PERCEPTIONS

CHAPTER 7
 What do we mean
by perception?

◂ “…a constructive process by

which we go beyond the
stimuli that are presented to
us and attempt to construct
a meaningful situation”.

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What are the issues
in perception?
ISSUES IN
PERCEPTION
◂ Some argue that perceptual processes
are not direct, but depend on the
perceiver's expectations and previous
knowledge as well as the information
available in the stimulus itself.

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ISSUES IN
PERCEPTION
◂ This controversy is discussed with
respect to Gibson (1966) who has
proposed a direct theory of perception
which is a 'bottom-up' theory, and
Gregory (1970) who has proposed a
constructivist (indirect) theory of
perception which is a 'top-down' theory. 5
 ISSUES IN
PERCEPTION
◂ Bottom-up processing is also known
as data-driven processing, because
perception begins with the stimulus
itself.
◂ Top-down processing, is also known
as conceptually driven processing,
refers to the use of contextual
information in pattern recognition
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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION
◂ Gibson’s bottom up theory suggests
that perception involves innate
mechanisms forged by evolution
and that no learning is required.
◂ James Gibson (1966) argues that
perception is direct, and not
subject to hypotheses testing as
Gregory proposed
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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION
◂ His theory is sometimes known as the
‘Ecological Theory’ because of the claim that
perception can be explained solely in terms of
the environment.
◂ For Gibson: sensation is perception: what
you see is what you get. There is no need for
processing (interpretation) as the information
we receive about size, shape and distance etc.
is sufficiently detailed for us to interact
directly with the environment.
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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION

◂ Gibson argued that perception is a bottom-

up process, which means that sensory
information is analyzed in one direction:
from simple analysis of raw sensory data
to ever increasing complexity of
analysis through the visual system.

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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION

◂ The starting point for Gibson’s Theory

was that the pattern of light reaching the
eye, known as the optic array,
containing all the visual information
necessary for perception
◂ Perception involves ‘picking up’ the rich
information provided by the optic array in a
direct way with little/no processing involved.
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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION

◂ Texture gradient is the distortion in size which

closer objects have compared to objects farther
away. It also involves groups of objects appearing
denser as they move farther away. Also could
be explained by noticing a certain amount of detail
depending on how close something is, giving a
sense of depth perception.
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 DIRECT APPROACH
TO PERCEPTION

◂ Linear perspective – parallel lines appear to

converge as they recede into the distance.
◂ Affordance - the original definition in psychology
includes all transactions that are possible
between an individual and their environment.
When the concept was applied to design, it started
also referring to only those physical action
possibilities of which one is aware. 16
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 THE PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS

◂ The perceptual process is a sequence of

steps that begins with the environment
and leads to our perception of a stimulus
and an action in response to the
stimulus.

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 THE PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS

1. Environmental Stimulus - is
everything in our environment that has
the potential to be perceived.
2. Attended Stimulus - is the specific
object in the environment on which our
attention is focused.

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 THE PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS

3. The Image on the Retina - The first

part of this process involves the light
actually passing through the cornea and
pupil and onto the lens of the eye.
4. Transduction - the image on the retina is
then transformed into electrical signals in
a process known as transduction
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 THE PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS

5. Neural Processing - The electrical signals then

undergo neural processing. The path followed by
a particular signal depends on what type of signal it
is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).
6. Perception - we actually perceive the stimulus
object in the environment. It is at this point that we
become consciously aware of the stimulus.
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 THE PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS

7. Recognition - It is necessary for our

brain to categorize and interpret what it is
we are sensing.
8. Action - The action phase of perceptual
development involves some type of motor activity
that occurs in response to the perceived and
recognized stimulus.
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 The perceptual process. The steps in this process are arranged in a circle to emphasize the fact that
the process is dynamic and continually changing. Blue arrows point to stimuli; green to processing; red
to perceptual responses. Arrows A, B, and C indicate three important relationships that researchers 23
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ISSUES IN
PERCEPTION
◂ Top-down processing, also known as
conceptual-driven processing, happens
when we form our perceptions beginning with
the big picture. We make our best guess of
what we see based on expectations, beliefs,
prior knowledge, and past experiences. In
other words, we make calculated assumptions.
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 ◂ Psychologist Richard
\ Gregory (1970) argued
that perception is a
constructive process
which relies on top-
down processing.
◂ Argues that our
judgments of depth
are made on the basis
of our past
experiences with the
depth cues 26
 Top Down Processing
Theory (Indirect Approach)

◂ Stimulus information from our

environment is frequently ambiguous
so to interpret it, we require higher
cognitive information either from past
experiences or stored knowledge in
order to make inferences about what
we perceive 27
 Top Down Processing
Theory (Indirect Approach)

◂ For Gregory perception is a hypothesis,

which is based on prior knowledge. In
this way we are actively constructing
our perception of reality based on our
environment and stored information.

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 EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT
GREGORY’S THEORY

◂ Highly unlikely objects tend to be

mistaken for likely objects
◂ Perceptions can be ambiguous.
◂ Illusions persist even when we have full
knowledge of them

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 Unconscious Inference Theory

◂ The unconscious inference theory was postulated

by Hermann von Helmholtz, a German
physiologist.”

◂ the hypothesis positing that how one views or

comprehends something is indirectly impacted by
inferences about present sensory input which
make use of the interpreter 33
 GESTALT LAWS OF
PERCEPTUAL
ORGANIZATION

Proposed the concept

of the Phi
phenomenon in
which flashing lights in
sequence can lead to
what is known as
apparent motion.
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 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
Similarity – items that are similar to one
another are grouped together by our
brain.
GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
Proximity – objects that are close to one
another are grouped together.
 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
The word pragnanz is a German term meaning "good
figure." The law of Pragnanz is sometimes referred to
as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity.
 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
Continuity – holds that points that are
connected by straight or curving lines are seen
in a way that follows the smoothest path
 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
Closure – objects grouped together are
seen as a whole.
GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION
 GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTION

Figure and Ground – we see a figure and a

ground even if the shapes are grouped together.
Elements are perceived as either figures (distinct
elements of focus) or ground (the background or
landscape on which the figures rest.)
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 Visual Illusion

◂ a misinterpretation of exterior
visual stimulants which takes place as
an outcome of either a pathological condition or a
misperception of the stimulants.

◂ illusion is a mistaken or distorted perception.

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 Afterimage

◂ The visual which stays present even after a

stimulant ceases or is taken away.

◂ arises after looking at a visual stimulus, usually for

several seconds.

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 Positive Afterimage

◂ In a positive afterimage, the colors of the original

image are maintained. Essentially, the afterimage
looks the same as the original image

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 Negative Afterimage

◂ In a negative afterimage, the colors you see are

inverted from the original image.

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 STROOP EFFECT

◂ Is used to ascertain the time limit that is taken to tell

the color of ink which represents the name of other
color as compared to the time which is taken to tell
the same color in which color title is printed.

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STROOP EFFECT

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 Priming

◂ Priming occurs when a word or other perceptual

event biases the observer to perceive a subsequent
event in a particular way.

◂ the effect of repeated exposure to a stimulus will

facilitate or inhibit the processing of the same
stimulus after repeated exposure.
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Priming

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 Masking

◂ is the deliberate and purposeful hiding, muting,

silencing or removal of a stimulus from the target so
they may no longer hear, see or sense its presence.

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