CHAPTER 10

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Pressure

If F is the magnitude of the normal force acting on a body of area A then the average pressure Pav is
defined as the normal force acting per unit area.

Pay F/A
In a limiting sense, pressure is defined as
Lat
ΔΕ

P = AADO
AADO AA
2

It is a scalar quantity, because it is the component of the force normal to the area under consideration and
not the vector force that appears in the numerator of equations and 2. The SI unit of pressure is Nm2.
Its dimensions are ML-1T-2.

Pascal's law

In an enclosed fluid, if an increased pressure is produced in any part of the fluid, if an increased
pressure is produced in any part of the fluid, then this change of pressure is transmitted undiminished to
all other parts of the fluid.

Proof of Pascal's law (p248)

Applications of Pascal's law

Hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes are based on the Pascal's law. In these devices fluids are used for transmitting
pressure.
1. Hydraulic lift
In a hydraulic lift, there are two pistons separated by the space filled with a liquid as in the following fig.
A piston of small cross section A1 is used to exert a force F1 directly on the liquid. The

A, <
F
→heary load
 A2

pressure P = F1/A, is transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger cylinder attached with a
larger piston of area Ag, which results in an upward force P X A2. Since A2> A1, F2> F1. Therefore
the piston is capable of supporting a large force, (ie) large weight like a car or a truck placed on the
platform, given by

F2 = PA2=
F A,
A2
A2 A1
By changing the force at A1, the platform can be moved up or down. Thus the applied force has
been increased by a factor A2/A1 and this factor is the mechanical advantage of the device.

2. Hydraulic brake
In a hydraulic brake when we apply a little force on the pedal with our foot the master piston moves
inside the master cylinder and the pressure caused is transmitted through the brake oil to act on a

1
FOOT PEDAL

TO OTHER PIPE LINE R

LIQUID
PISTON A
WHEEL

PISTON B
PISTON B, MASTER CYLINDER
P

WHEEL CYLINDER Q
BRAKE
SHOE
BRAKE SHOE

SPRING

HINGE
RIM OF WHEEL

piston of larger area. A large force acts on the piston and is pushed down expanding the brake shoes against
brake lining. In this way a small force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on the wheel. The
pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted equally to all cylinders attached to the four wheels so that
the braking effort is equal on all wheels, which is an important advantage of the system.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a fluid at rest in a container as in the following fig. The pressures at points C and D are P1 and
P2 respectively. Consider a cylindrical element of fluid having area of base A and height h.

‫کا‬

area - A
mg

If 'p' is the density of the fluid, then the mass of the cylindrical element of the fluid is given by
m = pV=p Ah (V=Ah)
As the fluid is at rest the resultant horizontal forces should be zero and the resultant vertical forces should balance the weight
of the element.
The downward force acting at the top of the cylindrical element due to the liquid lying above the cylinder
= PIA
The upward force acting at the bottom of the cylinder due to liquid lying below the cylinder - P2 A If
mg is the weight of the fluid in the cylinder, then

P2A - PIA = mg

(or) (P2-P1) A= mg
Substituting m from in
(P2 - P1) A= p Ahg
2

(ie) P2 - P1
=

pgh
33

Thus the pressure difference depends on the vertical distance between the points C and D, density of the fluid
and acceleration due to gravity.
Special case:
1. If the point C is shifted to the top of the fluid, which is open to the atmosphere, then P1
can be replaced by the atmospheric pressure P and P2 by P... eqn. becomes
 2
P=Pa+pgh
70

Thus the pressure P at depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater than
atmospheric pressure by an amount p gh. The excess pressure P - Pa at depth h is called gauge
pressure at that point.
2. In the absence of gravity,
(or)
1=

P2 - P1 = 0, (from eqn.3)
P2 = P1
3. When C and D are at the same level, h = 0, P2 = P1 (using eqn.3)

Atmospheric pressure
The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a column of air of unit cross
sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere.
At sea level it is 1.013 X 10 Pa (1 atm).

