SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(SELECT)

B. Tech Fall Semester 2018-2019

EEE1001 - BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

Name:

Reg. No:
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1 Thevenin’s and maximum power transfer theorems – Impedance matching of

source and load.

2 Design of Half Adder Circuits for Arithmetic Logic Unit of a Computer

System

3 Study the characteristics of PN junction diode and zener diode

4 Full wave rectifier circuit with regulated power supply using PN junction
diode and zener diode

5 Three phase power measurement for ac loads

6 Staircase wiring circuit layout for multi-storey building

7 Fabrication and testing of a PCB layout for a rectifier circuit

8 Sinusoidal steady state Response of RLC circuits used in band pass filter

9 Design of adder circuits for arithmetic logic unit of a computer system- full
adder

10 Characteristics of MOSFET

11 Lamp dimmer circuit (Darlington pair circuit using transistors) used in cars
 INDEX

S.NO. DATE NAME OF THE MARKS SIGN

EXPERIMENT
Thevenin’s and maximum power transfer theorems - Impedance matching of source
and load
Experiment no. Date:

Aim:

 To design a simplified equivalent circuit in analysing the power systems and other
circuits where the load resistor is subject to change in order to determine the
voltage across it and current through it using Thevenin’s theorem.
 To design the circuit for maximizing the power transferred from the amplifier to
the loudspeaker using maximum power transfer theorem

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Name of the Range Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Resistor 100Ω, Wire wound Each 1
560Ω,
270Ω
2 DC power supply (0-30)V RPS 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1
4 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1
5 Wires - Single strand Few nos
6 Bread board - - 1

Circuit Diagram:
Formulae:

Theory:
Any two-terminal linear network composed of voltage sources, current sources, and
resistors, can be replaced by an equivalent two-terminal network consisting of an
independent voltage source in series with a resistor as shown in Fig. 1. The value of
voltage source is equivalent to the open circuit voltage (Vth) across two terminals of the
network and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance (Rth) measured between
the terminals with all energy sources replaced by their internal resistances.
Rth

Circuit
Vth

Figure 1
Procedure:

Step 1:
Remove the load (270Ω) (the element through which the current or voltage is going to be
calculated) from the circuit and find out the open circuit voltage across the terminals. In
theoritically, the voltage can be found as follows (Figure 2)

Figure 2

Vth=VR2= =12.72V (From Voltage division rule)

Practical Circuit Diagram:

Figure 3
1. Give the connections in the breadboard as per the circuit diagram.(Figure 3)
2. Set the source voltage of 15V in the Regulated power supply.
3. Measure the thevenin’s voltage in the voltmeter.

Step 2:
For finding the thevenin’s resistance, the sources in the circuit must be removed. The
voltage sources are short circuited and the current sources are open circuited. We have to
find the looking back resistance from the open terminal.

Figure 4
Theoretically, Rth= =84.84Ω
Practical Circuit Diagram:

Figure 5
1. Give the connections in the breadboard as per the circuit diagram(Figure 5)
2. Measure the resistance across AB using multi meter.

Step 3:
After finding thevenin’s voltage and thevenin’s resistance, we can draw the thevenin’s
equivalent circuit by connecting Vth in series with Rth. (Figure 6.a)

(a) (b)
Figure 6
The load (270Ω) can be connected in series with the thevenin’s equivalent circuit.(Figure
6.b). Theoretically, we can calculate the current through the load from the thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.
Iload= =35.84mA.
Practical Circuit Diagram:

Figure 7
1. Give the connections in the breadboard as per the circuit diagram(Figure 7)
2. Measure the current through the load resistance in the Ammeter.

Step 4:

The load current can be verified using Kirchoff’s laws.

Figure 8

Total resistance = = 282.16Ω

Total current=
Current through 270Ω =
(Current Division rule)
Observation:
To verify Thevenin’s Theorem:

VTH Current through Load Resistance

S. (Rth)
Vs (V) IL(mA)
No (Ω)
(V) Thevenin’s circuit Main circuit
Theo Prac Theo Prac Theoret Practical Theoreti Practical
ical Value cal Value
Value Value

To verify Maximum power transfer theorem

Statement of the theorem:

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that maximum power is delivered from a
source to a load when the load resistance is equal to source resistance.

