University of Zimbabwe

MATHEMATICS 1
Department:
Author:
Mathematics and
P. Chikwanya
Computational Science

October 1, 2023
Chapter 1

The Basics

1.1 Number Systems

Mathematics has its own language with numbers as the alphabet. The language is given structure
with the aid of connective symbols, rules of operation, and a rigorous mode of thought (logic). The
number systems that we use in calculus are the natural numbers, the integers, the rational numbers,
and the real numbers. Let us describe each of these :

1. The natural numbers are the system of positive counting numbers 1, 2, 3 . . . . We denote the
set of all natural numbers by N.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . }.

2. The integers are the positive and negative whole numbers and zero, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
We denote the set of all integers by Z.

Z = {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.

3. The rational numbers are quotients of integers or fractions, such as 32 , − 54 . Any number
p
of the form , with p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0, is a rational number. We denote the set of all rational
q
numbers by Q.  
p
Q= p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 .
q
4. The real numbers are the set of all decimals, both terminating and non-terminating. We
denote the set of all real numbers by R. A decimal number of the form x = 3.16792 is actually
a rational number, for it represents
316792
x = 3.16792 = .
100000
1
A decimal number of the form

m = 4.27519191919 . . . ,

with a group of digits that repeats itself interminably, is also a rational number. To see this,
notice that
100 · m = 427.519191919 . . .
and therefore we may subtract

100m = 427.519191919 . . .
m = 4.27519191919 . . .

Subtracting, we see that

99m = 423.244
or
423244
m= .
99000
So, as we asserted, m is a rational number or quotient of integers. To indicate recurring
decimals we sometimes place dots over the repeating cycle of digits, e.g., m = 4.2751̇9̇,
19
6
= 3.16̇.
Another kind of decimal number is one which has a non-terminating decimal expansion that
does not keep repeating. An example is π = 3.14159265 . . . . Such a number is irrational, that
is, it cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers.
In summary : There are three types of real numbers : (i) terminating decimals, (ii) non-
terminating decimals that repeat, (iii) non-terminating decimals that do not repeat. Types
(i) and (ii) are rational numbers. Type (iii) are irrational numbers.
The geometric representation of real numbers as points on a line is called the real axis. Between
any two rational numbers on the line there are infinitely many rational numbers. This leads
us to call the set of rational numbers an everywhere dense set.
Real numbers are characterised by three fundamental properties :

(a) algebraic means formalisations of the rules of calculation (addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, division). Example : 2(3 + 5) = 2 · 3 + 2 · 5 = 6 + 10 = 16.
3 1
(b) order denote inequalities. Example : − < .
4 3
(c) completeness implies that there are “no gaps” on the real line.
Algebraic properties of the reals for addition (a, b, c ∈ R) are :
(A1) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. associativity
(A2) a + b = b + a. commutativity
(A3) There is a 0 such that a + 0 = a. identity
(A4) There is an x such that a + x = 0. inverse
Why these rules? They define an algebraic structure (commutative group). Now define anal-
ogous algebraic properties for multiplication :

2
(M1) a(bc) = (ab)c.
(M2) ab = ba.
(M3) There is a 1 such that a · 1 = a.
(M4) There is an x such that ax = 1 for a 6= 0.

Finally, connect multiplication and addition :

(D) a(b + c) = ab + ac. distributivity

These 9 rules define an algebraic structure called a field.

Order properties of the reals are :

(O1) for any a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b or b ≤ a. totality of ordering I

(O2) if a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b. totality of ordering II
(O3) if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. transitivity
(O4) if a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c. order under addition
(O5) if a ≤ b and c ≥ 0, then ac ≤ bc. order under multiplication

Some useful rules for calculations with inequalities are : If a, b, c are real numbers, then :

(a) if a < b and c < 0 ⇒ bc < ac.

(b) if a < b ⇒ −b < −a.
1
(c) if a > 0 ⇒ > 0.
a
1 1
(d) if a and b are both positive or negative, then a < b ⇒ < .
b a
The completeness property can be understood by the following construction of the real
numbers : Start with the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . .

• N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } natural numbers ⇒ Can we solve a + x = b for x?

• Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } integers ⇒ Can we solve ax = b for x?
• Q = { pq |p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0} rational numbers ⇒ Can we solve x2 = 2 for x?
√
• R real numbers, for example : The positive solution to the equation x2 = 2 is 2. This
is an irrational number whose decimal representation is not eventually repeating.

⇒ N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
In summary, the real numbers R are complete in the sense that they correspond to all points on
the real line, i.e., there are no “holes” or “gaps”, whereas the rationals have “holes” (namely
the irrationals).
You Try It : What type of real number is 3.41287548754875 . . . ? Can you express this
number in more compact form?

3
1.2 Intervals

Definition 1.2.1. A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers
and all the real numbers between any of its elements.

Examples :

1. x > −2 defines an infinite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a ray on the real line.

2. 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 defines a finite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a line segment on the real

line.

Finite Intervals. Let a and b be two points such that a < b. By the open interval (a, b) we mean
the set of all points between a and b, that is, the set of all x such that a < x < b. By the closed
interval [a, b] we mean the set of all points between a and b or equal to a or b, that is, the set of all
x such that a ≤ x ≤ b. The points a and b are called the endpoints of the intervals (a, b) and [a, b].

By a half-open interval we mean an open interval (a, b) together with one of its endpoints. There
are two such intervals : [a, b) is the set of all x such that a ≤ x < b and (a, b] is the set of all x such
that a < x ≤ b.

Infinite Intervals. Let a be any number. The set of all points x such that a < x is denoted by
(a, ∞), the set of all points x such that a ≤ x is denoted by [a, ∞). Similarly, (−∞, b) denotes the
set of all points x such that x < b and (−∞, b] denotes the set of all x such that x ≤ b.

1.3 Solving Inequalities

Solve inequalities to find intervals of x ∈ R. Set of all solutions is the solution set of the inequality.
Examples:

4
 1.

2x − 1 < x + 3
2x < x + 4
x < 4.

2. For what values of x is x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x?

x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x when
x + 6 − 3x ≥ 4−x
6 − 2x ≥ 4−x
2 ≥ x ⇒ x ≤ 2.

3. For what values of x is (x − 4)(x + 3) < 0?

Case 1: (x − 4) > 0 and (x + 3) < 0, =⇒ x > 4 and x < −3.
Impossible since x cannot be both greater than 4 and less than −3.
Case 2: (x − 4) < 0 and (x + 3) > 0, =⇒ x < 4 and x > −3 =⇒ −3 < x < 4.

2 3
You Try It: Solve the inequality < .
x−1 2x + 1

1.4 The Absolute Value

It is a quantity that gives the magnitude or size of a real number. The absolute value or modulus
of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is given by

x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

Geometrically, |x| is the distance between x and 0. For example, | − 6| = 6, |5| = 5, |0| = 0.

1.4.1 Properties of the Absolute Value

1. The absolute value of a real number x is non-negative, that is, |x| ≥ 0.

2. The absolute value of a real number x is zero if and only if x = 0, that is, |x| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.

3. In general, if x and y are any two numbers, then

5
 (a) −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|.
(b) | − x| = |x| and |x − y| = |y − x|.
(c) |x| = |y| implies x = ±y.
x |x|
(d) |xy| = |x| · |y| and = if y 6= 0.
y |y|
(e) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|. (Triangle inequality)
4. If a is any positive number, then
(a) |x| = a if and only if x = ±a.
(b) |x| < a if and only if −a < x < a.
(c) |x| > a if and only if x > a or x < −a.
(d) |x| ≤ a if and only if −a ≤ x ≤ a.
(e) |x| ≥ a if and only if x ≥ a or x ≤ −a.

Example: Show that for all real numbers x, | − x| = |x|.

Solution: If x ∈ R, then either x > 0, x = 0 or x < 0. If x > 0, then −x < 0. Thus,
| − x| = −(−x) = x = |x|, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x = 0, then | − x| = | − 0| = |0| = 0, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x < 0, then −x > 0. Now |x| = −x = | − x| since −x > 0.
Therefore in all cases | − x| = |x|.

Solving an Equation with Absolute Values: Solve the equation |2x − 3| = 7.

Solution: Hence 2x − 3 = ±7, so there are two possibilities,

2x − 3 = 7 2x − 3 = −7
2x = 10 2x = −4
x = 5 x = −2

The solutions of |2x − 3| = 7 are x = 5 and x = −2.

2
Solving Inequalities Involving Absolute values: Sole the inequality 5 − < 1.
x

Solution: We have
2 2
5− < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < 5 − < 1
x x
2
⇐⇒ −6 < − < −4
x
1
⇐⇒ 3 > > 2
x
1 1
⇐⇒ <x< .
3 2
6
Solve the inequalities and show the solution set on the real line. (a) |2x − 3| ≤ 1 (b) |2x − 3| ≥ 1.

Solution: (a)

|2x − 3| ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ −1 ≤ 2x − 3 ≤ 1
⇐⇒ 2 ≤ 2x ≤ 4
⇐⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

The solution set is the closed interval [1, 2].

(b)

|2x − 3| ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ 2x − 3 ≥ 1 or 2x − 3 ≤ −1
⇐⇒ x ≥ 2 or x ≤ 1.

The solution set is (−∞, 1] ∪ [2, ∞).

You Try It: Solve the inequality 4|x| < 7x − 6.

1.5 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

It is an important property of the positive integers (natural numbers) and is used in proving state-
ments involving all positive integers when it is known for, for example, that the statements are valid
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . but it is suspected or conjectured that they hold for all positive integers.

1.5.1 Steps

1. Prove the statement for n = 1 or some other positive integer. (Initial Step)

2. Assume the statement true for n = k, where k ∈ Z+ . (Inductive Hypothesis)

3. From the assumption in 2 prove the statement must be true for n = k + 1.

4. Since the statement is true for n = 1 (from 1) it must (from 3) be true for n = 1 + 1 = 2 and
from this for n = 2 + 1 = 3, and so on, so must be true for all positive integers. (Conclusion)

Example: For any positive integer n,

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2
Solution:

7
 1(1 + 1) 2
1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = = = 1, which is clearly true.
2 2
2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + k = .
2

3. Prove for n = k + 1. So
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) (by inductive hypothesis)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
2
k + 3k + 2
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
so holds for n = k + 1.
n(n + 1)
4. Hence by induction, 1 + 2 + · · · + n = is true for any positive integer n.
2

Example: Prove that for any natural number

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 .

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = 12 = 1, so it is true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2k − 1 = k 2 .