Toricelli devised an instrument known as barometer to measure atmospheric pressure. [Types

of barometers - Refer page 250]

Pa
h

I
Torricellian
vacuum

Pa
h=76em

-> mercury

1 atm
=

pressure exerted by 0.76m of mercury column

= 0.76 X 13.6 X 103 X 9.8
= 1.013 X 105 Nm2 (or) Pa
1 torr = pressure exerted by 1mm mercury column = 133 Pa
 1 bar = 105 Pa

Fluids in motion
The study of fluids in motion is known as fluid dynamics.

Stream line and turbulent flow

The flow of the fluid is said to be steady if at any given point, the velocity of each passing fluid
remains constant in time. The path taken by the fluid particle under a steady flow is a streamline. It is
also called as laminar flow. It is defined as a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid
velocity at that point.

>

外
外
Steady flow is achieved at low speeds. Beyond a limiting value called critical speed, the
flow becomes turbulent.
[Give the difference between streamline flow and turbulent flow.]
Reynold's number (Re): Reynold defined a dimensionless number, whose value gives an
approximate idea whether the flow would be turbulent or streamline. It is given by
Pvd
Re
m
n
Where p is the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v and η is the viscosity of the fluid. The flow is
streamline when Re is less than 1000. It is turbulent for Re> 2000. The flow becomes unsteady for R. between
1000 and 2000. d
Re can also be written as

Re

=
=

POZ
(mold)
is
 the diameter

PAUZ
(MAU/d)
inertial force / force of viscosity

Applications of Reynold's number

of the liebe
/pipe.

1. Racing cars and planes are engineered to precision in order to minimise turbulence.
2. The blades of a kitchen mixer induce turbulent flow and provide thick milk shakes well as
well as beat eggs into a uniform texture.

Equation of continuity
Consider a steady streamline motion of an incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe AB of
varying cross sections. Let al and a2 be the area of cross section of the ends A and B with the velocities of
flow of fluid v1 and v2 respectively. Let p1 and p2 be the density of the fluid at the ends A and B
respectively.
= aj vi

= ai vipi =a2V2P2
Volume of the fluid entering per second into A .`.Mass of the fluid entering per second into A .. Mass of the
fluid leaving per second into A If there is no source or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe,
the mass of the fluid flowing across any cross section of the pipe per second must be the
same. . . From eqns. D and 2
=

..a vipi a2 V2P2

Since the fluid is incompressible p1 = p2 = p
=

a1 Vi pa2 V2 P V1
.. Eqn 3 becomes
(or)
a1 Vi =a2 V2
a
012
 B
gr

av = constant
5
A
The above equation is called equation of continuity.
From eqn 5
aαI
V

which shows that the speed of flow of fluid will be more across narrower cross section and speed of
flow will be less across the broader cross section. Thus same mass of fluid is transported per unit time across
every cross section.
Bernoulli's principle
It states that the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit mass of
an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in a steady flow through pipe remains constant throughout the flow,
provided there is no source or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe.
(ie) for unit mass of fluid flowing through a pipe,
P

옴 + gh+10
=

constant-

P1
Consider an incompressible fluid moving in a pipe of varying cross sectional area in a steady
flow. Let the pipe be at varying heights as shown in the following fig.
YV2AL-
a1
hi
h2
2
a

Let the cross sectional area be a, and a2 at heights h, and h2 from a reference level, across which the velocities of
flow be v1 and v2 respectively.
If 'm' is the mass of the fluid crossing any cross section of the pipe and p is the density of the fluid, then
according to equation of continuity,

(or) a1 V1 =a2 V2 = m/p

Vi
V2
=

aj Vi pa2 V2 p = m

Let P1 and P2 are the pressures at the end A and B respectively. According to conservation of energy
work done by the pressure energy of the fluid must appear as the increase in potential and kinetic energies
of the fluid.
In an infinitesimal time At, the distance covered from A to C would be, v1 At. Similarly the distance covered for
the same interval from D to B would be v2At.
Work done on the fluid at A = P1aj v1 At
Work done by the fluid at B = P2a2 v2 At
Net work done by the pressure energy in moving the fluid from A to B in one second