Figure 9
In the thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the maximum power will be delivered from source to
the load when the load resistance (RL) is equal to the thevenin’s resistance (Rth).
Circuit:

For finding the thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the steps 1 to 4 in the experiment 1.a is
repeated. Then as per the maximum power transfer theorem, maximum power will be
delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal or thevenin’s
resistance of the network.
For the given problem in experiment 1,
 Figure 10
Practical Circuit:

Figure 11
Model Graph

Figure 12

Condition for maximmun power transfer:

Maximmun power transferred:

To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

S.No RL ( Ω ) RTH ( Ω ) IL(mA) PL=IL2RL(mW)

1

Result

Thus the Thevenin’s and Maximum power transfer theorem have been verified for the
given circuit.
 Design of Half Adder Circuits for Arithmetic Logic Unit of a Computer System

Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
1) An arithmetic circuit has two selection signals, S0 and S1. After addition of the two
signals, Sum ‘S’ and Carry ‘C’ are generated. Design a half adder circuit to implement
the addition operation using Exclusive-OR and AND gates

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. AND GATE IC 7408 1
2. X-OR GATE IC 7486 1
3. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
4. PATCH CORDS -

Circuit Diagram:

Implementation of Half Adder using EX-OR and AND logic gates

Pin Details:

Formulae:

Half Adder

Theory:
Adders form a core component of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and play a major role
in calculating memory addresses, table indices etc.

a) Half Adder

A half adder is the simplest digital adder. It is combinational circuit that performs
addition of two binary digits. It takes in two input bits, A (addend) and B (augend) and
produces two output bits, the sum and the carry. The truth table for adding two binary
digits A and B is shown below:
 Truth Table for Half Adder

A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Procedure:

1. Give the connections as per the logic diagram for half adder.
2. Use RPS to provide necessary input signals ( High (5 V) or Low (0 V)).
3. Connect a LED across the output terminals (Sum and Ground or Carry and Ground).
4. Check the output (LED: either ON or OFF) for various combinations of input from
the truth table.

Observation:

Truth Table for Half Adder

A B SUM CARRY
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Result

Thus, a half adder circuit to implement addition operation using Exclusive-OR and AND
gates is designed and implemented.

Inference
 Study the characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode

Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To study the VI characteristics of PN junction and Zener diode

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Name of the Range Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Resistor 1 kΩ, carbon Each 1
470Ω
2 DC power supply (0-30)V RPS 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1
(0-1 V) MC 1
4 Ammeter (0-25)mA MC 1
(0-500 µA) MC 1
5 Diode 1N4001 1
Zener diode 1
6 Wires - Single strand Few nos
7 Bread board - - 1

Circuit Diagram:

Forward bias of PN junction diode

Reverse bias of PN junction diode

Forward bias of Zener diode

Reverse bias of Zener diode

Model Graph:

VI characteristics of PN junction diode

VI characteristics of Zener diode

Theory:

PN junction diode

A p-n junction is a piece of semiconductor material in which part of the material is p-type
and part is n-type. When a junction is formed between p-type and n-type semiconductor
materials, the resulting device is called a semiconductor diode. This component offers an
extremely low resistance to current flowing in one direction and an extremely high
resistance to current flowing in the other. Various types of diodes are available for
different applications. These include rectifier diodes for use in power supplies, zener
diodes for use as voltage reference sources, light emitting diodes etc. The connection to
the p-type material is referred to as the anode while that to the n-type material is called
the cathode. The circuit symbol of PN junction diode is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.Circuit symbol of PN junction diode

