Linear Algebra

Orthogonality
 The Inner Product
• If u and v are vectors in , then we regard u and v as matrices.
• The transpose is a matrix, and the matrix product 𝑻 is a 1 × 1 matrix,
which we write as a single real number (a scalar) without brackets.
• The number is called the inner product of u and v, and often it is written as
.
• This inner product, is also referred to as a dot product. if

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properties of the inner product

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• The Length of a Vector
• If v is in , with entries , then the square root of is
defined because is nonnegative.

A vector whose length is 1 is called a unit vector.

If we divide a nonzero vector v by its length—that is, multiply by — we obtain a unit
vector u
The process of creating u from v is sometimes called normalizing v, and we say that u is in
the same direction as v.

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• Distance in
• Recall that if a and b are real numbers, the distance on the number line between a and b
is the number .

Definition

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 • EXAMPLE Compute the distance between the vectors and
• Solution : Calculate

When the vector is added to , the result is . Notice that the parallelogram in the figure
shows that the distance from to is the same as the distance from to 0.

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• EXAMPLE
• if and , then

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• Orthogonal Vectors
• Definition:

Observe that the zero vector is orthogonal to every vector in because for all .

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• Orthogonal Complements

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Theorem

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• Orthogonal Sets

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• A set of vectors is said to be an orthonormal set if it is an orthogonal set
and if each vector in the set is a unit vector.
• Example

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Theorem if 1 2 𝑝 is an orthonormal set of nonzero vectors in
𝑛 , then is is
linearly independent and hence is a basis for the subspace spanned by .

Definition:
An orthogonal basis for a subspace of 𝑛 is a basis for that is also an orthogonal set.

Theorem

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• Example
• Let is an orthonormal set of nonzero vectors in

Express the vector

as a linear combination of the vectors in S.

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• Coordinates in an Orthonormal Basis
• let be any vector in and suppose we want to find the coordinates of in the basis ,

By definition, the coordinates satisfy the equation

• Taking the inner product of with both sides of the above equation and using the fact that
, , and , we obtain
•
• where is a unit vector. Thus
• Repeating this procedure with , , …., we obtain the remaining coefficients , . . . , :

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• computing coordinates with respect to an orthonormal basis can be done without
performing any row operations and all we need to do is compute inner products.

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• Example: consider the vectors

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