3. Prove for n = k + 1. We have

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + 2(k + 1) − 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 (by inductive hypothesis)

= (k + 1)2 .

So it is true for n = k + 1.

4. Hence by induction 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 is true for all natural numbers n.

8
 Example: Prove that 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 31 = 3 > 21 = 2, which is true.

2. Assume the statements holds for n = k, that is, 3k > 2k .

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

3k+1 = 3k · 3
> 2k · 3 by inductive hypothesis
> 2k · 2 since 3 > 2
> 2k+1 ,

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Example: Prove that for any integer n ≥ 1, 22n − 1 is divisible by 3.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 22 − 1 = 3 and is divisible by 3, hence its true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is, for k ≥ 1, 22k − 1 is divisible by 3, i.e.,
22k − 1 = 3l, for some l ∈ Z.

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

22(k+1) − 1 = 4 · 22k − 1 but 22k = 3l + 1 by the inductive hypothesis

= 4(3l + 1) − 1
= 12l + 4 − 1
= 12l + 3
= 3(4l + 1),

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 22n − 1 is divisible by 3 for all n ≥ 1.

9
Chapter 2

Symbolic Logic

Roots in study of language. Uses words and phrases that have a bearing on the truth or falsity of
the sentence in which they occur. Such words or phrases are aptly called logical connectives. For
example, not, or, and, if, then, if and only if, . . . . For example, consider the sentence : It is
cold and the sun is shining. Sentence is obtained by joining the two sentences : It is cold and The
sun is shining. The resulting sentence is called a compound sentence and is true provided that
each of the two component sentences is true.

Definition 2.0.1. A proposition/statement is a declarative sentence which is true or false (but

not both).

Notation is useful in the study of compound statements. If we let p denote the statement “All
cows eat grass” and let q denote the statement “Columbus discovered America”, then we can write
the compound statement p and q.

2.1 Abbreviations

∧ denotes and , ⇐⇒ denotes if and only if , ∨ denotes or, =⇒ denotes if.

¬p denotes not p. For example, If p denotes the proposition “It is raining”, then ¬p denotes “It
is not raining”. The truthfulness or falsity of the statement is called its truth value. Denoting
“true” by “T ” and “false” by “F ”, the logical connectives are conveniently defined by means of a
truth-table which spells out the truth value of a compound statement in each possible truth-value
cases.

10
2.1.1 Conjunction, p ∧ q

Two statements can be combined by the word “and” to form a composite statement which is called
the conjugation of the original statements. Denoted by p ∧ q.

Example 2.1.1. 1. Let p be it is raining and q be it is overcast. Then p ∧ q denotes it is raining

and it is overcast.

2. The symbol ∧ can be used to define the intersection of two sets,

C ∩ D = {x|x ∈ C ∧ x ∈ D}.

Truth value of a composite statement satisfies the following property : If p is true and q is true,
the p ∧ q is true, otherwise, p ∧ q is false. Conjugation of two statements is true if and only if each
component is true.

Truth-table

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

2.2 Disjunction, p ∨ q

Two statements combined by the word “or” and denoted by p ∨ q.

Example 2.2.1. 1. Let p denote the statement He studied Mathematics at University and q be
He lives in Harare, then p ∨ q denotes He studied Mathematics at University or he lives in
Harare.

2. ∨ can be used to define the union of two sets,

P ∪ Q = {x|x ∈ P ∨ x ∈ Q}.

Truth value of the composite statement p ∨ q satisfies the property : If p is true or q is true or
both p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true, otherwise, p ∨ q is false.

11
Truth-table

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

2.3 Negation, ¬p

Given any statement p, another statement “not p”, called the negation of p and is denoted by ¬p.

Example 2.3.1. Chinhoyi is in Zimbabwe.

Negation (i) It is false that Chinhoyi is in Zimbabwe or (ii) Chinhoyi is not in Zimbabwe.

Truth-table

p ¬p
T F
T F
F T
F T

2.4 The Conditional, p =⇒ q

If p then q, also read as (a) p implies q (b) p only if q (c) p is sufficient for q (d) q is necessary
for p. The truth value of the conditional statement p =⇒ q satisfies the following property : p =⇒ q
is true unless p is true and q is false, a true statement cannot imply a false statement.

Truth-table

p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

12
2.4.1 The Bi-conditional,p ⇐⇒ q

p if and only if q. Truth value satisfied if : p and q have the same truth value, then p ⇐⇒ q is true,
otherwise, it is false.

Truth-table

p q p ⇐⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q (¬p ∨ q) =⇒ p
T T F T T
Example 2.4.1. 1. Find the truth values for (¬p∨q) =⇒ p. T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

p q p =⇒ q ¬p ¬p ∨ q (p =⇒ p) ⇐⇒ (¬p ∨ q
T T T F T
2. Construct a truth table for (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p∨q). T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

In this example, the truth values of (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p ∨ q) are all true.

Definition 2.4.1. A compound proposition that is true regardless of the truth values of its initial
components is called a tautology.

Exercise 2.4.1. Show that [(p =⇒ q) ∧ q =⇒ p] ⇐⇒ (p ⇐⇒ q) is a tautology.

Some sentences are not statements because they contain unspecified variables, for example, we
cannot assign a truth value to the sentence, He was a president of the United States, until a proper
name is substituted for the pronoun he. We call a sentence that contains unspecified variables
a predicate. For example, S is green and X discovered America are predicates. S and X are
unspecified variables that may be replaced by various nouns. The predicate is neither true nor
false, its truth value depends upon the name that replaces X. In these examples, he, S and X are
called free variables in their respective predicates. A statement that is always false is called an
absurdity. A statement that may be true or false, depending upon the values of its constituent
statements, is called a contigency.

13
2.5 Logical Equivalence

Definition 2.5.1. The propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if their truth tables
are identical. Denoted by p ≡ q.
Example 2.5.1. ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q.
p q p ∧ q ¬(p ∧ q) p q ¬p ¬q ¬p ∨ ¬q
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T

Consider the statement, “It is not the case that roses are red and violets are blue”. This
statement can be written in the form ¬(p ∧ q) where p is “roses are red” and q is “violets are blue”.
However, as noted above, ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q. Thus the statement, Roses are not red, or violets are
not blue, has the same meaning as the given statement.

2.5.1 Algebra of Propositions

Propositions satisfy various laws

2.5.2 Laws of the Algebra of Propositions

Idempotent Laws
(1a) p ∨ p ≡ p (1b) p ∧ p ≡ p.
Associative Laws
(2a) (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) (2b) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r).
Commutative Laws
(3a) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p (3b) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p.
Distributive Laws
(4a) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) (4b) p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).
Identity Laws
(5a) p ∧ T ≡ p (5b) p ∨ F ≡ p.
(6a) p ∨ T ≡ T (6b) p ∧ F ≡ F .
Complement Laws
(7a) p ∨ ¬p ≡ T (8a) ¬T ≡ F .
(7b) p ∧ ¬p ≡ F (8b) ¬F ≡ T .
Involution Law
(9) ¬¬p ≡ p.
De Morgan’s Laws
(10a) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q (10b) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ (¬p ∨ ¬q).

14
2.6 The Converse

Let p =⇒ q be a conditional proposition. The converse of p =⇒ q is q =⇒ p.

Example 2.6.1. If John Gumbo is a student of University of Zimbabwe, then 2 + 2 = 4 is a true

proposition. If 2 + 2 = 4, then John Gumbo is a student of University of Zimbabwe is a false
proposition.

2.7 The Contrapositive

The contrapositive of a proposition p =⇒ q is the proposition ¬q =⇒ ¬p.

Theorem 2.7.1. The conditional proposition p =⇒ q is logically equivalent to its contrapositive

¬q =⇒ ¬p.
p q p =⇒ q ¬p ¬q ¬q =⇒ ¬p
T T T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T T F T
F F T T T T

2.8 List of Tautologies

1. p ∨ ¬p Law of the excluded middle.

2. ¬(p ∧ ¬p) Contradiction.

3. [(p =⇒ q) ∧ q] =⇒ ¬p Modus tollens.

4. ¬¬p ⇐⇒ p Double negation.

5. [(p =⇒ q) ∧ (q =⇒ r)] =⇒ (p =⇒ r) Law of syllogism.

6. (p ∧ q) =⇒ p Decomposing a conjunction.

7. (p ∧ q) =⇒ q Decomposing a conjunction.

8. p =⇒ (p ∨ q) Constructing a disjunction.

9. q =⇒ (p ∨ q) Constructing a disjunction.

10. (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ [(p =⇒ q) ∧ (q =⇒ p)] Definition of the bi-conditional.

11. (p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ (q ∧ p) Commutative law for ∧.

12. (p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (q ∨ p) Commutative law for ∨.

15
 13. (p =⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p ∨ q) Conditional disjunction.

14. [(p ∨ q) ∧ ¬p] =⇒ q Disjunctive syllogism.

15. (p ∨ p) ⇐⇒ p Simplification.

2.9 Propositional Functions, Quantifiers

Let A be a given set. A propositional function (or open sentence or condition) defined
on A is an expression p(x) which has the property that p(a) is true or false for each a ∈ A, i.e.,
p(x) becomes a statement (with a truth value) whenever any element a ∈ A is substituted for the
variable x. Set A is called the domain of p(x) and the set Tp of all elements of A for which p(a) is
true is called the truth set of p(x), i.e.,

Tp = {x|x ∈ A, p(x) is true} or {x|p(x)}.

When A is some set of numbers, the condition p(x) has the form of an equation or inequality
involving the variable x.

Example 2.9.1. Find the truth set Tp of each propositional function p(x) defined on the set
P = {1, 2, 3 . . . }.
(a) Let p(x) be x + 2 > 7. Then Tp = {x|x ∈ P, x + 2 > 7} = {6, 7, 8, . . . }. Consisting of all integers
greater than 5.
(b) Let p(x) be x + 5 < 3. Then Tp = {x|x ∈ P, x + 5 < 3} = ∅, the empty set.
(c) Let p(x) be x + 5 > 1. Then Tp = {x|x ∈ P, x + 5 > 1} = P.

From the above example, shows that if p(x) is a propositional function defined on a set A, then
p(x) could be true for all x ∈ A, for some x ∈ A or for no x ∈ A.

2.10 Universal Quantifier

Let p(x) be a propositional function defined on a set A. Consider the expression, (∀x ∈ A)p(x)
or ∀x, p(x) which reads “For every x in A, p(x) is a true statement”, or simply “For all x, p(x)”.
The symbol ∀, (for all, for every) is called the universal quantifier. (∀x ∈ A)p(x) is equivalent
to the statement Tp = {x|x ∈ A, p(x)} = A, i.e., the truth set of p(x) is the entire set of A. If
{x|x ∈ A, p(x)} = A, then ∀x, p(x) is true, otherwise, ∀x, p(x) is false.

