations.

These can be purchased or you can also prepare them yourself; however, this is not
recommended (see [3] for details).

Summary
Conductivity is a useful value in many applications. The conductivity probe is a useful way of
measuring this value so long a few important ideas are taken into account [see 5 for more
details]:

. The correct probe should be chosen for the conductivity range of interest.
. The probe must be calibrated
. Conductivity is temperature-dependent, so time must be allowed for the conductivity
sensor to equilibrate to the same temperature as the sample.
. The temperature of solution should be measured
. The appropriate temperature correction applied

If these ve factors are taken into account then your conductivity measurements will be
quick easy and more importantly, reliable.

References and further reading

A Guide to Conductivity and dissolved oxygen,
Moore 2004, Streamline Watershed Management Bulletin 8(1) 11-15

[1] http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-
quality/conductivity-salinity-tds/ (accessed June 2017)

[2] THEORY AND APPLICATION OF CONDUCTIVITY, Application Data Sheet ADS 43-018/rev.D
January 2010

[3] Shreiner R.H. & Pratt K.W. Primary Standards and Standard Reference Materials for
Electrolytic Conductivity. NIST Special Publication 260-142, 2004.

[4] Thermo scienti c, Smart notes, SN-CONDMETER-E 0514 RevA, 2014.

[5] Radiometer analytical, Conductivity: Theory and Practice, D61M002.

[6] Barron, J.J. & Ashton C., The e ect of Temperature on conductivity measurement, TSP-07
Issue 3

[7] Table of concentration vs conductivity, accessed June 2017.

[8] Metler Toledo, Reducing Common Errors in Conductivity Measurement, 2012

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3 Comments

Pingback: Measuring Electrical Conductivity with an Arduino: Part1: Overview

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PRD July 31, 2018 at 5:06 pm

Good but can u describe the curves and have some worked out example

 Reply

Steve Shaw September 11, 2018 at 11:11 pm

From above: “Resistivity is the resistance measured across a speci ed

distance (**measured in Siemens per centimeter (Ωcm)**). This is the
reciprocal of conductivity.”
Not an expert either, but the asterisked bit should read **measured in ohms x
centimeter (Ω.cm)** [not siemens/cm]. Resistance in ohms (Ω) is, as stated,
the reciprocal of conductance, in siemens (S).

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