Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
BEAMS(flexural member)
4.1 Introduction
Beams are structural members which transfer the transverse loads they carry to the supports by bending
and shear actions.
Beams used in building and bridges:
• Girder: Usually the most important beams, which are frequently at wide spacing.
• Joists: Usually less important beams, which are closely spaced frequently with truss-type webs?
• Stringers: Longitudinal Bridge beams spanning between floor beams.
• Purlins: Roof beams spanning between trusses.
• Grits: Horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind on sides of an
industrial building frequently supporting corrugated siding.
• Lintels: Members supporting a wall over window or door opening.
4.2 Typical cross-sectios of beams
Rolled I sections with or without cover plates are usually used for floor beams. Channels ,tee & -
angle- sections are usually used for beams in roof trusses as purlins and common rafters.
For lightly loaded and small spans such as roof purlins and side sheeting rails the use of hot
rolled angle sections or channels sections is appropriate.
The most common types of beam cross-sections shown in Fig 4.1
Elastic Theory
The bending stress are distributed linearly across any section of the beam, as shown in Fig 4.2 (a),
and the bending moment M is directly proportional to the curvature.
M=Zxx---------------------------- (4.1)
When the extreme fiber strain attains the value of the stress distribution is given by Fig 4.2(b) , the
corresponding moment, called elastic moment (yield moment) My and is computed as
My= fy Zxx (for class3) --------------------------------- (4.2)
Where = elastic stress
fy = yield stress
Zxx = elastic section modulus
Plastic Theory
Once the yield strain of steel beam is exceeded the stress distribution is no longer linear. When the
yield moment is exceeded curvature increases rapidly as the plastic region proceeds inward until th e
full plastic moment is reached and a plastic hinge is formed as shown in Fig. 4.2 c. The full plastic
moment Mp, is computed from
M P =f y Sxx (for class 2 and 1) -------------------------------- (4.3)
Where
Sxx = Plastic section modulus of section
It can be observed that the ratio M p/M e is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent of
the material properties. The ratio is referred as the shape factor
p S xx
----------------------- (4.4)
y Z xx
4.4 Design of Beam
Design of beams can greatly influenced by the following:
Resistance of cross-section due to bending
Resistance of cross-section due to shear
Lateral-torsional buckling
Shear buckling of web plates
Condition of support and point loads
• Web crippling
• Web buckling
• Web crushing
Deflection
2
2Vsd
Where 1
V pl, Rd
Fig. 4.3 Response of a slender cantilever beam to vertical loading: lateral- torsional buckling
Lateral-torsional instability influences the design of laterally unrestrained beams in much the same
way that flexural buckling influences the design of columns. Thus the bending strength will now be a function
of the beam's slenderness.
Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional Buckling
The basic model used to illustrate the theory of lateral - torsional buckling is shown in Fig. 4.4. It assumes the
following:
o beam is initially straight
o elastic behavior
o uniform equal flanged I-section
ends simply supported in the lateral plane (twist and lateral deflection prevented, no rotational restraint in
plan).
Loaded by equal and opposite end moments in the plane of the web.
The beam is placed in its buckled position, as in Fig. 4.5, and the magnitude of the applied load necessary to
hold it there determined by equating the disturbing effect of the end moments, acting through the buckling
deformations, to the internal (bending and torsional) resistance of the section.
The elastic critical moment for lateral -tensional buckling of a beam is given by:
cr 0.5 (4.12)
2 EI Z I wL2 GI t
2
L2 z
I EI Z
For beams with double symmetric cross-sections the elastic critical moment for lateral -tensional buckling is
given by the formula: (For other cases refer EBCS 3)
k refers to end rotation on plan; it is analogous to the ratio l/L for a compression member.
EBCS3 recommends k values of
- 0.5 for fully fixed ends,
- 0.7 for one free and one fixed end
-1.0 for two free ends.
• C1, C2, are values given in Table 4.12 and 4.13 EBCS 3 for various loading cases.
• L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraints.