PN junction diode in forward bias

When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material positive
with respect to the n-type material, the p-n junction is forward biased. The applied
voltage opposes the contact potential, and, in effect, closes the depletion layer. Holes and
electrons can now cross the junction and current flows. An increase in the applied voltage
above that required to narrow the depletion layer (about 0.3 V for germanium and 0.7 V
for silicon), results in a rapid rise in the current flow. The voltage at which the diode
starts conducting is called knee voltage or threshold voltage or barrier cut in voltage. The
applied voltage should not be increased beyond certain safe limit; otherwise the diode is
likely to burn out.
PN junction diode in reverse bias
When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material
negative with respect to n type material, the p-n junction is reverse biased. The applied
voltage is now in the same sense as the contact potential and opposes the movement of
holes and electrons due to opening up of the depletion layer. Thus, in theory, no current
flows. However, at normal room temperature certain electrons in the covalent bond lattice
acquire sufficient energy from the heat available to leave the lattice, generating mobile
electrons and holes. This process is called electron-hole generation by thermal excitation.
The electrons in the p-type material and holes in the n-type material caused by thermal
excitation are called minority carriers and these will be attracted by the applied voltage.
Thus, in practice, a small current of a few microamperes for germanium and less than one
microampere for silicon, at normal room temperature, flows under reverse bias
conditions.
Zener diode:
Zener diodes are heavily doped silicon diodes that, unlike normal diodes, exhibit an
abrupt reverse breakdown at relatively low voltages (typically less than 6V). A similar
effect, called avalanche breakdown, occurs in less heavily doped diodes. These avalanche
diodes also exhibit a rapid breakdown with negligible current flowing below the
avalanche voltage and a relatively large current flowing once the avalanche voltage has
been reached. For avalanche diodes, this breakdown voltage usually occurs at voltages
above 6 V. In practice, however, both types of diodes are referred to as Zener diodes.
Whereas reverse breakdown is a highly undesirable effect in circuits that use
conventional diodes, it can be extremely useful in the case of Zener diodes where the
breakdown voltage is precisely known. When a zener diode is undergoing reverse
breakdown and provided its maximum ratings, the voltage appearing across it will remain
substantially constant (equal to the nominal Zener voltage) regardless of the current flow.
This property makes the Zener diode ideal for use as a voltage regulator. Under forward
bias condition, the Zener diodes behave as normal PN junction diodes. Figure 2 shows
the circuit symbol of a Zener diode.

Figure 2.Circuit symbol of a Zener diode

Procedure:

V-I characteristics of PN junction and Zener diode

Forward characteristics:

1. Construct the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the voltage in steps by using the regulated power supply and note down the
current in each step correspondingly.
3. Plot the characteristics between forward voltage and forward current showing the
turn-on voltage (cut in voltage / knee voltage) explicitly.
Reverse characteristics:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the voltage in steps by using the regulated power supply and note down the
current in each step correspondingly.
3. Plot the characteristics between reverse voltage and reverse current showing
breakdown voltage explicitly.
Observation:
Tabular column for PN junction diode:
Forward bias

Sl. No. Voltage, VF (V) Current, IF (mA)

Reverse bias

Sl. No. Voltage, VR (V) Current, IR (μA)

Tabular column for zener diode:

Forward bias

Sl. No. Voltage, VF (V) Current, IF (mA)

Reverse bias

Sl. No. Voltage, VR (V) Current, IR (μA)

Result
Full wave rectifier with regulated power supply using PN junction diode

and Zener Diode

Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To design and build a constant DC power supply for battery charging application

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Item Range Quantity

1. Transformer 230/12 V 1
2. PN junction diode 1N4002 4
3. Zener diode 1N4739 1
4. Capacitor 47μF 1
470Ω 1
5. Resistor
1 kΩ 1
6. Breadboard - 1
7. - As
Wires
required
8. CRO - 1

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Regulated Power supply:

The purpose of a power supply is to take electrical energy in one form and convert it into
another. There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high
voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and
other devices such as computers, fax machines and telecommunication equipment. A
power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. The block diagram of a regulated power supply is shown in Figure 1.
A transformer first steps down high voltage AC to low voltage AC. A rectifier circuit is
then used to convert AC to DC. This DC, however, contains ripples, which can be
smoothened by a filter circuit. Power supplies can be ‘regulated’ or ‘unregulated’. The
filtered output from the rectifier circuit can be regulated (maintained constant) with the
help of Zener regulator.

Figure 1 Block diagram of a regulated power supply

Full wave bridge rectifier

Full wave bridge rectifier uses 4 diodes connected across the secondary of the
transformer. During the positive half cycle of the AC input voltage, diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and they conduct current as shown in the Figure 2. The other two diodes
are reverse biased. The voltage developed across the load resistance will be similar to the
positive half cycle of the ac input wave.

Figure 2 Operation during positive half cycle

During the negative half cycle of the AC input voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are forward
biased and they conduct current as shown in the Figure 3. The other two diodes are
reverse biased. The current through the load resistance will be in the same direction as
during the positive half cycle. As a result of this action, a full wave rectified
(unidirectional) output voltage is developed across the load resistance and the resulting
waveform is shown in the Figure 4.