From eqn.(2)
=Piai Vì
P2a2 v2

21V1
=a2 V2= m/p
... Net work done by the pressure energy per second
P, m P
P2 m P
M
 = (P1
(P1 - P2)
mp
P
3

When the mass' m'of the fluid flows in one second from A to B, its height increases from h1 to h2. ...
increase in potential energy of the fluid/sec = mgh2 - mgh1
= mg (h2-h1)
4

When the mass m of the fluid move from A to B, its velocity increases from v1 to V2. .. Increase in
kinetic energy of the liquid/sec
=P
M
V.
2

2
2

1m
(1,22_19,2)
2

According to work -energy theorem, work done by the pressure energy/sec =

increase in P.E/sec + increase in K.E./sec
:. Using eqns. 3, 4 and 5
(P1 -P2).
bh
kg
[h2-h1) + = m (u22 -
49, 2)
P
P
P
2
 gh2-gh, + Iv2 I u2
‫واته‬
v
2

+ ghit = 1,2 = 1/2 + ghz +

+12-
P
2

R
(or)
+
2

gh+ = 12 = constant-
2
7

It proves Bernoulli's principle.

Special case:
Case 1: For a horizontal flow of an ideal fluid, through a pipe of varying cross sections
h1 = h2 = h

Equation becomes P1+ + PU2 = P2 + +

PU 2
Since v > v., P1 > P2
2
1

P+ PLZ
2

ри

constant
(ie) when the velocity of the flow of fluid is more, the pressure will be less and when the velocity of
flow of fluid is less, the pressure will be more.
Case 2: When the fluid is at rest V1 = V2=0
Equation becomes

P1 + +
Pgh,
=1

P2 + P g
hz
2

P2 - P1
=

Pg (h1-ha)
Limitations of Bernoullis's principle
1. It is applicable only to incompressible fluids.
2. It is applicable only to non-viscous fluids. Otherwise there will be loss of energy due to
viscous forces. This reduces kinetic energy which gets converted into heat energy.
3. It can't be applied to non-steady and turbulent flow of a fluid.

Applications of Bernoulli's principle

1. Torricelli's law
It states the speed of efflux of a liquid through an orifice of an open tank is equal to that of a freely falling
body.
(ie) v=gh
P2 = P

y, h
A1

Pa
 Consider a tank containing a liquid of density p with a small hole in its side at a height y, from the
bottom. The air above the liquid, whose surface is at height y2, is at pressure P.
From the equation of continuity,
A, U1 = A2 U2
If A2>> A1, liquid can be considered to be at rest at top.
.. V2 = 0
Applying Bernoulli's principle at points (1) and (2
2

6
SWIRA

P1 + Pgy, + + PU2 = P2+ Pg y2 +

+ po
(from2 v20)
2

раз
Y
2

Pa + Pgy, + = P112 = P + Pg Y2 C.: P1 =

Pa ¿P2 = ?)
 Le 2

(or)
2
11

=
+ PU" (P- P2) + Pg
(42-41)
= (P_Pa) + Pgh (1:42-
Y1 =h)
2 P- Pa
P
+2

я дв
2gh + 2 (P-Pa)
+
P

gh
3

When P>>Pa and 2gh may be ignored. The speed of efflux is determined by the
container pressure. Such situation occurs is rocket propulsion.
If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa and from eqn.(3

11 =√2gh
4
This is the speed of the freely falling body. Eqn.is known as Torricelli's law.

2. Venturi - meter
The Venturi - meter is a device to measure the flow speed of incompressible fluid. It consists of a
tube with a broad diameter and a small constriction at the middle as shown in the fig.