Example 2.10.1. 1. The proposition (∀n ∈ P)(n + 4 > 3) is true since {n|n + 4 > 3} =
{1, 2, 3, . . . } = P.

2. The proposition (∀n ∈ P)(n + 2 > 8) is false since {n|n + 2 > 8} = {7, 8, . . . } =
6 P.

16
2.11 Existential Quantifier

Let p(x) be the propositional function defined on a set A. Consider the expression (∃x ∈ A)p(x)
or ∃x, p(x), which reads “There exists an x in A such that p(x)” is a true statement or simply,
“For some x, p(x)”. The symbol ∃ (there exists, for some, for at least one) is called the existential
quantifier. (∃x ∈ A)p(x) is equivalent to the statement Tp = {x|x ∈ A, p(x)} = 6 ∅, i.e., the truth
set of p(x) is not empty. If {x|p(x)} =
6 ∅ then ∃x, p(x) is true, otherwise, ∃x, p(x) is false.
Example 2.11.1. 1. The proposition (∃n ∈ P)(n + 4 < 7) is true since {n|n + 4 < 7} = {1, 2} =
6
∅.
2. The proposition (∃n ∈ P)(n + 6 < 4) is false since {n|n + 6 < 4} = ∅.

2.11.1 Notation

Let A = {2, 3, 5} and let p(x) be the sentence “x is a prime number” or simply x is prime. Then the
proposition “Two is prime and three is prime and five is prime”, can be denoted by p(2)∧p(3)∧p(5) or
∧(a ∈ A, p(a)), which is equivalent to the statement, “Every number in A is prime or ∀a ∈ A, p(a)”.
Similarly, the proposition, “Two is prime or three is prime or five is prime”, can be denoted by
p(2) ∨ p(3) ∨ p(5) or ∨(a ∈ A, p(a)), which is equivalent to the statement “At least one number in
A is prime or ∃a ∈ A, p(a)”. Alternatively, ∧(a ∈ A, p(a)) ≡ ∀a ∈ A, p(a) and ∨(a ∈ A, p(a)) ≡
∃a ∈ A, p(a).

2.12 Negation of Quantified Statements

Consider the statement “All Mathematics majors are male”. Its negation is either the following
equivalent statements

1. It is not the case that all Mathematics majors are male.

2. There exists at least one Mathematics major who is a female.

Symbolically, using M to denote the set of Mathematics major, the above can be written as

¬(∀x ∈ M )(x is male) ≡ (∃x ∈ M )(x is not male),

or when p(x) denotes “x is a male”, we have ¬(∀x ∈ M )p(x) ≡ (∃x ∈ M )¬p(x) or

¬∀x, p(x) ≡ ∃x, ¬p(x).
Theorem 2.12.1 (De Morgan).

¬(∀x ∈ A)p(x) ≡ (∃x ∈ A)¬p(x),

17
i.e., (a) It is not true that, for all x ∈ A, p(x) is true and (b) There exists an x ∈ A such that p(x)
is false.

Theorem 2.12.2 (De Morgan).

¬(∃x ∈ A)p(x) ≡ (∀x ∈ A)¬p(x),

i.e., (a) It is not true for some x ∈ A, p(x) is true and (b) For all x ∈ A, p(x) is false.

The following statements are also negatives of each other : There exists a college student who
is 60 years old, Every college student is not 60 years old.
The opposite of “For all x, p(x) is true”, is “There exists x for which p(x) is not true”.
The opposite of “There exists x for which p(x) is true ”, is “For all x, p(x) is not true”.
For example, All rational numbers equal one, the opposite (negation) is, There exists a rational
number that does not equal one. All eleven-legged crocodiles are orange with blue spots is true, if
it was false, the there would exist an eleven-legged crocodile that is not orange with blue spots.

2.13 Proofs

In Italy its said that it requires two men to make a good salad dressing; a generous man to add
the oil and a mean man the vinegar. Constructing proofs in mathematics is similar. Often a
tolerant openness and awareness is important in discovering or understanding a proof, while a
strictness and discipline is needed in writing it down. There are many different styles of thinking,
even amongst professional mathematicians, yet they can communicate well through the common
medium of written proof. Its important not to confuse the rigour of a well-written-down proof with
the human and very individual activity of going about discovering it or understanding it. Too much
of a straightjacket on your thinking is likely to stymie anything but the simplest proofs. On the
other hand too little discipline, and writing down too little on the way to a proof, can leave you
uncertain and lost.

When you cannot see a proof immediately (this may happen most of the time initially), it can
help to write down the assumptions and the goal. Often starting to write down a proof helps you
discover it. You may have already experienced this in carrying out proofs by induction. It can
happen that the induction hypothesis one starts out with isnt strong enough to get the induction
step. But starting to do the proof even with the wrong induction hypothesis can help you spot
how to strengthen it. Of course, theres no better way to learn the art of proof than to do proofs,
no better way to read and understand a proof than to pause occasionally and try to continue the
proof yourself. For this reason you are very strongly encouraged to do the exercises, most of them
are placed strategically in the appropriate place in the text.

Mathematicians solve problems and proofs is the guarantee that our solutions are correct. A proof
is an explanation of why a statement is true. A conjecture is a statement which we believe to be
true for which we have no proof. An axiom is a basic assumption about a mathematical situation.

18
2.14 Techniques of Proof

2.14.1 Direct Method

Solves statements of the nature “If A then B.

Theorem 2.14.1. Let m be an integer, if m is odd, then m2 is odd.

Proof. If m is odd, then m = 2r + 1 for some integer r. Then m2 = (2r + 1)2 = 4r2 + 4r + 1 =
2(2r2 + 2r) + 1, i.e., m2 is odd.

Theorem 2.14.2. Suppose that p ∈ Q and p2 ∈ Z, then p ∈ Z.

a
Proof. By assumption p = for some integers a and b, where the fraction is in its lowest form.
b
 a 2 2
a
Thus p2 = = 2 . Since p2 ∈ Z and the fraction is in its lowest form so we have that b2 = 1.
b b
a
Thus b = ±1 ⇒ p = = ±a ∈ Z.
±1
Example 2.14.1. Prove that the square of every odd number is of the form 8a + 1 for some a ∈ N.

Proof. Any odd number n is of the form n = 2l + 1 for some l ∈ Z. Therefore n2 = (2l + 1)2 =
4l2 + 4l + 1 = 4(l2 + l) + 1. Thus it is enough to show that l2 + 1 is even. If l is even, then l = 2m for
some m ∈ Z, so l2 + l = 4m2 + 2m = 2(2m2 + m) which is divisible by 2. If l is odd, then l = 2m + 1
for some m ∈ Z, so l2 + l = 4m2 + 4m + 1 + 2m + 1 = 2(2m2 + 3m + 1) which is also divisible by 2.
Thus l2 + l is always even and so n2 is of the form 8a + 1 for some a ∈ Z. But n2 ≥ 1 so a ∈ N.

2.15 Some Common Mistakes

The biggest mistake is assuming what has to be proved and incorrect use of equivalence.

2.15.1 Don’t Assume What Has to be Proved

Suppose that we had to prove the statement P . If we assume it is true, then it is not surprising
that we can deduce it is true, P ⇒ P , would seem to be obviously true. P is assumed to be true
and this is used to deduce something that is true and so it is concluded that P is true.

Example 2.15.1. Consider the following statement ; If a and b are real numbers, then a2 +b2 ≥ 2ab.

19
A fallacious proof is : We have a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab ⇒ a2 − 2ab + b2 ≥ 0 ⇒ (a − b)2 ≥ 0. The last
inequality is true as the square of a number is always non-negative, so a2 + b2 ≥ 0. The error is
the conclusion has been assumed (i.e., a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab) and has lead to something we know is true.
However, we cannot conclude that a statement is true just because it implies a known truth. The
real proof is a reverse of the argument, begin with (a − b)2 ≥ 0 something we know is true.

2.16 Proof By Cases

For example, x = y can be proved by that x ≤ y and y ≤ x. We have broken the problem into two
cases.

Example 2.16.1. The number n2 + 3n + 7 is odd for all n ∈ Z.

Proof. Divide into two cases (i) n is even and (ii) n is odd.
If n is even, then n = 2k for some integer k. Then n2 + 3n + 7 = (2k)2 + 3(2k) + 7 = 4k 2 + 6k + 7 =
2(2k 2 + 3k + 3) + 1. Hence n2 + 3n + 7 is odd when n is even.
If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. We have n2 + 3n + 7 = (2k + 1)2 + 3(2k + 1) + 7 =
4k 2 + 10k + 11 = 2(2k 2 + 5k + 5) + 1. This is also odd. Hence n2 + 3n + 7 is odd for all integers
n.

As you see, this method of cases involves exhausting all the possibilities and so this method is
also known as exhaustion.

2.17 Contradiction

The law of the excluded middle asserts that a statement is true or false, it cannot be anything
in between. The name comes from the fact that assuming that the statement is false is later
contradicted by some other fact. Also called reductio ad absurdum (reduction to the absurd).

Example 2.17.1. Suppose that n is an odd integer. Then n2 is an odd integer.

Proof. Assume to the contrary, i.e., we suppose that n is an odd integer but that the conclusion is
false, i.e., n2 is an even integer. As n is odd, n = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z. Thus n2 = (2k + 1)2 =
4k 2 + 2k + 1 which contradicts n2 is even. Thus our assumption that n2 is even must be wrong, i.e.,
n2 must be odd.
√
Example 2.17.2. Prove that 3 is irrational.

20
 √ √ a
Proof. Suppose a contradiction that 3 is rational. Then we can write 3= for some integers a
b
a2
and b. Assume that a and b have no common divisors. Now squaring both sides, we get 3 = 2 and
b
so 3b2 = a2 . This implies that a2 is divisible by 3 and so a is also divisible by 3. Thus we can write
a = 3c for some integer c. Replacing this in the above equation we get 3b2 = 9c2 and so b2 = 3c2 .
Hence b2 is divisible√by 3 and so is b. But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common
divisors. Therefore 3 has to be irrational.

2.18 The Contrapositive Method

A ⇒ B is equivalent to not B ⇒ not A. For example, If x2 −9 = 0, then x = 2 has the contrapositive,

If x 6= 2, then x2 − 9 6= 0 and If I am Jane, then I am a woman has the contrapositive, If I am not
a woman, then I am not Jane.