Figure 3 Operation during negative half cycle

Figure 4 Full wave rectified output voltage across the load

The output of the rectifier contains dc as well as ac component. The presence of ac

component (ripple) is undesirable and hence can be removed with a help of a capacitor
filter. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges
as it supplies current to the output. The filtered output will be as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Filtered output voltage

Zener diode as regulator

An ideal voltage regulator will maintain a constant dc output voltage regardless of

changes in either its input voltage or its load current demand. Since the reverse
breakdown voltage across a Zener diode remains constant, it can be used as a shunt
voltage regulator. Hence the voltage across the load remains constant at the Zener voltage
as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Output voltage of regulated power supply

Procedure:

Full wave Rectifier circuit:

1. Plug the transformer in to the wall socket and measure the voltage at the
secondary side of the transformer using oscilloscope.
2. Build the rectifier circuit using 4 diodes and the transformer as shown in the
circuit diagram. Connect the secondary voltage of the transformer as the AC
source for the rectifier circuit.
3. Observe and measure the load voltage VL with the help of an oscilloscope. Record
the resulting waveform.

2. Regulated Power supply circuit:

1. Add a capacitor in parallel with the load as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Observe and record the resulting waveform.
3. Record the values for maximum voltage, minimum voltage, peak to peak voltage,
and the average DC voltage.
4. To build a power supply with constant DC output voltage, the excess voltage
across the load can be limited with a Zener diode and hence connect a Zener
diode in parallel with the load resistance and observe and measure the voltage
across the load.
Observation:

Sl. No. Vm (pp) (V) T (ms) Vdc (V) Vz (V)

Result

Thus, the regulated power supply circuit was constructed using full bridge rectifier with
filter and zener diode and its working was studied.

Inference
 MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER USING TWO WATTMETER
METHOD
Experiment no. Date:

Aim:

To measure the three phase power and power factor using two wattmeter method

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Name of the Range Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Voltmeter MI (0-600)V 1
2 Ammeter MI (0-10)A 1
3 Wattmeter 600V,10A,UPF 2
4 Three phase resistive load 1
5 Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram:

Formulae

1. Power P = W1+ W2
  P  P 
2. Power factor = cos  = cos tan
1
3  1 2 
  P1  P2 
 Theory:
There are different methods to measure three-phase power. They are one wattmeter
method, two-wattmeter method, three-wattmeter method & also using three-phase
wattmeter. Reactive power can be measured by using varmeter (volt ampere reactive
meter).

Procedure:

The staircase light wiring is shown in the Fig.1.

1. Give the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the three-phase supply and adjust the auto transformer to obtain the
rated voltage.
3. Note down the readings at no load conditions.
4. Switch on the resistive load.
5. Note down the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter reading for a particular load.
6. Tabulate the readings and calculate the real power.
7. Calculate power factor

Observation:
Power Power Power Power W2 Real
S. Voltage Current p.f.
W1 (W W1 X W2 X M.F(W) Power p.f.
No. V (V) I (A) angle
M.F(W) (W) (W1+W2)
(W)

=Multiplication factor

Result
The three phase power is measured by two wattmeter method and power factor is
calculated.
 STAIRCASE WIRING
Experiment no. Date:

Aim:

To control a bulb from two different places by using two, 2-way switches

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Name of the Range Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Bulb 40 W - 1
2 Switches - 2-way 2
3 Clamps - - 5
4 PVC pipes - - 4
5 Wires - multi strand Few nos
6 Tester - - 1

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
One light point is to be controlled by two switches placed at two different places so that
the light can be switched ON and OFF by either switch. This type of control of lamps is
often used in staircase lighting, where it is necessary that the person going up the stairs
should be able to switch ON and after reaching upstairs should be able to switch OFF the
lamp.

Procedure:

The staircase light wiring is shown in the Fig.1.

 Two numbers of two way switches are used for staircase light wiring.
 Two-way Switches have a central terminal.
 Central terminal of the first switch is connected to the upper terminal of the
second switch.
 Similarly, the central terminal of second switch is connected to the lower terminal
of the first switch.
 When the switch 1 is in ON condition and the switch 2 is in OFF condition, the
lamp will not glow and vice-versa.
 When both the switches are either ON or OFF, the lamp will glow.
 Therefore, the lamp is controlled from two different switches.

Observation:

Sl. No. Switch 1 Position Switch 2 position Lamp condition

1 1 2
2 1 2’
3 1’ 2
4 1’ 2’

Result
The stair case wiring circuit is assembled and verified.