P
a

P1
‫وا‬

h
P
P2

A manometer in the form of a U-tube is attached to it, with one arm at the broad neck point of the tube and the
other at constriction as in the above fig. The manometer contains a liquid of density Pm- The speed v1
of the liquid flowing through the tube at the broad neck area A is to be measured from equation of
continuity.
From equation of continuity
AV
av

Using Bernoulli's theorem

8
P182
P
2

From 1

.. eqn.becomes
 रुब
A vi
a

P1 + + PU2 = P2 + +
P(A) 2 19, 2
(or)
P,
P1 - P2
=
2
2

pu

=P12 [[(A)2 -
1] 〔プロ
This pressure difference causes the fluid in U tube connected at the narrow neck to rise in
comparison to the other arm. The difference in height measures the pressure difference.

.. From 3

Pm gh
(or)
1७
2

P1 - P12
..Speed of fluid at wide neck is given by

Pm gh
2
2

= P112 [(A)2 -
1]
2 Pm gh
(^)
P

-1/2
2

Vi
2 Pm gh
P
3
Applications of venture-
meter
i) Filter pumps or aspirators, Bunsen burner, atomisers and sprayers used for perfumes or to
spray insecticides work on the same principle.
ii) The carburettor of automobile has a Venturi channel through which air flows with a large
speed. The pressure is then lowered at the narrow neck and the petrol is sucked up in the
chamber to provide the correct mixture of air to fuel necessary for combustion.

3. Blood flow and heart attack 4. Dynamic lift - refer p257 and p258

Viscosity
The property of liquids by virtue of which an internal resistance or friction comes into play when
liquid is in motion is called viscosity.
Viscous force

Whenever there is relative motion between various layers of the liquid, there will be an internal force of fluid
friction which opposes the relative motion between the layers. This internal force of friction is called viscous
force.

Consider a fluid enclosed between two glass plates as shown in the fig. The bottom plate is
fixed while the top plate is moved with a constant velocity v relative to the fixed plate.
B
E
14
Δη
F
F
Ακαθ. ΔΕ
l

A
D
8
The velocities of layers increase uniformly from bottom layer with zero velocity to the top layer with
velocity v. For any layer of liquid, its upper layer pulls it backward. This results in force between the
layers and is called viscous force. This type of flow is known as laminar.

Due to this motion, a portion of liquid which at some instant has the shape ABCD, take the shape of AEFD
after short interval of time At. The shearing strain during the time interval is Ax /1. Since the strain
increases with time in a flowing fluid, the stress depends on the rate of change of strain. Thus
coefficient of viscosity is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to strain rate.

(‫)ف‬
M
=

F/A An/st. I
F/A oye
Fl
VA
The S.I. unit of viscosity is poiseiulle(Pl). Its other units are Nsm2 or Pa s. The dimensions
of viscosity are MLT. The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature while it increases in the case
of gases.

Stokes' law
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the layer of the fluid in contact with it. A relative
motion between the different layers of the fluid is set and as a result the body experiences a retarding
force called viscous force. This viscous is force(F) is proportional to the velocity(v) of the object and is
opposite to the direction of motion. It also depends of the coefficient of viscosity(n) of the fluid and
radius (a) of the sphere.

(or)
(ie)
Fanav

F = 611 na v

The above equation is called Stokes' law.

[Derive the expression for the viscous force acting on a small solid sphere of radius 'a' moving
with a velocity 'v' through a long column of highly viscous liquid of viscosity 'n', by dimensional
method.]

Terminal velocity
Consider a spherical body of mass 'm' and radius 'a', falls through a viscous medium. Let p be the
density of material of the body and o the density of the viscous medium.
 P
F= 6πTmav

mg = — π
a3pg
4π

As the body falls through the liquid, the following forces act on it.
1. Weight of the body acting vertically downwards.

mg
You
-II a pg
a3pg
>0

9
2. Upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displace acting vertically upwards

U=II a3o g
3. The viscous force acting vertically upwards in a direction opposite to the motion of the body.
F=6II nav
At equilibrium the upward force = downward force
:. From 1,2 and 3

A π a3
Pg
3
->
 6πmav + #павод
= = = π as (P - o )
g = 3/6 πm d

(or)
ато

=n
=

2a2 (P_σ) g.
4

2a2 (P_σ)g
93

The above equation gives the expression for terminal velocity. If p >>o, o can be neglected. ..
Eqn. 4 becomes
v
1=

2a2Pg
97

(e) v. & a2
L
vx1

If p> σ, v is positive, the body attains terminal velocity in the downward direction. If p<o, v is
negative, the body will move in the upward direction. This is the reason for air bubble in a
liquid and clouds in the sky to move in the upward direction.

