AERO306

Aerodynamics

Lecture 10
Finite Wing Theory
Dr Sebastian Timme
Outline of Today’s Lecture

• Basics of Finite Wing Theory

• Recap from last lecture

• Influence of aspect ratio and Prandtl’s equations

• Examples and Exercises

Required reading: Chapter 5, Sections 5.1 – 5.3, 5.7 and 5.8

Chapter 6, Section 6.7
Question

The paradox of d'Alembert tells us that in inviscid,

irrotational flow there is no drag.
Considering a finite wing however, an induced drag is
observed even in inviscid, irrotational flow.

What is the explanation for this observation?

a) Wing tip vortices induce a downward velocity component,
which effectively changes the local angle of attack. Since the
local lift is perpendicular to the local relative wind, there is a
force component in the free-stream direction.
b) d’Alembert’s paradox does not apply to 3D flow!
c) Wing tip vortices induce a streamwise velocity component
along the wing span acting in the free-stream direction, thus
inducing a drag force component.
 Downwash and Induced Drag
• Local aerofoil section sees a reduced
angle of attack

• Local lift is perpendicular to local wind,

thus there is a force component in
direction of V∞, called induced drag

• Drag also for inviscid flow!

 d’Alembert’s paradox!
e    i

V∞
w

Due to downwash the geometric angle of attack is reduced by the induced

angle of attack.
Downwash and Induced Drag

• The total drag on a finite wing (at moderate angle of attack) is

sum of profile drag and induced drag.
• The profile drag includes drag due to skin friction, pressure
drag as a result of separation, and wave drag.

C D  c d  C D ,i
induced drag due
to downwash
C D ,i  C L sin  i  C L i
capital letters for 3D coefficients
CL C L2
i   C D ,i 
 
lower case letters for 2D coefficients
cd  cd , f  cd , p

 is aspect ratio,  =b2/S

 (Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

Lift due to bound vortex following

Kutta-Joukowski:

L( y0 )   V  ( y0 )
b/2
at y=±b/2, downwash
L L( y )dy  Lb w(y) approaches infinity!
b / 2

This is unrealistic.

Downwash induced by trailing vortices:

   
w( y )    
 4 (b / 2  y ) 4 (b / 2  y ) 
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Go over to an infinite number (i.e. continuous distribution)

Velocity dw induced at y0 Velocity induced at y0 due

due to trailing vortex at y to entire vortex sheet
1 (d / dy )dy 1
b/2
(d / dy )dy
dw( y0 )  
4 y0  y
 w( y0 )  
4 
b / 2
y0  y
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Recall effective and induced angle of attack e    i

  e  i

w( y0 )
• For induced angle of attack we find tan  i ( y0 )     i ( y0 )
V

(d / dy )dy
b/2
1 1
• Using downwash, we find  i ( y0 ) 
V 4 
b / 2
y0  y

• From Kutta-Joukowski Theorem, we find

 V  ( y 0 )  L( y 0 )  a0  e ( y0 )   L 0 ( y0 ) 12  V2 c( y 0 ) 

and after rearranging  ( y )  2 ( y 0 )   ( y )

e 0 L 0 0
a0V c( y 0 )
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Everything combined as    e   i and rearranged, we find the

fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting line theory

2 ( y 0 ) (d / dy )dy
b/2
1
 ( y0) 
a0V c( y 0 )
  L 0 ( y 0 ) 
4V 
b / 2
y0  y

• It simply tells us that the local angle of attack is the sum of effective
and induced angle of attack.

• Once we have (y0), we find

• Lift distribution along span using Kutta-Joukowski L( y0 )   V  ( y0 )
b/2
• Total lift by integrating along the span L 
 b / 2
L( y )dy
b/2
• Induced drag as Di( y0 )  L sin  i  L i  Di 

b / 2
L( y ) i ( y )dy
Influence of Aspect Ratio

• Discuss the influence of aspect ratio on aerodynamic properties

• Consider wings with the same aerofoil profile but different

aspect ratios

• For constant lift coefficient, we can convert the

1. lift slope
2. drag coefficient
3. geometric angle of attack
between wings of different aspect ratio
 Aspect Ratio: Lift Slope I

Lets look at lift coefficient CL for different aspect ratio wings

CL

0 and CL,max are

independent of 

lift slope strongly dependent on 

 Aspect Ratio: Lift Slope II
These relations can be derived: CL
CL   dC L
d    ( e   0 ) e i CL=const
e    i
 

CL dC L
d    (   i   0 )

CL   
dC L
d   

  
CL

 

0
 
  
CL 1  dC L
d        dC L
d    (   0 )

CL 
 
dC L
d   
(   0 )
1  
dC L
d    

 dC L 
  
 
dC L
d   

 dC
d   
L

 d   1   
dC L
d       dC
d   
L
Aspect Ratio: Lift Slope III

lift slope more like /2 for <3

Theory

Theory fails for wings of

small aspect ratio, e.g. <3.
Measurements

 dC L 
  
 
dC L
d   

 
0

 d   1   
dC L
d    
Lift Curves – Scaled
Experimental data

Variation of lift for wings with different Lift data scaled to aspect ratio of 5
aspect ratio from 1 to 7  The lines collapse to one curve.
Question
Aspect Ratio: Drag Coefficient I

Lets look at drag polars plotting CL over CD

CL
CL,max

cd

CD,i
C D  c d  C D ,i

CD
Aspect Ratio: Drag Coefficient II

CL
cd CD,i CL=const

same profile

C L2
C D ,1  cd 
1
C L2
CD,1 CD,2 CD C D , 2  cd 
2

C L2  1 1
CD,2  C D ,1    
  2 1 
Drag Polars – Scaled

Variation of drag for wings with Drag data scaled to aspect ratio of 5
different aspect ratio from 1 to 7  The lines collapse to one curve.
Question
Aspect Ratio: Angle of Attack

CL

CL=const
CL CL
  e   0  1  0
e    i  
dC L
d    1

CL CL
 e  0  2  0
  
dC L
d    2

CL  1 1
 2  1    
  2 1 
Question
Summary of Today’s Lecture

After this lecture you should be able to

• Understand basics of finite wing aerodynamics

(induced drag, influence of aspect ratio, etc.)

• Apply Prandtl’s equations to account for aspect ratio

Required reading: Chapter 5, Sections 5.1 – 5.3, 5.7 and 5.8

 48 pages
Chapter Overview IX (based on ed. 5)

5.1 Introduction: Downwash and Induced Drag

5.2 The Vortex Filament, The Biot-Savart Law, and Helmholtz’ Theorem
5.3 Prandtl’s Classical Lifting Line Theory
5.7 Historical Note: Lanchester and Prandtl – The Early Development of
5.8 Historical Note: Prandtl – the Man

6.7 Applied Aerodynamics: Airplane Lift and Drag