. Zg = Za - Zs
Za is the co-ordinate of the point of load application
Zs is the co-ordinate of the shear center
For transverse loads applied at the shear center Z g = 0
G
• G = 81000 N/mm2 and =0.039
2E
Lateral-torsional buckling resistance
Significant differences exist between the assumptions which form the basis of the theory and the characteristics
of real beams. Since the theory assumes elastic behavior, it provides an upper bound on the true strength.
Fig. 4.6 compares a typical set of lateral -tensional buckling test data obtained using actual hot rolled sections
with the theoretical elastic critical moments given by Equation (4.12).
Use of the LT non-dimensional format in Fig 4.6 has the advantage of permitting results from
different test series (using different cross-sections and different material strengths) to be compared
directly. In Fig. 4.6 three distinct regions of behaviour can be observed:
Stocky beams which are able to attain M pl, with values of LT below about 0.4
Slender beams which fail at moments close to M cr, with values of LT above 1.2.
Beams of intermediate slenderness which fail to reach either M cr, with 0.4 < LT < 1.2.
Only in the case of beams in region 1 does lateral stability not influence design. For beams in region
2, which covers much of the practical range of beams without lateral restraint, design must be based
on considerations of inelastic buckling suitably modified to allow for geometrical imperfections,
residual stresses, etc. Thus both theory and tests must play a part, with the inherent complexity of the
problem being such that the final design rules are likely to involve some degree of empiricism.
Design Approach
In order to prevent possibility of beam failure due to lateral torsional buckling, the designer needs to
ensure that the buckling resistance, M b,Rd exceed the design moment Msd
sd b, Rd
EBCS 3 uses a reduction factor χ LT on plastic resistance moment to cover the whole slenderness range.
The design buckling resistance moment Mb,Rd of a laterally unstrained beam is calculated as:
b, RD LT wW pl, y f Y -(4.14)
1
Where fy = is the yield strength
β w= 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections
β w =Wel,y /W pl,y , for class 3 cross-sections 8
1 ----------------------------- (4.15)
LT 1
LT LT 2 LT 2 0.5
Restrained beam
Beams which are unable to move laterally are termed restrained beam. Restrained beams are unaffecte d by
lateral-torsional buckling
Beams may be considered restrained if:
Full lateral restraint is provided by embedment of the compression flange in a concrete floor slab (fig a
and b).
Lateral support at intervals (Fig c through g) provided by cross beams, cross frames, ties , or
struts , framing in laterally , where the lateral system is itself adequately stiff and braced
Concrete slab Concrete slab
(f) (Q)
EBCS 3 identifies three possible modes of failure due to loads applied to the web through a flange (Fig 4.8).
a) crushing of the web close to the flange , accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange
b) crippling of the web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the flange,
accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange
c) Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.
A distinction is also made between two types of load applications:
a) Forces applied through a flange and resisted by shear in the web (Fig 4.8 a)
b) Forces applied through one flange and transferred through the web directly to the other flange (Fig 4.8 b)
For loading type (a) the web resistance should be taken as the smaller of (1) and (2) above, i.e (1) the crushing
resistance and (2) the crippling resistance. For loading type (b) the web resistance should be taken as the
smaller of (1) and (3), i.e. (1) the crushing resistance and ( 3) the buckling resistance.
The resistance of web at points when concentrated load act (support) shall be checked against:
a) web crushing
b) web crippling
c) web buckling, by using EBCS 3 section 4.6.6
4.4.6 Deflection
Steel beams shall be proportioned that deflections are with in limits. Deflection is a serviceability
consideration; thus the service loads the unfactored load) are used to calculate the deflections. EBCS
3/EC3 recommends two limiting values for vertical deflections, 2 and max
as shown in table 4.1 and Fig. 4.9.
10
Floors generally L L
250 300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other brittle L L
Finish or non flexible partitions 250 350
Floors supporting columns(unless the deflection L L
Has been included in the global analysis for ultimate 400 500
Limit state L
250
Where max can impair the appearance of the building
Deflection formulas for some common load cases are given in Table 4.2
11
5 WL4
384 EI
1 PL3
48 EI
PL3 3a a 3
4
48EI L L
1 WL4
384 EI
1 PL3
192 EI
12
2 Pa 2 b 3
3 EI 3L 2a 2
13