Poiseuilli's formula for the flow of liquid through capillary tube

Where
V
про
4

V-Volume of the liquid flowing per second P-

Pressure difference of the liquid at the ends
r - radius of the tube

1- length of the tube

n - Co-efficient of viscosity
η

Surface Tension
It is the phenomenon by which the surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane, as if it
is under tension.

If an imaginary line is drawn on the surface of the liquid, the surface

tension is measured as the force per unit length acting on an imaginary
line drawn on the surface of the liquid which is in a state of equilibrium.
The direction of the force will be tangential to the surface on either side and
perpendicular to the imaginary line.

(ie)

T = F/l
Molecular force
The maximum distance up to which a molecule can attract some other molecule is called range of
molecular force. The sphere drawn with the molecule at the centre and the range of molecular force
as its radius is called sphere of influence.
Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of same
substance.
Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances.
Eg. Force of attraction between i) paper and gum molecules ii) paint and wood/wall iii) cement
and bricks.

Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory

P
 Q

surface film

Consider a molecule P lying well within a liquid kept in a container. This molecule will be
experience force of attraction by all molecules lying within the sphere of influence. Thus the net
cohesive force acting on P is zero.
Now consider another molecule Q lying on the surface of the liquid, (ie) on the surface film. Inward
pull acting on Q is more. So it is subjected to net downward force.
(ie) To take a molecule into the surface film anywhere below it, some work is to be done against
the downward force of cohesion. This work done appears as additional potential energy of the
molecule. Thus all the molecules in the surface film possess additional potential energy which shows
that the surface film has additional potential energy. The greater is the number of molecules in the
surface film, the larger is the additional potential energy of the surface film.

Every system in a state of stable equilibrium has minimum potential energy. In order to attain the
stable equilibrium, the surface of the film tends to have minimum additional potential energy, which
will be so, if number of molecules in the surface film, are minimum. In trying to acquire least area the
surface tends to contract and behaves as a stretched membrane. Since for a given volume, surface are of a
sphere is minimum, the free surface of a liquid at rest tries to assume a spherical shape.
Relation between surface energy and surface tension
The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called the surface energy. It can also be
defined as the amount of work done in increasing the area of the surface of the film through unit.
Thus surface energy
Work done in increasing the surface area
Increase in surface area

Consider a rectangular liquid film ending in bar free to slide over parallel guides.

Txal
D

F=Tx2l
-A
B
M
MI
 Suppose we move the bar by a small distance d. Since the area of the surfaces increases, the
system has more energy. (ie) Work has been against the internal force. If F is the internal force and T is
surface tension per unit length then
T

A film has 2 sides and there are two surfaces. The work done in stretching the film is given by,

By definition,
W=F. d = T22 d

Work done in increasing the surface area

surface energy

T21d

21d
Increase in surface area

(or)
T= surface energy
(ie) Surface tension of a liquid is numerically equal to its surface energy...
Surface energy reduces, if the molecules of the materials attract each other and increase if they
repel each other.

[Measuring surface tension - p263]

Pressure difference across a curved liquid

surface
i)
When the surface of the liquid is concave, then due to surface tension, the molecule M will
experience a net outward force normal to the surface as in fig. 1. The liquid molecule will
remain in equilibrium, if the pressure on the concave side is more.

Fig. 1

T
'R M
 Fig. 2
M
T

Fig. 3

M
T

T-
R

ii) When the surface is convex, then due to surface tension the molecule M will experience a net inward
force normal to the surface. The liquid molecule will be in equilibrium if the pressure on concave
side is more.(fig.2)
iii) When the surface is plane, the molecule M is pulled equally in all directions and the liquid
molecules experience no net inward or outward force. (ie) there is no extra pressure on the two
sides of a plane liquid surface due to surface tension. (Fig. 3)
Thus a curve surface will be in equilibrium, only if there is an excess of pressure on the concave side of the
curved surface.