Example 2.18.1. Suppose that A, B, C, D are sets such that C \ D ⊂ A ∩ B and that x ∈ C. Prove
that if x ∈
/ A, then x ∈ D.

Proof. If x ∈
/ D, then x ∈ A (the contrapositive). Let us suppose that x ∈
/ D. Since x ∈ C is
assumed, then x ∈ C \ D. Because C \ D ⊂ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B, i.e., x ∈ A.

Example 2.18.2. Let a be any integer. prove that if a2 is divisible by 3, then a is divisible by 3.

Proof. By contrapositive. Assume that a is not divisible by 3. Then a = 3t + 1 or 3t + 2 for some

t ∈ Z. If a = 3t + 1 then a2 = (3t + 1)2 = 9t2 + 6t + 1 = 3(3t2 + 2t) + 1 which is not divisible by 3.
If a = 3t + 2 then a2 = (3t + 2)2 = 9t2 + 12t + 4 = 3(3t2 + 4t + 1) + 1 which is not divisible by 3.

2.19 Counterexamples

For example, Is all multiples of 3 are multiples of 6, true or false? Prove your answer. It is false
because 9 is a multiple of 3, but is not a multiple of 6. (9 is called a counterexample to the “all”
statement, All multiples of 3 are multiples of 6).

2.20 Divisors

Uses the set of integers, Z. An integer a divides the integer b if there exists an integer ksuch that
b = ka. In this case we say b is divisible by a and write a | b. We also say that a is a divisor of b.
If a does not divide b, then we write a - b. For example, 3 | 6 since 6 = 2 × 3.

21
Theorem 2.20.1. If a | b and a | c then a | (mb + nc) for all integers m and n.

For trivial examples, if m = n = 1, we have if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c). If we take m = 1

and n = −1, we get, If a | b and a | c, then a | (b − c).

Proof. By assumption, there exists integers k1 and k2 such that b = k1 a and c = k2 a. For any
integers m and n, we have mb + nc = m(k1 a) + n(k2 a) (by assumption) = (mk1 + nk2 )a. Thus
mb + nc is divisible by a.

Theorem 2.20.2. Let a, b, c ∈ Z. Then

(i) If a | b and b | c, then a | c.

(ii) If a | b and b | a, then a = b or a = −b.

Proof. (i) By assumption, ∃k1 , k2 ∈ Z such that b = k1 a and c = k2 b. Hence c = k2 k1 a and we

deduce that a divides c.

Example 2.20.1. For n even, n2 + 2n + 8 is divisible by 4.

Proof. n is even implies that n = 2m for some m ∈ Z. Then n2 + 2n + 8 = (2m)2 + 2(2m) + 8 =

4m2 + 4m + 8 = 4(m2 + m + 2). Since m2 + m + 2 is an integer we can conclude that n2 + 2n + 8
is divisible by 4.

Exercise 2.20.1. Show that x2 + 9x + 20 is divisible by 2 for all x ∈ Z.

Exercise 2.20.2. Show that x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 is divisible by 3 for all x ∈ Z.

Exercise 2.20.3. For each positive integer, show that x3 − x is divisible by 3 and x5 − x is divisible
by 5. Can you generalise this? Is xn − x divisible by n?

22
Chapter 3

Basic Concepts of Set Theory

3.1 Sets and Elements

Description : A set is a collection of objects which are called the members or elements of that
set. For example

1. The set of students in this room.

2. The English alphabet may be viewed as the set of letters of the English language.

3. The set of natural numbers, e.t.c.

Sets can consist of elements of various nature : people, physical objects, numbers, signs,
other sets, e.t.c.
A set is an ABSTRACT object, its members do not have to be physically collected together for
them to constitute a set. The membership criteria for a set must in principle be well-defined, and
not vague. Sets can be finite or infinite.

3.2 Some Interesting Sets of Numbers

Let’s look at different types of numbers that we can have in our sets.

1. Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } and is denoted by N.

23
 2. Integers
The set of integers is {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } and is denoted by Z. The Z symbol
comes from the German word, Zahlen, which means number. Define the non-negative
integers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } often denoted by Z+ . All natural numbers are integers.
3. Rational Numbers
The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q and consists of all fractional numbers i.e., x ∈ Q
if x can be written in the form pq , where p, q ∈ Z with q 6= 0.
4. Real Numbers
The real numbers are denoted by R.
5. Complex Numbers
The complex numbers are denoted by C.

3.3 Notation
1. A, B, C, . . . for sets.
2. a, b, c, . . . or x, y, z, . . . for members.
3. b ∈ A, if b belongs to A.
4. c ∈
/ A, if c does not belong to A.
5. ∅ is used for the empty set. There is exactly one set, the empty set or null set, which has
no members at all.
6. A set with only one member is called a singleton or singleton set. for example, {x}.

3.4 Specification of Sets

One advantage of having an informal definition of the term set is that, through it, we can introduce
some other terminology related to sets. The term element is one example, and the notion well-
defined is another. The latter term relates to the primary requirement for any such description:
Given an object, we must be able to determine whether or not the object lies in the described set.

3.4.1 Three Ways to Specify a Set

1. Listing all its members (List Notation).

2. By stating a property of its elements (Predicate Notation).
3. By defining a set of rules which generates (defines) its members (Recursive Rules).

24
List Notation

This is suitable for finite sets. It lists names of elements of a set, separated by commas and enclose
them in braces. For example

A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {a, b, d, m}, C = {George Washington, Bill Clinton}.

Note that 2 ∈ A and George Washington ∈ C, but 8 ∈

/ A and k ∈
/ B.

Two important facts are: (i) the order in which elements are listed is irrelevant and (ii) an object
should be listed only once in the list, since listing it more than once does not change the set. As an
example, the set {1, 1, 2} is the same as the set {1, 2} (so that the representation {1, 1, 2} is never
used) which, in turn, is the same as the set {2, 1}.

Three Dot Abbreviation

For example, {1, 2, . . . , 100}.

Predicate Notation

We describe a set in terms of one or more properties to be satisfied by objects in the set, and by
those objects only. Such a description is formulated in so-called set-builder notation, that is, in the
form A = {x|x satisfies some property or properties}, which we read “A is the set of all objects
x such that x satisfies . . . .”. For example, {x|x is a natural number and x < 8}.
Reading : the set of all x such that x is a natural number and is less than 8. For example,
(i) {x|x is a positive number} (ii) {x|x is a letter of the Russian alphabet}.
The general form is {x|P (x)} where P is some predicate (condition,property).

In all these examples the vertical line is read “such that” and the set is understood to consist of all
objects satisfying the preceding description, and only those objects.

Recursive Rules

For example, the set E of even numbers greater than 3,

(a) 4 ∈ E (b) if x ∈ E, then x + 2 ∈ E (c) nothing else belongs to E. The first rule is the
basis of the recursion, the second one generates new elements from the elements defined before and
the third rule restricts the defined set to the elements generated by (a) and (b).

The collection, out of which all sets under consideration may be formed, is called the universe

25
of discourse or universal set, denoted by U. For our purposes a universal set is the set of all
objects under discussion in a particular setting. A universal set will often be specified at the start
of a problem involving sets, whereas in other situations a universal set is more or less clearly, but
implicitly, understood as background to a problem. The role then of a universal set is to put some
bounds on the nature of the objects that can be considered for membership in the sets involved in
a given situation.

It is in connection with the description method that “well definedness” comes into play. The rule or
rules used in describing a set must be (i) meaningful, that is, use words and/or symbols with an un-
derstood meaning and (ii) specific and definitive, as opposed to vague and indefinite. Thus descrip-
tions like G = {x|x is a goople} or E = {x|x% & 3} or Z = {x|x is a large state in the U nited States}
do not define sets. The descriptions of G and E involve nonsense symbols or words, while the de-
scription of Z gives a purely subjective criterion for membership.

3.5 The Empty set (Null Set)

We have that the fundamental property of a set is that we can assert of each object whether or not
it is a member of the set.
Consider a set constructed by asserting of each object that it is not a member of the set. This set
has no members and is therefore called the empty set.

Definition 3.5.1. The null or empty set is the set that does not contain any elements, denoted
by the Scandinavian letter ∅ = {} = {x|x 6= x}.

Example 3.5.1. (i) {x ∈ R|x2 = −1} (ii) {x ∈ Z|x2 = 2}.

Theorem 3.5.1. There is exactly one empty set.

3.6 Identity and Cardinality

Two sets are identical if and only if (iff) they have the same elements or both are empty. So A = B
iff, for every x, x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B.

Example 3.6.1. {0, 2, 4} = {x|x is an even positive integer less than 5}.

As the above example shows, equality of sets does not mean they have identical defi-nitions; there
are often many different ways of describing the same set. The definition of equality reflects rather
the fact that a set is just a collection of objects.

If we have to prove that the sets A and B are equal, it is often quite difficult to prove in one go
that they have the same elements. What is usually done is to split the proof into two parts:

26
 (a) Show that every member of A is a member of B.

(b) Show that every member of B is a member of A.

The number of elements in a set A is called the cardinality of A, denoted by |A|. The cardinality
of a finite set is a natural number. Infinite sets also have cardinalities but they are not natural
numbers. The set A is said to be countable or enumerable if there is a way to list the elements
of A.

3.7 Inclusion

Definition 3.7.1. Having fixed our universal set, U, then for all x ∈ U. If A and B are sets (with
all members in U), we write A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A iff x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B. (⊆ , set inclusion symbol)

A set A is a subset of a set B iff every element of A is also an element of B. If A ⊆ B and A 6= B,

we call A a proper subset of B and write A ⊂ B.

Theorem 3.7.1. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C.

Proof. Let x ∈ A, then since A ⊆ B, we have x ∈ B and given that B ⊆ C, we conclude that
x ∈ C, thus A ⊆ C.

Example 3.7.1. (i) {a, b} ⊆ {d, a, b, e} (ii) {a, b} ⊆ {a, b} (iii) {a, b} ⊂ {d, a, b, e}
(iv) {a, b} 6⊂ {a, b}.

Note that the empty set is a subset of every set, ∅ ⊆ A, for every set A and that for any set A,
we have A ⊆ A.

3.8 Axiom of Extensionality

Theorem 3.8.1. For any two sets A and B, A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

3.8.1 Power Sets

The set of all subsets of A is called the power set of A and is denoted by P(A) and |P(A)| = 2|A|
where |A| is finite.