Pre lab Questions:

1. List the factors while doing stair case wiring.
2. What is mean by two way switch?
3. Mention the use of Stair case wiring.
4. What is mean by two way switch?
Post lab Questions:
1. Mention the necessity of stair case wiring.
2. List some of the manufactures of switches.
3. List some of the types of lamps which are suitable for domestic purposes.
4. Write the ratings of incandescent lamp.
5. What is the acronym of CFL
6. Write the ratings of CFL lamp.
7. Suggest the energy efficient lamp for domestic purpose.
 EXPERIMENT 4

Fabrication and testing a Printed Circuit Board for a rectifier circuit

Objective:
To fabricate and test a PCB for a rectifier circuit
Software Required:
Any software used for PCB design. Example: Cadence – OrCad, Express PCB.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
At first, the diagram given below is drawn using ExpressPCB software.
A. Procedure to draw the PCB layout in ExpressPCB:
1. Open a new file in ExpressPCB.
2. Go to view and then options to fix the measurement system either inches or mm. For
this project all the measurements are in mm.
3. Then go to Layout and then Board Properties to select the no of layers. For this case,
2 layers option is selected.
4. Then fix the board size by selecting the locus of right hand bottom corner point. Here
the size is 85mmX50mm. That means x = 85mm, y= 50mm.
5. Then select the option place a trace, which is available in the left corner of the
window. The width of the selected trace is 3.05mm. The drop and down button is
available on the top to select the width of the trace. The current carrying capacity of the
board is proportional to the width of the trace. To know the current carrying capacity of
the traces go to http://www.expresspcb.com/tips-for-designing-pcbs/
6. Place the traces as per the diagram.
7. Go to the component option, then component manager and then Connector - Wire
connection (0.052 inch hole) to select the wire connectors for placing 4 nos. of diodes.
For this layout, 8 nos. of connectors are required which is marked as W in the above
diagram.
8. Go to the option Place a pad (through hole or surface mount) to place holes for
input and output banana connectors. After selecting this option one drop and down button
will appear on the top of the window. From that button select 7.62mm round pad with
4.24mm hole.
10. Go to Place a circle or arc option to place arcs at the corners of the circuit in order to
ensure the connectivity at corners. However this step is optional.
9. Then save the file with an extension of .pcb.
Link for free download of ExpressPCB: http://www.expresspcb.com/
B. Procedure to prepare Printed Circuit Board using wet process:
I. Coating of liquid photo resist on PCB using Photo Resist Dip Coating Machine
(PRDC)
A. Take a board of specific size from the laboratory store.
B. Ensure the work area is a yellow room and the tank of PRDC machine has been filled
with liquid photoresist.
C. Clamp PCB firmly on hanger provided.
D. Ensure machine is plugged in. Switch on DOWN movement switch. The motor will
come on and the PCB will be lowered into the uncovered Resist tank.
E. When the board reaches to the bottom, the limit switch will stop downward movement.
Switch on the UP movement switch after few minute and bring the PCB back up to the
starting mark.
F. After excess photoresist drips off, unclamp board for further processing.
Caution
Clamp the PCB firmly on the hanger.
II. Curing wet Photoresist on PCB using PCB curing (Oven) Machine
A. Clamp the PCB to the oven lid firmly, lower in to protocure chamber, so that it sits
firmly.
B. Switch ON the protocure mains and see that the mains indicating lamp (Red colour)
glows and air circulating fan starts.
C. Switch ON the temperature switch (Yellow) for the heater to switch ON.
D. The thermostat is preset (normally 200-2500C).
E. Depending on the time required (4-5 min) in the chamber set the timer rotary switch to
ON position.
F. On completion of the time, the timer will switch off and remove the PCB carefully.
III. Exposure of PCB in to Double sided U.V Exposure
A. Unclamp and lift lids unlatch and lift the top glass slowly and lock at rest position.
B. Put the stainless steel ‘C’ type stand in side. Ensure glass is clean, before setting the
PCB and phototool (Film negative for transfer) aligned and as much to the centre of the
glass as possible. Place film firmly and aligned with the PCB. Bring down the top glass
over the PCB and lock.
C. Start power switch ON to start the unit.
D. Select the change over switch for top or both (preferably both) to start the top tube or
both U.V. tubes.
E. Set the process timer knob from 0 to 10 min (generally set 3-5 min).
F. The timer will automatically count down to 0. After time has lapsed the U.V. lights
will automatically switched off.
G. Unclamp the lid and remove PCB for further processing. Keep film in a clean paper
for further processing.
Caution
Keep the glass clean for clear image transfer.
IV. Washing of PCB with LPR developer
A. Keep the developer liquid in a pot and keep the PCB inside the liquid for 3-5min.
B. Then wash the PCB in water for 2-3 min.
C. Apply LPR dry blue on to the PCB and keep for 2-3 min.
D. Wash the PCB again using water.
Caution
LPR developer solution is evaporating in nature, so keep the jar closed always.
Don’t touch the dry blue with bare hands.
V. Etching Process
A. Clam the PCB onto the jig connected to the lid of the machine. Once it is securely
clamped, lower the tank, so that lid fits properly.
VI. Drilling in to PCB
A. Select proper drill bit to make hole on the PCB.
B. Switch on the drill machine and adjust the knob position to desired r.p.m.
C. Fabrication of the components on to the PCB
I. Fabricate the components on the PCB using soldering rod and wire.
D. Testing of PCB
I. Connect the input with a 230/12 volts transformer.
II. Check the output voltage in oscilloscope.
III. Store the graphs with the average and rms values of input and output.