Excess of pressure
i) inside a liquid drop
Consider spherical liquid drop of radius R. Let T be the surface tension of the liquid, p; the
pressure inside the liquid drop and po the pressure outside the liquid drop. Due to the spherical
nature of the drop [(ie) due to the convex shape], the pressure inside the liquid drop will be more
than the pressure outside. Due to this excess pressure there will be an increase in its radius and let the new
radius be R + AR.

12
Excess of pressure inside a liquid drop = Pi - Po.
Due to this excess pressure let the increase in radius is R to R + AR The
outward force acting on the drop = excess of pressure x surface area
=(Pi-Po ) x 4IIR2
The small work done to increase its radius by AR is
Δω
=

(Pi - Po)
× 4πTR2 × DR
(.`P = F/A)

1cop

STAR

The work is done by the excess of pressure against the force of surface tension and is stored inside the liquid
drop in the form of its potential energy(AU).
Then, increase in the potential energy of the liquid drop,
surface tension x increase in surface area
AU

=T[4π CR+DR) 2
=

T [4TR2 + 4πTOR?
AR2 can be neglected, since AR is small.
=

... AU 8ПITRAR -

4πTR2]
422]
+8πR.DR
 Since work done is stored in the form of energy from and 3
4πra (Pi - Po) R
4FR

(ie)
2

& TRAR

- Po
=

27 R
4

Equation 4 gives the excess of pressure inside a liquid drop.

ii) Inside a liquid bubble

A liquid bubble has air both inside and outside it... it has two free surfaces.
.. AU surface tension x 2 x increase in surface area
= 16 IITRAR

From and 5

iii) Inside an air bubble

P: - Po
47 R

An air bubble has liquid outside and air inside and therefore it will be similar to case one.

Capillarity
The pressure difference across a curved a liquid-air interface arises due to surface tension forces. To
compensate for this pressure difference, the liquid level rises up in spite of gravity. This
phenomenon of rising of a liquid in a capillary tube due to surface tension forces is called capillary rise.
Angle of contact
The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid surface inside the
liquid is termed as angle of contact. It is denoted by 0. It is different at interfaces of different pairs of
liquids and solids.

Sla
 S sa
Ө
orse
7

Slacoso
Interfacial tension →
Liquid-air Sla
tension between

->

Ssa
Solid-air solid-liquid
→ Ssl
Sla

75sl
Ssa
13

fia cosa
Ab
the

line of contact, Ssa = Ssl + Sla cosa For obtuse

angle, Sex > Sla & for aute, Ssl < Sla.
[Learn from p263 and p264]
Ascent formula (or) Equation for rise in a capillary tube
Consider a capillary tube of radius a open at both the ends, inserted into an open vessel containing liquid
of density p. If the angle of contact 0 between the solid and the liquid is acute, then the liquid will rise up
in the capillary tube and leave a concave meniscus of radius r.

Pa

さん
Po
C

10
r

a
A
O

AOLXY
BALAC

There is a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. (ie) The pressure just below the
concave meniscus of the liquid is lesser than the atmospheric pressureby an amount AP and is given
by
ΔΡ = 2T

Where T is surface tension of the liquid.

From the dig.
coso
a
=

உ coso
2

Substituting in
др
27.
cose
3

a
But AP is also equal to hpg. (ie) AP = hpg
From (3) and (4)
hpg

(or)
2TCOSB
a

h
27010

ард
Equation is called is ascent formula.
For liquid like water angle of contact is acute and hence h will be positive. So there will be rise in the
level of the liquid.
But for liquids like mercury, the angle of contact is obtuse, and hence h will be negative. So there will be a
depression in the level of the liquid and it will have a convex meniscus in the capillary tube.

Detergents and surface tension [ Refer p265]

14