27
Example 3.8.1. If A = {a, b}, then P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.

From the above example, a ∈ A, {a} ⊆ A, {a} ∈ P(A), ∅ ⊆ A, ∅ ∈

/ A, ∅ ⊆ P(A), ∅ ∈ P(A).

3.9 Operations on Sets

Just as there is an “algebra of numbers” based on operations such as addition and multiplication,
there is also an algebra of sets based on several fundamental operations of set theory. We develop
properties of set algebra later in this chapter; for now our goal is to introduce the operations by
which we are able to combine sets to get another set, just as in arithmetic we add or multiply
numbers to get a number.

3.9.1 Union and Intersection

Let A and B be arbitrary sets. The union of A and B, written A ∪ B, is the set whose elements
are just the elements of A or B or both.
A ∪ B := {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
Example 3.9.1. Let K = {a, b}, L = {c, d}, M = {b, d}, then K ∪ L = {a, b, c, d},
K ∪ M = {a, b, d}, L ∪ M = {b, c, d}, (K ∪ L) ∪ M = K ∪ (L ∪ M ) = {a, b, c, d}, K ∪ K = K,
K ∪ ∅ = ∅ ∪ K = K = {a, b}.

The intersection of A and B, written A ∩ B, is the set whose elements are just the elements of
both A and B.
A ∩ B := {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example 3.9.2. K ∩ L = ∅, K ∩ M = {b}, L ∩ M = {d}, (K ∩ L) ∩ M = K ∩ (L ∩ M ) = ∅,
K ∩ K = K, K ∩ ∅ = ∅ ∩ K = ∅.

Observe also that the sets that result from the operation of union tend to be relatively large, whereas
those obtained through intersection are relatively small.

3.10 Properties of ∪ and ∩

1. Every element x in A ∩ B belongs to both A and B, hence x belongs to A and x belongs to
B. Thus A ∩ B is a subset of A and of B i.e.,
A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.

28
 2. An element x belongs to the union A ∪ B if x belongs to A or x belongs to B, hence every
element in A belongs to A ∪ B and every element in B belong to A ∪ B, i.e.,

A⊆A∪B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Theorem 3.10.1. For any sets A and B, we have (i) A ∩ B ⊆ A ⊆ A ∪ B and

(ii) A ∩ B ⊆ B ⊆ A ∪ B.
Theorem 3.10.2. The following are equivalent, A ⊆ B, A ∩ B = A, A ∪ B = B.

Proof. Suppose A ⊆ B and let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ B, hence x ∈ A ∩ B and A ⊆ A ∩ B. Then

A ∩ B ⊆ A. Therefore A ∩ B = A. Suppose A ∩ B = A and let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ (A ∩ B), hence
x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Therefore A ⊆ B.
Suppose again that A ⊆ B. let x ∈ (A ∪ B). Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B because
A ⊆ B. In either case x ∈ B. Therefore A ∪ B ⊆ B. But B ⊆ A ∪ B. Therefore A ∪ B = B. Now
suppose A ∪ B = B and let x ∈ A. Thus x ∈ (A ∪ B). Hence x ∈ B = A ∪ B, therefore A ⊆ B.
Definition 3.10.1. Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if the intersection of A and B is
the null set i.e., A ∩ B = ∅.

3.11 Difference and Complement

Definition 3.11.1. A minus B written A \ B or A − B, which subtracts from A all elements which
are in B. (also called relative complement, or the complement of B relative to A)

A − B := {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

Example 3.11.1. K − L = {a, b}, K − K = ∅, K − M = {a}, K − ∅ = K, L − M = {c},

∅ − K = ∅.

3.11.1 Symmetric Difference

Definition 3.11.2. A 4 B = A ⊕ B := {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B but not in both} or

A 4 B = A ⊕ B := (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

The operation, complement, is unary rather than binary; we obtain a resultant set from a single
given set rather than from two such sets. The role of the universal set is so important in calculating
complements that we mention it explicitly in the following definition. The complement of a set
A, is the set of elements which do not belong to A, i.e., the difference of the universal set U and A.
Denote the complement of A by A0 or Ac .

A0 = {x|x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A} or A0 = U − A.

29
The complement of a set consists of all objects in the universe at hand that are not in the given set.
Clearly the complement of A is very much dependent on the universal set, as well as on A itself. If
A = {1}, then A0 is one thing if U = N, something quite different if U = R.

Example 3.11.2. Let E = {2, 4, 6, . . . }, the set of all even numbers. Then E c = {1, 3, 5, . . . }, the
set of odd numbers.

3.12 Set Theoretic Equalities

1. Idempotent Laws (i) X ∪ X = X (ii) X ∩ X = X.

2. Commutative Laws (i) X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X (ii) X ∩ Y = Y ∩ X.

3. Associative Laws (i) (X ∪ Y ) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z) (ii) (X ∩ Y ) ∩ Z = X ∩ (Y ∩ Z).

4. Distributive Laws (i) X ∪(Y ∩Z) = (X ∪Y )∩(X ∪Z) (ii) X ∩(Y ∪Z) = (X ∩Y )∪(X ∩Z).

5. Identity Laws (i) X ∪ ∅ = X (ii) X ∪ U = U (iii) X ∩ ∅ = ∅ (iv) X ∩ U = X.

6. Complement Laws (i) X ∪ X c = U (ii) (X c )c = X (iii) X ∩ X c = ∅

(iv) X − Y = X ∩ Y c .

7. De Morgan’s Laws (i) (X ∪ Y )c = X c ∩ Y c (ii) (X ∩ Y )c = X c ∪ Y c .

8. Consistency Principle (i) X ⊆ Y iff X ∪ Y = Y (ii) X ⊆ Y iff X ∩ Y = X.

Example 3.12.1. 1. Show that (Ac )c = A.

Proof. We need to show that A ⊆ (Ac )c and (Ac )c ⊆ A. Let x ∈ A then x ∈ / Ac . If x ∈

/ Ac ,
then x ∈ (Ac )c . By definition of subsets A ⊆ (Ac )c .
We want to show that (Ac )c ⊆ A. Let y ∈ (Ac )c , then y ∈
/ Ac . If y ∈
/ Ac , then y ∈ A. We
have shown that y ∈ (Ac )c =⇒ y ∈ A. Thus (Ac )c ⊆ A. By equality of sets (Ac )c = A.

2. Show that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Proof. Let D = A ∩ (B ∪ C) and E = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). We have to prove first that D ⊆ E.

Let x ∈ D, then x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C). Since x ∈ (B ∪ C), either x ∈ B or x ∈ C or both.
In case x ∈ B we have x ∈ A and x ∈ B, so x ∈ (A ∩ B). On the other hand, if x ∈ / B,
then we must have x ∈ C, so x ∈ (A ∩ C). Taking these two cases together, x ∈ (A ∩ B) or
x ∈ (A ∩ C), so x ∈ E.
Now, we prove that E ⊆ D. Let x ∈ E. Suppose first that x ∈ (A∩B), then x ∈ A and x ∈ B,
so x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C) . so x ∈ D. On the other hand, if x 6∈ (A ∩ B), then x ∈ (A ∩ C)
so again we obtain x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C), giving x ∈ D. Hence E ⊆ D. Hence both D ⊆ E
and E ⊆ D and we conclude that D = E and consequently A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
.

30
3.13 Counting Elements in Sets

If A and B are disjoint sets, then

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|,
otherwise
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.
Example 3.13.1. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {d, e, f, g, h, i}, so that A∪B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i}
and A ∩ B = {d, e}. Since |A| = 5, |B| = 6, |A ∪ B| = 9, |A ∩ B| = 2, we have
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| = 5 + 6 − 2 = 9.

3.14 The Algebra of Sets

We have considered the problem of showing that two sets are the same, however this technique
becomes tedious should the expressions involved be at all complicated. We shall develop an algebra
of sets, to assist us in simplifying a given expression. The following basic laws are easily established.
Law 1 : (Ac )c = A Law 2 : A ∪ B = B ∪ A Law 3 : A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Law 4 : A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C Law 5 : A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
Law 6 : A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) Law 7 : A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Law 8 : (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c Law 9 : (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c Law 10 : U c = ∅
Law 11 : ∅c = U Law 12 : A ∪ ∅ = A Law 13 : A ∪ U = U Law 14 : A ∩ U = A
Law 15 : A ∩ ∅ = ∅ Law 16 : A ∪ Ac = U Law 17 : A ∩ Ac = ∅.
Example 3.14.1. By using the algebra of sets, show that A ∪ (B ∩ Ac ) = A ∪ B.

Proof.
A ∪ (B ∩ Ac ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ Ac ) by Law 6
= (A ∪ B) ∩ U by Law 16
= A ∪ B by Law 14.

3.15 Set Products

3.15.1 Ordered Pairs

Definition 3.15.1. Let n be any natural number and let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be any objects. Then
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) denotes the ordered n-tuple with first term a1 , second term a2 , . . . and nth term
an .

31
Example 3.15.1. (5, 7) denotes the ordered pair whose first term is 5 and second term 7. Note
that (5, 7, 2) is called an ordered triple, (5, 7, 2, 4) is called an ordered 4-tuple.

The idea of a product of sets can be extended to any finite number of sets. For any sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An ,
the set of all ordered n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) where a1 ∈ A1 , a2 ∈ A2 , . . . , an ∈ An is called the
product of sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An and is denoted
n
Y
A1 × A2 × · · · × An or Ai .
i=1

The fundamental statement we can make about an ordered n-tuple is that a given object is the ith
term of an ordered n-tuple.

Definition 3.15.2. Let A and B be any non-empty sets, then

A × B := {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

If A and B are both finite sets, then |A × B| = |A| · |B|. If A = B, we sometimes write A2 for
A × A.

Example 3.15.2. 1. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3, 4}, then A×B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
and B × A = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2)}.
Notice that A × B 6= B × A, in general.

2. The Cartesian product R × R = R2 is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and this
represents the 2-dimensional Cartesian plane.

3. (s1 , t1 ) = (s2 , t2 ) if and only if s1 = s2 and t1 = t2 .

3.16 Theorems on Set Products

Let A, B, C, D be sets, then

1. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

2. A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).

3. (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D).

4. (A × B) ∪ (C × D) ⊆ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).

5. (A − B) × C = (A × C) − (B × C).

6. If A and B are non-empty sets, then A × B = B × A if and only if A = B.

7. If A1 ∈ P(A) and B1 ∈ P(B), then A1 × B1 ∈ P(A × B).

32
Example 3.16.1. Prove that (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C).

Proof. Consider any element (u, v) ∈ (A ∪ B) × C. By definition u ∈ (A ∪ B) and v ∈ C. Thus

u ∈ A or u ∈ B. If u ∈ A, then (u, v) ∈ (A × C) and if u ∈ B, then (u, v) ∈ (B × C). Thus
(u, v) is in A × C or in B × C and therefore (u, v) ∈ (A × C) ∪ (B × C). This proves that
(A ∪ B) × C ⊆ (A × C) ∪ (B × C).
Now consider any element (u, v) ∈ (A × C) ∪ (B × C). This implies that (u, v) ∈ (A × C) or
(u, v) ∈ (B × C). In the first case u ∈ A and v ∈ C and in the second case u ∈ B and v ∈ C. Thus
u ∈ (A∪B) and v ∈ C which implies (u, v) ∈ (A∪B)×C. Therefore (A×C)∪(B×C) ⊆ (A∪B)×C.
Hence (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C).

33
Chapter 4

Relations

In natural language relations are a kind of links existing between objects. For example, mother of,
neighbour of, part of, is older than, is an ancestor of, e.t.c. In mathematics there are endless ways
that two entities can be related to each other. Consider the following mathematical statements.
30
5 < 10 5≤5 6= 5|80
5
x 6= y 6∈Z X⊆Y π ≈ 3.14.

In each case two entities appear on either side of a symbol, and we interpret the symbol as expressing
some relationship between the two entities. Symbols such as <, ≤, =, |, ≥, >, ∈ e.t.c are called
relations because they convey relationship among things. Given a set A, a relation on A is some
property that is either true or false, for any ordered pair (x, y) ∈ A × A.

Example 4.0.2. Let A = {eggs, milk, corn} and B = {cows, goats, hens}. We can define a
relation R from A to B by (a, b) ∈ R if a is produced by b. In other words

R = {(eggs, hens), (milk, cows), (milk, goats)}.

With respect to this relation eggs R hens, milk R cows and so on.

Example 4.0.3. “greater than” is a relation on Z, denoted by >. It is true that for the pair (3, 2)
but false for the pairs (2, 2) and (2, 3).

Definition 4.0.1. Given sets A and B, a relation R between A and B is a subset of A × B i.e.,
R ⊆ A × B.

A binary relation is a set of ordered pairs. Any subset of A × A is called a relation on A. Since
a relation R on A is a subset of A × A, it is an element of the power set of A × A i.e., R ⊆ P(A × A).
All the following expressions mean the same thing

1. x bears relationship R to y.

34
 2. x and y are in the R relationship.

(x, y) ∈ R, usually written xRy or x ∼ y.

Example 4.0.4. 1. Let A be the set of people and B the set of dogs. Define a relation R on
A × B by aRb. In this case a is related to an object b if and only if a owns b.

2. Let X = Y . The equality is a relation , we say xRy if x = y.

3. Let X = Y = R. Then ≤, <, ≥, > are all relations between R and R.

4. Let X = Y = Z. Then divisibility is a relation between Z and Z, we say xRy if x|y.

4.0.1 Domain and Range

If R is a relation on A × B, we call the set A the domain of R and B the range of R i.e.,

domR = {a ∈ A|there exists some b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R},

and
ranR = {b ∈ B|there exists some a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ R}.
fldR = domR ∪ ranR is called the field of R. Observe that domR, ranR and f ldR are all subsets
of A.

Example 4.0.5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and define R by xRy if and only if x < y and x divides
y. So R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 6)}. So domR = {1, 2, 3}, ranR = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and f ldR = A.

4.0.2 Inverse Relations

Every relation R from A to B has inverse relation R−1 from B to A, which is defined by

R−1 = {(b, a)|(a, b) ∈ R}.

bR−1 a if and only if aRb.

Example 4.0.6. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then R = {(1, a), (1, b), (3, a)} is a relation
from A to B. The inverse relation is R−1 = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 3)}.

35
4.1 Representation of Relations

4.1.1 Arrow Diagrams

Venn diagrams and arrows can be used for representing relations between given sets.

Example 4.1.1. If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3)} is a
relation from A to B.

A B

- 1
a -

b : 2

c - 3

d 4

Figure 4.1: Arrow representation of the relation

In this diagram an arrow from x to y means that x is related to y. This kind of graph is called
directed graph or digraph. Another example is given which represents the divisibility relation
on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

4.1.2 Matrix of a Relation

Its rows are labelled with elements of A and its column are labelled with the elements of B. If a ∈ A
and b ∈ B we write 1 ia a row a and column b if aRb, otherwise we write 0. From the example
above, R = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3)} has the following matrix
 
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0

36
4.2 Kinds of Relations

4.2.1 Reflexive Relations

Definition 4.2.1. A relation R on a set A is called reflexive, if for all, a ∈ A, aRa. More
concisely, for all a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R.

All the values are related to themselves. For example, the relation of equality =, is reflexive, for
all numbers a ∈ R, a = a. So = is reflexive. ≤ is also reflexive (a ≤ a for any a ∈ R).
Example 4.2.1. Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} :

R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
R4 = ∅, empty relation
R5 = A × A, universal relation

Determine which of the following are reflexive.

Since A contains the four elements 1, 2, 3 and 4, a relation R on A is reflexive if it contains the
four pairs (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and (4, 4). Only R2 and R5 are reflexive. Note that R1 , R3 and R4 are
not reflexive, since, for example, (2, 2) does not belong to any of them.
Example 4.2.2. Consider the following five relations

(1) Relation ≤ on the set Z of integers.

(2) Set inclusion ⊆ on a collection C of sets.

(3) Relation ⊥ (perpendicular) on the set L of lines in the plane.

(4) Relation k (parallel) on the set L of lines in the plane.

(5) Relation | of divisibility on the set N of positive integers.

Determine which of the relations are reflexive.

The relation (3) is not reflexive since no line is perpendicular to itself. Also (4) is not reflexive
since no line is parallel to itself. The other relations are reflexive, that is, x ≤ x for every x ∈ Z,
A ⊆ A for any set A ∈ C and n | n for every positive integer n in N.
Example 4.2.3. Let V = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (4, 4)}. Then R is not a reflexive relation,
since (2, 2) does not belong R.

One should note that all ordered pairs (a, a) must belong to R in order for R to be reflexive.

37
4.2.2 Symmetric Relations

Definition 4.2.2. A relation R on a set A is called symmetric, if for all, a, b ∈ A, aRb implies
bRa.

For example, = is symmetric, since x = y then y = x also. Neither ≤ nor < are symmetric
(2 ≤ 3 and 2 < 3 but not 3 ≤ 2 nor 3 < 2 is true).
Example 4.2.4. (a) Determine which of the relations in Example 4.2.1 are symmetric.
R1 is not symmetric since (1, 2) ∈ R1 but (2, 1) ∈ / R1 . R3 is not symmetric since (1, 3) ∈ R3 but
(3, 1) ∈
/ R3 . The other relations are symmetric.
(b) Determine which of the relations in Example 4.2.2 are symmetric.
The relation ⊥ is symmetric since if line a is perpendicular to line b then b is perpendicular to a.
Also k is symmetric since if line a is parallel to line b then b is parallel to a. The others are not
symmetric. For example, 3 ≤ 4 but 4 3, {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3} but {1, 2, 3} * {1, 2} and 2 | 6 but
6 - 2.
Example 4.2.5. Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 1)}. Then R is not a
symmetric relation, since (2, 3) ∈ R but (3, 2) 6∈ R.

4.2.3 Anti-Symmetric Relations

Definition 4.2.3. A relation R on a set A is called anti-symmetric, if for all, a, b ∈ A, aRb and
bRa implies a = b.

Anti-symmetric is not the same as not symmetric.

Example 4.2.6. Determine which of the relations in Example 4.2.2 are antisymmetric.
The relation ≤ is antisymmetric since whenever a ≤ b and b ≤ a then a = b. Set inclusion
⊆ is antisymmetric since whenever A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then A = B. Also divisibility on N is
anti-symmetric since whenever m | n and n | m then m = n (Note that divisibility on Z is not
anti-symmetric since 3 | −3 and −3 | 3 but 3 6= −3). The relation ⊥ is not anti-symmetric since
we cannot have distinct lines a and b such that a ⊥ b and b ⊥ a. Similarly k is not anti-symmetric.

4.2.4 Transitive Relations

Definition 4.2.4. A relation R on a set A is called transitive, if for all a, b, c ∈ A, aRb, bRc
implies aRc.
Example 4.2.7. Determine which of the relations in Example 4.2.2 are transitive.
The relations ≤, ⊆ and | are transitive, that is, (i) If a ≤ b and b ≤ c then a ≤ c (ii) If A ⊆ B
and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C (iii) If a | b and b | c then a | c. On the other hand the relation ⊥ is not
transitive. If a ⊥ b and b ⊥ c, then it is not true that a ⊥ c.

38
4.3 Equivalence Relations

Some kind of equality notion.

Definition 4.3.1. A relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equiva-
lence relation.

For example, = on R is an equivalence relation, the classification of animals by species, that is,
the relation “ is of the same species as” is an equivalence relation on the set of animals and the
relation ⊆ of set inclusion is not an equivalence relation. It is reflexive and transitive, but it is not
symmetric since A ⊆ B does not imply B ⊆ A. Not all relations are equivalence relations.
Example 4.3.1. Let U = Z and define R = {(x, y)|x and y have the same parity}, i.e., x and y
are either both even or both odd. The parity is an equivalence relation.

1. For any x ∈ Z, x has the same parity as itself, so (x, x) ∈ R.

2. If (x, y) ∈ R, x and y have the same parity, so (y, x) ∈ R.

3. If (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then x and z have the same parity as y, so they have the same
parity as each other (if y is odd, both x and z are odd, if y is even both x and z are even),
thus (x, z) ∈ R.
Example 4.3.2. For any set S, the identity relation on S, IS = {(x, x)|x ∈ S} is an equivalence
relation.

1. Obvious.

2. If (x, y) ∈ R, then y = x so (y, x) = (x, x) ∈ R.

3. If (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then x = y = z so (x, z) = (x, x) ∈ R.

Example 4.3.3. Let U = R and define the square relation R = {(x, y)|x2 = y 2 }. Square relation
is an equivalence relation.

1. For all x ∈ R, x2 = x2 , so (x, x) ∈ R.

2. If (x, y) ∈ R, x2 = y 2 so y 2 = x2 and (y, x) ∈ R.

3. If (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R then x2 = y 2 = z 2 so (x, z) ∈ R.

Example 4.3.4. Show that the relation D defined by

xDy ⇐⇒ 3 | (x2 − y 2 )

is an equivalence relation.
(i) Reflexive : For any x ∈ Z we have x2 − x2 = 0 and since 3 | 0 it follows that xDx for all x ∈ Z.