Results and Analysis:

Compare the experimental results with the theoretical results.
 Sinusoidal steady state response of RLC circuit used in a band pass filter

Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To study the sinusoidal steady state response of the given RLC circuit which can
be used in a band pass filter.

Apparatus Required:
LTspice software

Circuit Diagram:

Formulae:

Theory:

When resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series across a voltage supply, the
circuit so obtained is called series RLC circuit. In case of resistor, the voltage and the
current are in same phase or we can say that the phase angle difference between voltage
and current is zero. In inductor, the voltage and the current are not in phase. The voltage
leads that of current by 90° or in the other words, voltage attains its maximum and zero
value 90° before the current attains it. In case of capacitor, the current leads the voltage
by 90° or in the other words, voltage attains its maximum and zero value 0° after the
current attains it i.e the phasor diagram of capacitor is exactly opposite of inductor.
Procedure:

1. Open a new schematic in LTspice and select the components and give the
connections as per the circuit diagram as shown below.

2. Change the component values as per the requirement

3. Go to simulate tab and click on “edit simulation command” and choose
“AC analysis” as shown below.
4. Then, run the simulation and note the magnitude and phase angle of
current. Check the observed values with the theoretical values.

5. Change the simulation settings to “Transient”

 6. Again run the simulation and visualize the waveforms by keeping a
voltage probe at source terminal and current probe over the components.

7. Check whether current leads or lags the voltage as per the nature of the
given circuit.
Observation:

S.NO Parameter Theoretical value Observed value

1. Current
(magnitude)
2. Phase angle

Results and inference

 Design of Adder Circuits for Arithmetic Logic Unit of a Computer System using
Software

Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To design a half adder and full adder digital circuit and verify the truth table using LT-
spice software

Problem Statement

1) An arithmetic circuit has two selection signals, S0 and S1. After addition of the two
signals, Sum ‘S’ and Carry ‘C’ are generated. Design a half adder circuit to implement
the addition operation using Exclusive-OR and AND gates.
2) An arithmetic circuit has two input signals A, B and a third carry-in bit Cin. The circuit
is required to output the Sum ‘S’ and carry-out bit ‘Cout’. Design the ALU circuit with a
1-bit full adder using Exclusive-OR, OR and AND gates.

Apparatus Required:
LT-spice software

Circuit Diagram:

Implementation of Half Adder using EX-OR and AND logic gates

XOR
A 1

2
3
Sum
B
7486

AND
12

13
11
Carry
7408
Implementation of Full Adder using EX-OR, OR and logic gates

Formulae:

Half Adder

Full Adder

Theory:
Adders form a core component of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and play a major role
in calculating memory addresses, table indices etc.

a) Half Adder

A half adder is the simplest digital adder. It is combinational circuit that performs
addition of two binary digits. It takes in two input bits, A (addend) and B (augend) and
produces two output bits, the sum and the carry. The truth table for adding two binary
digits A and B is shown below:

Truth Table for Half Adder

A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
b) Full Adder

A half adder lacks provision for carries from preceding bits. Full adders for binary
numbers receive carries as well as the added and augend as inputs. The Full adder takes
in three input bits, an addend (A), an augend (B) and carry input (Cin) generated by the
previous stage addition. It has two outputs, sum (S) and carry out (Cout). The truth table
for full adder is shown below:

Truth Table for Full Adder

Cin A B S Cout
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Procedure:

1) Open LTspice. Go to File – New Schematic.