39
(ii) Symmetric : Suppose xDy. Then 3 | (x2 − y 2 ) so x2 − y 2 = 3n for some n ∈ Z. It follows that
y 2 − x2 = 3(−n) and hence 3 | (y 2 − x2 ). Consequently yDx, so D is symmetric.
(iii) Transitive : Suppose xDy and yDz. There there exists n, m ∈ Z such that x2 − y 2 = 3n and
y 2 − z 2 = 3m. It follows that x2 − (3m + z 2 ) = 3n or x2 − z 2 = 3m + 3n = 3(m + n) and so xDz,
that is, D is transitive.
Example 4.3.5. Modular Arithmetic
We say an integer a is congruent to another integer b modulo a positive integer n, denoted as,
a ≡ b mod n, if b − a is an integer multiple of n. Let n = 3 and let A be the set of integers from 0
to 11. Then x ≡ y mod 3 if x and y belongs to A0 = {0, 3, 6, 9} or both belong to A1 = {1, 4, 7, 10}
or both belong to A3 = {2, 5, 8, 11}. Congruence modulo 3 is in fact an equivalence relation on A.
Reflexive
Since x − x = 0 · 3 we know that x ≡ x mod 3.
Symmetric
If x ≡ y mod 3, then y − x = 3k for some integer k. Hence x − y = −3k and since −k is an
integer we have y ≡ x mod 3.
Transitive
Let x ≡ y mod 3 and y ≡ z mod 3. Then there are integers k and l such that y − x = 3k and
z − y = 3l. It follows that z − x = 3k + 3l = 3(k + l) and since k + l is an integer we have x ≡ z
mod 3.

More generally, congruence modulo n is an equivalence relation on the integers.

4.4 Equivalence Classes

Definition 4.4.1. Let A be a set and R an equivalence relation on A. Let a ∈ A, then the set of
all elements b ∈ A such that aRb is called an equivalence class.

Denoted by [x], meaning, equivalence class of x where the element x is said to be a representative
of the class. Thus [a] = {b ∈ A|aRb}. Note, if aRb then by symmetry we have bRa, hence [a] = [b].
Theorem 4.4.1. Let R be an equivalence relation on the set A. Then for any two equivalence
classes [a] and [b], (
[a] = [b] if aRb,
[a] ∩ [b] = ∅ if a 6 Rb.

Note that two equivalence classes are either identical or disjoint.

Example 4.4.1. xRy if and only if x ≡ y mod 2. Then

0 ≡ 2 ≡ 4 ≡ ··· mod 2
1 ≡ 3 ≡ 5 ≡ ··· mod 2.
All even numbers are equivalent to each other under R. In set notation [0] = {0, 2, 4, · · · } and
[1] = {1, 3, 5, · · · }, the sets are called equivalence classes under modulo n.

40
 We call the act of doing this grouping with respect to some equivalence relation partitioning
(partitioning a set A into equivalence classes under a relation R). For example, we have partitioned
Z into equivalence classes[0] and [1] under the relation of congruence modulo 2. The collection of
equivalence classes, denoted A/R = {[x]|x ∈ A} is called the quotient set of A by R.

4.4.1 Partitions

Partitioning a set, in English means to break it into non-overlapping pieces. A partition of a set
A is the collection S of non overlapping non-empty subsets of A whose union is the whole A. For
instance a partition of A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} could be S = {{1, 2, 4, 8}, {3, 6}, {5, 7, 9, 10}}.
Given a partition S of a set A, every element of A belongs to exactly one member of S.

Example 4.4.2. The division on the integers Z into even and odd numbers is a partition :
S = {E, O} where E = {2n|n ∈ Z} and O = {2n + 1|n ∈ Z}.

Example 4.4.3. The division of the integers Z into negative integer, positive integers and zero is
a partition : S = {Z+ , Z− , {0}}.

Definition 4.4.2. The partition of a set A is a collection of non-empty subsets A1 , A2 , · · · , of A

which are pairwise disjoint and whose union is A.

1. Ai is non-empty.

2. Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for i 6= j.

3. ∪n An = A.

Proposition 4.4.1. Let A be a set. If R is an equivalence relation on A, then the equivalence

classes of R form a partition of A.

Proof. (equivalence relations induce partitions)

Let R be an equivalence relation on A and let {[x] : x ∈ A} be the family of equivalence classes of
R. Then [x] 6= ∅, for all x, because x ∈ [x].
For pairwise disjointness, we prove that [x] ∩ [y] 6= ∅ implies [x] = [y]. Let [x], [y] be so that there
is a z ∈ [x] ∩ [y]. Then xRz and zRy implies xRy. Now let u ∈ [x]. Then uRx and xRy so
uRy and u ∈ [y]. Hence [x] ⊆ [y] and we prove [y] ⊆ [x] similarly. Thus the equivalence classes
of R are pairwise disjoint. Finally, for ∪{[x] : x ∈ A} = A, first note that ∪{[x] : x ∈ A} ⊆ A
is clear. For the reverse containment, let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ [x] and [x] ⊆ ∪{[x] : x ∈ A} so
A ⊆ ∪{[x] : x ∈ A} = A.

Example 4.4.4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 14, 15}. Let R be the equivalence relation on A defined by
congruence modulo 4.

(a) Find the equivalence classes determined by R.

41
 (b) Find a system B of equivalence class representatives which are multiples of 3.

Solution (a) Accordingly [1] = {1, 5, 9, 13}, [2] = {2, 6, 10, 14}, [3] = {3, 7, 11, 15}, [4] = {4, 8, 12}.
Then [1], [2], [3], [4] are all the equivalence classes since they all include all the elements of A.
(b) Choose an element in each equivalence class which is a multiple of 3. Thus B = {9, 6, 3, 12} or
B = {9, 6, 15, 12}.

Example 4.4.5. Let A be a set of non-zero integers and let ≈ be the relation on A × A defined as
follows :
(a, b) ≈ (c, d) whenever ad = bc.
Prove that ≈ is an equivalence relation.
We must show that ≈ is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(i) Reflexivity : We have (a, b) ≈ (a, b) since ab = ba. Hence ≈ is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetry : Suppose (a, b) ≈ (c, d). Then ad = bc. Accordingly, cb = da and hence (c, d) ≈
(a, b). Thus ≈ is symmetric.
(iii) Transitivity : Suppose (a, b) ≈ (c, d) and (c, d) ≈ (e, f ). Then ad = bc and cf = de. Multi-
plying corresponding terms of the equations gives (ad)(cf ) = (bc)(de). Cancelling c 6= 0 and d 6= 0
from both sides of the equation yields af = be, and hence (a, b) ≈ (e, f ). Thus ≈ is transitive.
Accordingly, ≈ is an equivalence relation.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 14, 15}. Let ≈ be the equivalence relation on A × A defined by (a, b) ≈ (c, d) if
ad = bc. Find the equivalence class of (3, 2).
We seek all (m, n) such that (3, 2) ≈ (m, n), that is, such that 3n = 2m or 23 = m n
.[In other words,
if (3, 2) is written as the fraction 23 , then we seek all fractions m
n
which are equal to 3
2
.] Thus

[(3, 2)] = {(3, 2), (6, 4), (9, 6), (12, 8), (15, 10)}.

One of the main properties of an equivalence relation on a set A is that the quotient set, i.e., the
collection of equivalence classes is a partition of A. An equivalence class of elements is sometimes
called a block.

42
Chapter 5

Functions

5.1 What is a Function?

A function is a rule or a correspondence, relating two sets in such a manner that each element in
the first set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set. What do we mean when
we say y is a f unction of x? Symbolically, we write y = f (x), where

1. x is the independent variable. (input value of f )

2. y is the dependent variable. (output value of f at x)

3. f is a function. (rule that assigns x to y)

Definition 5.1.1. A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each element x
in X a unique element y in Y .

The set X is called the domain of f and the set of corresponding elements y in Y is called the
range of f where sets X and Y consists of real numbers. We write f : X → Y .

Examples: Stock market index depending on time, volume of sphere depending on radius, circle
of a given radius has only one area.

Let f be a function. The number y in the range that corresponds to a selected number x in the
domain is said to be the value of the function at x, or image of x, written f (x), so y = f (x).

Examples: f (x) = 3x4 + 2, g(t) = 4 − t2 , h(s) = 2s2 + 7.

The domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule makes sense.

43
 1 1
Example: Let f (x) = , we cannot compute f (0), since is not defined. Then the domain of
x 0
1
f (x) = is the set of all real numbers except 0.
x

Function Domain x ∈ X Range y ∈ Y

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
1
y= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x
√
y = √x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
y = 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

Table 5.1: Examples of functions

You Try It: Let

x
g(x) = .
x2 + 4x + 3
What is the domain and range of this function?

5.2 Graphs of Functions

It is useful to draw pictures which represent functions. These pictures, or graphs, are a device
for helping us to think about functions. We graph functions in the x − y plane. The elements of
the domain of the function are thought of as points of the x−axis. The values of a function are
measured on the y−axis. The graph of f associates to x a unique y value that the function f assigns
to x. The graph of a function f is the set of points {(x, y)|y = f (x) in the domain of f } in the
Cartesian plane.

As a consequence, a function is characterized geometrically by the fact that any vertical line inter-
secting its graph does so in exactly one point.

44
5.3 Bounded Functions

If there is a constant M such that f (x) ≤ M for all x in the interval (or other set of numbers), we
say that f is bounded above in the interval (or the set) and call M an upper bound of the function.
If a constant m exists such that f (x) ≥ m for all x in an interval, we say that f (x) is bounded below
in the interval and call m a lower bound. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M in an interval, we call f (x) bounded.

Examples: f (x) = x + 3 is bounded in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. An upper bound is 4 (or any number greater

than 4). A lower bound is 2 (or any number less than 2).

5.4 Types of Functions

5.4.1 Elementary Functions

Polynomial Function

Have the form f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants and n is
a positive integer called the degree of the polynomial provided a0 6= 0.

Examples: x5 + 10x3 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

Rational Functions

P (x)
A function f (x) = where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions.
Q(x)

45
 x3 + x + 5
Example: f (x) = is a rational function. Since x2 − 3x − 4 = (x + 1)(x − 4) and
x2 − 3x − 4
(x + 1)(x − 4) = 0 for x = −1 and x = 4, the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except −1
and 4.

Power Function

f (x) = kxn , n a real number and k a constant.

1 1 2
Examples: y = , y = x2 , y = x3 .
x

Piecewise Defined Functions

A function need not be defined by a single formula. A piecewise defined function is a function
described by using different formula on different parts of its domain.
 
 −1, x<0  −x, x<0
Examples: (a) f (x) = 0, x=0 (b) f (x) = x2 , 0≤x≤1
x + 2, x>0 1, x > 1.
 

46
Transcendental Functions

The following are sometimes called elementary transcendental functions.

1. Exponential function, f (x) = ax , a 6= 0, 1.

2. Logarithmic function, f (x) = loga x, a 6= 0, 1.

3. Trigonometric functions (also called circular functions because of their geometric interpreta-
sin x
tion with respect to the unit circle), e.g., sin x, cos x, tan x = , csc x, cot x, sec x.
cos x
4. Inverse trigonometric functions, e.g., y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x.

5. Hyperbolic Functions, e.g., sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, coth x.

Even and Odd Functions

Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if f (x) = f (−x). (Symmetric
with respect to the y−axis)

Examples: |x|, x2 , x4 , cos x, cosh x.

47
Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if −f (x) = f (−x) or
f (x) + f (−x) = 0. (Symmetric with respect to the origin)

Examples: x, x3 , sin x, sinh x.

3x
Example: Determine whether the following function is odd or even f (x) = .
x2 + 1

Solution:
3(−x) 3x
f (−x) = 2
=− 2 = −f (x).
(−x) + 1 x +1
The function is odd.

5.5 Combining Functions

A function f can be combined with another function g by means of arithmetic operations to form
f
other functions, the sum f + g, difference f − g, product f g and quotient are defined as :
g
Let f and g denote functions, then

1. Sum : (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

2. Difference : (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

3. Product : (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

 
f f (x)
4. Quotient : (x) = .
g g(x)

f
Example: If f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g(x) = 3x + 4. Find f + g, f − g, f g, .
g

Solution:

(f + g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) + (3x + 4) = 2x2 + 3x − 1.

(f − g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) − (3x + 4) = 2x2 − 3x − 9.
(f g)(x) = (2x2 − 5)(3x + 4) = 6x3 + 8x2 − 15x − 20
2x2 − 5
 
f
(x) = .
g 3x + 4

48
5.6 Composition of Functions

Let f and g denote functions. The composition of f and g, written f ◦ g is the function
(f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) and the composition of g and f , written g◦f , is the function (g◦f )(x) = g(f (x)).

Example: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x2 + 1, find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = (x2 + 1)2 = x4 + 2x2 + 1.
and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = (x2 )2 + 1 = x4 + 1.
In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .

5.7 Bijection, Injection and Surjection

Classes of functions may be distinguished by the manner in which arguments and images are related
or mapped to each other.

A function f : X → Y is injective (one-to-one, 1 − 1) if every element of the range corresponds

to exactly one element in its domain X.

For all x, y ∈ X, f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y or equivalently

For all x, y ∈ X, x 6= y =⇒ f (x) 6= f (y). An injective function is an injection.

49
Example: Show that the functions f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x3 − 2 are injective.

Solution: Need to show that f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y.

2x + 3 = 2y + 3
2x = 2y =⇒ x = y.

Hence f (x) = 2x + 3 is injective.

Need to show that g(x) = g(y) =⇒ x = y.

x3 − 2 = y 3 − 2
x3 = y 3 taking cube roots
x = y.

Hence g(x) = x3 − 2 is injective.

A function f : X → Y is called onto if for all y in Y there is an x in X such that f (x) = y. All
elements in Y are used. Such functions are referred to as surjective.

Example: Show that f (x) = 3x − 5 is onto.

y+5
Solution: For onto f (x) = y, i.e., 3x − 5 = y. Solve for x, =⇒ x = .
    3
y+5 y+5
So f =3 − 5 = y. Therefore f is onto.
3 3

Let X and Y be sets. A function f : X → Y that is one-to-one and onto is called a bijection
or bijective function from X to Y . If f is both one-to-one and onto, then we call f a 1 − 1
correspondence.

Inverse of a Function. Suppose f is a 1 − 1 function that has domain X and range Y . Since
every element y ∈ Y corresponds with precisely one element x of X, the function f must actually
determine a reverse function g whose domain is Y and range is X, where f and g must satisfy
f (x) = y and g(y) = x. The function g is given the formal name inverse of f and usually written
f −1 and read f inverse. Not all functions have inverses, those that do are called invertible functions.

50
Example: Find the inverse of the function f (x) = (2x + 8)3 .

Solution: We must solve the equation y = (2x + 8)3 for x.

y = (2x + 8)3
√
3
y = 2x + 8
√3
y − 8 = 2x
√
3 y − 8
x = .
2
√
3
x−8
Hence the inverse function f −1 −1
is given by f (x) = .
2

A 1−1 function f can have only one inverse, i.e., f −1 is unique. A function f : X → Y is invertible
if and only if f is one-to-one and maps X onto Y .

5.8 Operations on Functions

Equality of Functions

Equality of functions does not mean the same as equality of two numbers (numbers have a fixed
value but values of functions vary). Each function is a relationship between x and y, the two
relationships are the same if for every value of x we get the same value of y.

Example: The functions (x − 1)(x + 2) and x2 + x − 2 are equal.

Example: Equal functions for positive values of x,

√
|x| = x2 .

51
Identity Function

Generally, an identity function is one which does not change the domain values at all. Its the
function f (x) = x. Denoted by IX .

Monotonic Functions

A function is called monotonic increasing in an interval, if for any two points x1 and x2 in the interval
such that if x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ). If f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) the function is called strictly increasing.

Similarly, if f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f (x) is monotonic decreasing, while if
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) it is strictly decreasing.

52
Chapter 6

Limits of Sequences

Definition 6.0.1. A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement

and formed according to a definite rule.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The sequence
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is written briefly as {un }, e.g., {un } = 2n, where u1 = 2, u2 = 4, u3 = 6 and so
on. The sequence is called finite or infinite according as there are or are not a finite number of
terms.

Recursion Formula or Recurrence Relations

So far we have seen that a sequence {Un } may be defined by giving a formula for {Un } in terms of
n. For example
2n2 − 5n + 4
Un = √ .
n2 + 1
We can also define sequences by giving a relation or formula that connect successive terms of a
sequence and specifying the value or values of the first term or the first and second terms etc. The
formula or relation linking the terms is called a recursion formula or recurrence relation.

Example:
Find the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un

Solution:
2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = =2
u0 1
2 2
u2 = u1+1 = = =1
u1 2
2 2
u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u2 1

53
You Try It: Define recursively
a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.
Find a6 recursively.

6.1 Limits of Sequences

1
Lets consider the sequence un = . The sequence has the terms 1, 21 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 6.1.1. A number L is called the limit of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if
for any positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε
for all integers n > N . We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for
n sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
Example: If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 27 , 10
3
, . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3.
n→∞

If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.

54
 1
Example: Prove that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

1 1 1 1 1
Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that −0 = = < ε. But n > . So N = .
n n n ε ε
1 1
Taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have, lim = 0.
ε n→∞ n

1
You Try It: Prove that lim = 0 if p ∈ N.
n→0 np

2n − 1 2
Example: Use the definition of a limit to prove that lim = .
n→∞ 3n + 2 3

Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that

2n − 1 2 3(2n − 1) − 2(3n + 3) 6n − 3 − 6n − 4 −7 7
− = = = = <ε
3n + 2 3 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2)

7
< ε
3(3n + 2)
7 − 6ε
n > .
9ε
7 − 6ε 7 − 6ε
Take N = . So taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have
9ε 9ε
2n − 1 2 2n − 1 2
− < ε , i.e., lim = .
3n + 2 3 n→∞ 3n + 2 3

6.2 Theorems on Limits

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then

n→∞ n→∞

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an A
4. lim = n→∞ = if lim bn = B 6= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞

5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

55
Proof: We must show that if lim un = l1 and lim un = l2 , then l1 = l2 . By hypothesis, given any
n→∞ n→∞
ε ε
ε > 0, we can find N such that |un − l1 | < when n > N and |un − l2 | < when n > N . Then
2 2
ε ε
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − un + un − l2 | ≤ |l1 − un | + |un − l2 | < + = ε,
2 2
i.e., |l1 −l2 | is less than any positive ε (however small) and so must be zero, i.e., l1 −l2 = 0 =⇒ l1 = l2 .

Example: If lim an = A and lim bn = B, prove that lim (an + bn ) = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find N > 0, such that |(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε
for all n > N . We have

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) + (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|.

ε
By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that |an − A| < for all n > N1 and
2
ε
|bn − B| < for all n > N2 . Then
2
ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < + =ε
2 2
for all n > N where N = max(N1 , N2 ). Hence lim (an + bn ) = A + B.
n→∞

6.3 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and
the sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.

We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M ) such that an > M for all n > N .

Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N .

Example: Prove that (a) lim 32n−1 = ∞ (b) lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: (a) If for each positive number M we can find a positive number
 N such
 that an > M for
1 ln M
all n > N , then 32n−1 > M when (2n − 1) ln 3 > ln M , i.e., n > + 1 . Taking N to be
  2 ln 3
1 ln M
the smallest greater than + 1 , then lim 32n−1 = ∞.
2 ln 3 n→∞

56
(b) If for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N such that an < −M for all
n > N , i.e., 1 − 2n < −M when 2n − 1 > M or n > 12 (M + 1). Taking N to be the smallest integer
greater than 12 (M + 1), we have lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞

6.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A
sequence may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.

If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence {un } is bounded

above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b).

If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The largest lower bound
is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

If m ≤ un ≤ M , the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P . (Every convergent sequence

is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true)

If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is called strictly
increasing. If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it is
strictly decreasing.

Examples: 1. The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing.
2. The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or decreasing.
1
Definition 6.4.1. A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

Examples: un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n.

6.5 Limits of Combination of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2− + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2

57
  
1 3 1 1
Example: lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2.
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − n5 3+0 3
Example: lim = lim = = .
n→∞ 5n2 + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + 2 − 6
5+0+0 5
n n2

√ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1
Example: lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n n→∞ n+1+ n

6.6 Squeeze Theorem

If lim an = l = lim bn and there exists an N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn , for all n > N , then
n→∞ n→∞
lim cn = l.
n→∞

cos n
Example: Find lim .
n→∞ n

Solution: We know that −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1

1 cos n 1 1 cos n 1 cos n
=⇒ − ≤ ≤ =⇒ − lim ≤ lim ≤ lim =⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
n n n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
cos n
=⇒ lim = 0.
n→∞ n

58