2) On the File Menu, click on Edit – Component.

3) Place XOR gate, AND gate, two resistors and ground on to schematic.
4) Place two voltage sources for the two inputs on the schematic.

5) Make necessary connections as per the circuit diagram. The first resistance is
connected to the XOR output. The second resistance is connected to the AND gate
output. Common terminal of both resistances are to be grounded. Voltage source 1 –
positive terminal acts as 1st input, the other terminal is to be grounded; Voltage source 2 –
positive terminal acts as 2nd input, the other terminal is to be grounded.
6) Right click on the resistance and change its value to 440Ω. Repeat the step for the
other resistance also.

7) Provide input to the XOR gate. Right click on the first voltage source. Select PULSE
(V1 V2 Tdelay Trise Tfall Ton Period Ncycles). Set the values as (0, 1, 0, 1ns, 1ns,
1ms, 2 ms).
8) Provide input to the AND gate. Right click on the first voltage source. Select PULSE
(V1 V2 Tdelay Trise Tfall Ton Period Ncycles). Set the values as (0, 1, 0, 1ns, 1ns,
2ms, 4 ms).
9) Go to Edit – SPICE analysis. Set the stop time to 4 ms.

10) Run the simulation (run symbol on menu bar).

11) To view the results, right click – Add Plot Pane (add 4 plot panes to view the two
inputs, sum and carry). For each pane, right click – Add Trace – Select V(<<respective
node>>).
(nodes correspond to input 1, input 2, sum and carry)
12) Observe the waveforms and verify the truth table.

Note: For a full adder, select OR gate along with XOR and AND gates. 3 voltage sources
needs to be provided for the 3 inputs and the third input can be set as (0, 1, 0, 1ns, 1ns, 4
ms, 8 ms) and set stop time to 8 ms.
Repeat the procedure from 1 to 12 for full adder circuit for the given circuit.

Observation:

Result
 Characteristics of MOSFET
Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To study the characteristics of MOSFET

Apparatus Required:

LTspice software
Circuit Diagram:

Figure 1.
Procedure:

8. Open a new schematic in LTspice and select the components and give the
connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure 1.
9. Change the component values as per the requirement
10. Go to simulate tab and click on “edit simulation command” and choose
“DC sweep” as shown below.

11. Then, running the simulation will give us the Mosfet characteristics as
given in figure 3.
 Figure 3.

Result

Thus the characteristics of MOSFET has been studied

 LIGHT DIMMER CIRCUIT
Experiment no. Date:

Aim:
To study the characteristics of transistor by designing a lamp dimmer circuit using
Darlington pair

Apparatus Required:
LT-spice software

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Transistors are an essential component in a sensor circuit. Usually transistors are

arranged as a pair, known as a ‘DARLINGTON PAIR’. It is very important that you can
identify this arrangement of transistors and state clearly why they are used. A darlington
pair is used to amplify weak signals so that they can be clearly detected by another
circuit.

A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a high current gain (approximately
the product of the gains of the two transistors). In fact, integrated devices have three leads
(B, C and E), broadly equivalent to those of a standard transistor.

A general relation between the compound current gain and the individual gains is given
by:
If β1 and β2 are high enough (hundreds), this relation can be approximated with:

Procedure:

1. Open LTspice.

2. Open a new file – File, New Schematic.

3. Get the components for resistors, capacitors, on the top toolbar. For Transistors
and voltage source other components (as well as the aforementioned ones) click.
A new window will appear. This gives access to a huge library of pre‐defined
components.
4. Once place the components then connect all the components through wires.
5. Then click simulate, edit simulation cmd

Click transient, set the stop time as 10ms. Then click ok.
6. Click simulate then run
 7. Click the mouse on R3 will get the current through the resistor R3.

8. Click the mouse across R3 will get the voltage across the resistor R3

9. Change the value of R5 will get the variation in R3. R3is used as light. R5 is used as
LDR. This process is repeat to get various response of R3.

Observation:

Result:

The characteristics of transistor are studied by designing a lamp dimmer circuit using
Darlington pair.

Inference: