Pavement Mechanics Handout Notes

11451: Pavement Mechanics
Handout Notes
Asphalt Pavements
Eyal Levenberg
1. Layered Elastic Half-space .......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Axisymmetry ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Hankel transform .................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Equations .............................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Numerical considerations ..................................................................................... 6
1.5 Multiple and moving loads ................................................................................... 7
2. Elastostatic FWD Backcalculation .............................................................................. 9
Linear Viscoelastic Solids

3. Boltzmann Superposition ........................................................................................... 11
3.1 One-dimensional creep formulation ................................................................... 13
3.2 One-dimensional relaxation formulation ............................................................ 16
3.3 Three-dimensional formulation .......................................................................... 17
4. Interconversion and Laplace Transform .................................................................... 19
5. Frequency Domain ..................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Storage and loss moduli ...................................................................................... 24
5.2 The complex modulus ........................................................................................ 26
6. Time-Temperature Superposition .............................................................................. 29
7. Mechanical Analogs and Spectra ............................................................................... 31
Appendix: Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 37
DTU Civil Engineering – Section for Geotechnics and Geology – August 2021
Pavement Mechanics (11451) August 2021
1. Layered Elastic Half-space
The standard layered elastic formulation involves a semi-infinite medium composed of I  1

parallel (horizontal) layers attached to a half-space (see Figure 1). The layers are numbered
serially, with the top layer being Layer 1 and the half-space, Layer I . Each layer is
characterized by a Young's modulus Ei , Poisson's ratio  i , and thickness hi , with the subscript
i serving as a layer identifier. The depth from the surface to the interface separating layers i
and i  1 is denoted by zi . Accordingly, z1 is the thickness of Layer 1 (i.e., z1  h1 ), z 2 is the
combined thickness of Layers 1 and 2 (i.e., z2  h1  h2 ), and so on. The collective thickness of
all I  1 layers is denoted by H , i.e., H  zI 1  h1  h2  ...  hI 1 . Vertical loading,

representing tire-pavement contact interaction, operates at the surface (i.e., top of Layer 1). It
entails a uniform stress with intensity q0 applied over a circular area with radius a .
Figure 1. Cross-sectional view of a standard layered elastic pavement model.
1.1 Axisymmetry
We first note that for a single circular load the problem is axisymmetric. Conveniently, a
cylindrical coordinate system is introduced such that its origin is positioned at the surface of
Layer 1 just beneath the loaded area; the vertical z -axis is drawn into the medium and the
radial r -axis is parallel to the top boundary. The medium displacements in the z , r and 
directions for layer i are respectively denoted by: (u z ) i , (u r ) i , and (u )i .
Because the problem is axisymmetric, the following simplifications apply
© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 1

 (u r ) i  (u z ) i
(u )i  0 0 0 (1)
 
Also, the kinematic equations, relating strains to displacements, reduce to the following set
 (u z )i
( z )i  (2)
z
 (ur )i
( r )i  (3)
r
(ur )i
( )i  (4)
r
1   (u z )i  (ur )i 
( zr )i  ( rz )i     (5)
2  r z 
( r )i  ( r )i  ( z )i  ( z )i  0 (6)
where ( z ) i , ( r ) i , (  ) i , ( rz )i , ( r )i , and ( z )i are the strains in z , r ,  , r  z , z   , and

z   directions for layer i (respectively). The corresponding constitutive (stress-strain)
equations are
1  
( r )i  ( r )i  i (  )i  i ( z )i (7)
Ei Ei Ei
1  
(  )i  (  )i  i ( r )i  i ( z )i (8)
Ei Ei Ei
1  
( z )i  ( z )i  i (  )i  i ( r )i (9)
Ei Ei Ei
1  i
( rz )i  ( rz )i (10)
Ei
where ( r )i , (  )i , ( z )i , and ( rz )i are the respective stresses in the z , r ,  , and r  z
directions for layer i .
Moreover, we are assuming a weightless medium without body forces; hence, the
equilibrium equations are reduced to

 ( r )i  ( zr )i ( r )i  (  )i
  0 (11)
r z r
 ( zr )i  ( z )i ( zr )i
  0 (12)
r z r
Recalling that ( r )i  0 and also that ( z )i  0 .

1.2 Hankel transform
The zero-order Hankel transform maps a function f (r ) into a function F (m) according to

F (m)   rJ (mr ) f (r )dr
r 0
0 (13)
in which J 0 () is the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero. The Hankel transform is
self-reciprocal, with the inverse transform of F (m) to yield f (r ) calculated as follows


f (r )  
m 0
mJ 0 (mr ) F (m)dm (14)
Say f (r ) represents a distributed circular load with intensity q0 and radius a

f (r)  q0 H (a  r ) (r  0) (15)
in which H ( x) is the Heaviside step function defined as

H ( x)  0 for x  0
H ( x)  0.5 for x  0 (16)
H ( x)  1 for x  0
Graphically, the Heaviside step function is represented as follows (with   0 ):
Figure 2. Graphical representation of the Heaviside step function (   0 ).
Substitution of f (r ) in Equation 15 into Equation 13 gives

 a
q0 aJ1 (ma)
F (m)  
r 0
rJ 0 (mr )q0 H (a  r )dr  q0  rJ (mr )dr 
r 0
0
m
(17)
where J 1 () is the Bessel function of the first kind of order one, and the following relations
were employed
rJ1 (mr )
 rJ 0 (mr )dr 
m
and J1 (0)  0 (18)
Now, using the inverse Hankel transform in Equation 14, we get


f (r )  q0 H (a  r )  q0 a 
m 0
J 0 (mr ) J1 (ma)dm (r  0) (19)
Class Exercise #3: Numerical Hankel Transform
1.3 Equations
According to Augustus Edward Hough Love (1927), a scalar potential function  (r , z ) (units
of force×length) that satisfies the biharmonic equation 22  0 , where  2 is the
axisymmetric Laplace operator ( 2   2 / r 2  r 1 / r   2 / z 2 ) may be used to derive
stresses and displacements in an elastic medium under axisymmetric conditions (compatibility
is guaranteed). The approach is applied to layer i , i.e., a different scalar potential function  i
is assigned to each layer
  2i 
( z )i   (2  ) 2
   (20)
z  z 2 
i i
  2i 
( r )i  
 i  2
   (21)
z  r 2 
i
  1 i 
(  )i   i  i 
2
 (22)
z  r r 
  2i 
( rz )i    i   
2
1  (23)
r  z 2 
i
1  i   2i 1 i 
(uz )i      i    
2
1 2  (24)
r 2 r r 
i
Ei 
1  i   2i 
(ur )i    (25)
Ei  rz 
The above set embodies soil mechanics sign convention, that positive stress or strain indicate
compressive conditions.
For the case of layered elastic half-space, a suitable expression for such a potential
function was first proposed by Burmister (1943), see also Huang (2004) and Van Cauwelaert
(2003)

 m z  z   m z  zi1 
J 0 (mr ) J1 (ma )  Ai e i  Bi e 

i  q0 aH  3
  dm (26)
m3  C mze m zi  z   D mze  m z  zi1  
m 0  i i 
in which a  a / H , r  r / H , z  z / H , and zi  zi / H are dimensionless entities (with

z0  0 and z I   ), while Ai  Ai (m) , Bi  Bi (m) , Ci  Ci (m) , and Di  Di (m) are unitless
functions of m that embody the layered system properties and connectivity.
Substitution of  i into the stress and displacement expressions (Equations 20-25) yields
the following
    Ai  Ci 1  2 i  mz   e m zi  z  
( z )i  q0 a  J 0 (mr )   J1 (ma )dm (27)
   Bi  Di 1  2 i  mz   e m z  zi1  
m 0
 
   Ai  Ci 1  mz   e  m zi  z   

  J ( mr ) 
J ( mr )  

1
 0
  i 
( r )i  q0 a    mr    B  D 1  mz  e  m z  zi 1   
 i   J1 (ma )dm (28)
 
m 0
 2 J (mr ) C e  m zi  z   D e m z  zi1  
 i 0 i i


J ( mr )   Ai  Ci 1  mz   e m zi  z   
   
1
  i 
  m z  zi 1   
i
(  )i  q0 a  mr   B  D 1  mz e
   J1 (ma )dm (29)
 
m 0
 2 J (mr ) C e  m zi  z   D e  m z  zi1  
 i 0 i i

   Ai  Ci  2 i  mz   e  m zi  z  
( rz )i  q0 a  J1 (mr )   J1 (ma )dm (30)
   Bi  Di  2 i  mz   e m z  zi1  
m 0
 
q0 aH 1  i   J 0 (mr )   Ai  Ci  2  4 i  mz   e
 m zi  z 

  J1 (ma )dm
(u z )i 
Ei  m    B  D  2  4  mz   e m z  zi1   (31)
m 0
 i i i 
q0 aH 1  i   J1 (mr )   Ai  Ci 1  mz   e
 m zi  z 

  J (ma )dm
(ur )i    (32)
   Bi  Di 1  mz   e
Ei m   m z  zi 1   1
m 0

wherein the m functions Ai , Bi , Ci , and Di for i  1, 2,..., I are to be obtained by imposing
boundary conditions. Initially, for the surface of the top layer, where i  1 and z  0 , vertical
stress must equal the applied stress distribution, and shear stresses must vanish everywhere
( z )1  q (r ) (33)
( rz )1  0 (34)
wherein, based on Equation 19, q(r ) is simply given by


q(r )  q0 a 
m 0
J 0 (mr ) J1 (ma )dm (35)
Second, at the bottom of a layer i and at the top of a layer i  1 , i.e., at the interface where
z  zi , vertical stresses, vertical displacements, and shear stresses must be identical
( z )i  ( z )i 1 (36)
(uz )i  (uz )i 1 (37)
( rz )i  ( rz )i 1 (38)
As for radial displacements at the interface where z  zi , perfect bonding essentially means
(ur )i  (ur )i 1 . Alternatively, partial (or imperfect) bonding can be introduced via a bonding
parameter  i (positive, units of force/length³) such that
( rz )i   i  (ur )i  (ur )i 1  (39)
or equivalently
( rz )i
(ur )i  (ur )i 1  (40)
i
In these expressions, as i   full bond conditions are modeled because radial displacements
above and below the interface are forced to be identical. Also, as i  0 ideal slippery
interface conditions are modeled, because the shear stress across the interface is forced to zero.
Third, the sought solution must embody the requirement that all responses vanish for i  I , as
the evaluation depth approaches infinity; i.e., z   . Formally, this condition means
AI  CI  0 (41)
Thus, the functions Ai , Bi , Ci and Di are determined from solving Equations 33, 34, 36-38,
39 or 40, and 41 for m values ranging from zero to infinity. Then after, stresses and
displacements are determined from Equations 27-32; finally, strains are calculated from
Equations 7-10.
1.4 Numerical considerations
The integration over m in Equations 27-32 is to be performed numerically. In general, selecting

a small m increases the accuracy of the result but also increases the computational cost

involved. This is because each integration step (each new m ) requires inverting a matrix. In
addition, the oscillations of the Bessel functions require special attention; it is therefore
recommended to perform the integration using Gauss formulas – applied between the zeros of
the participating Bessel functions. Also, there is a need to address the problem of slow
convergence when evaluating responses at points close to the surface. For this purpose,
acceleration techniques such as the double exponential formula or Richardson extrapolation
(or both) may be used.
Project #1: Layered Elastic Half-Space
1.5 Multiple and moving loads
To address multiple loads, we need to transform the responses from a cylindrical coordinate
system into a (right-handed) Cartesian coordinate system. The angle  is measured from the
positive direction of the x -axis to that of the y -axis.
x
 
r
r
r
y

(Top view)
 x  xy  xz   r  r  rz 
  T  
 xy  y  yz    S     r     z    S 
 xz  yz  z   zr  z  z 
 
u x   ur   cos sin  0
  T  
u y    S   u   S    sin  cos 0 
u  u   0 1 
 z  z 0
Figure 3. Coordinate transformation from Cylindrical to Cartesian.

The effects of moving loads may be analyzed using the quasi-static approximation. Under
this approach, the loading is assumed to be slow enough so that inertia effects can be
disregarded and a moving load is 'animated' using the static solution. Beyond a certain speed
limit, the effects of the stress waves traveling through the system cannot be overlooked and the
quasi-static approximation loses its accuracy and relevancy.
Class Exercise #4: Layered Elasticity

2. Elastostatic FWD Backcalculation
The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a nondestructive pavement testing device; it
applies an impulse load to the pavement surface through a circular plate. The load is generated
by dropping a mass onto the plate, and the resulting deflections are measured by a series of
geophones positioned at different distances from the load plate center.
Figure 4. Typical FWD load plate and geophone arrangement.
In a usual FWD measurement campaign, only peak load level and peak deflection values
are collected and reported for a given test location. Nonetheless, the device can capture the
entire time history of the loading and deflections for a duration of about 120 milliseconds (see
Figure 5)
Figure 5. FWD load-deflection history.

To understand what can be done with FWD readings, we can look at what influences the
measured deflections. Included are the following: (i) loading conditions: force level, drop
height, load plate size, stress distribution; (ii) pavement composition (structure and subgrade):
geometry, layer thicknesses, cracks and discontinuities; (iii) mechanical properties of the
layers; and (iv) interface attributes.
Backcalculation refers to the process of determining the mechanical properties of layers
in a given 'model-pavement' using the measured surface deflections. Currently, the most
common approach for backcalculation is performed using layered elastic (isotropic) theory.
This is done "backwards" with a set of seed moduli (assuming the Poisson's ratios) and
"known" layer thicknesses. For the calculations, only the response peaks are typically used,
i.e., the peak FWD load along with the deflection peaks. An optimization algorithm is applied
to manipulate the moduli values until an error function representing the difference between
measured and computed deflections is minimized. This approach is called 'elastostatic
backcalculation' because we disregard wave propagation effects (time dependence in material
properties is also disregarded). Common computer programs that perform elastostatic
backcalculation include: (i) Elmod (Dynatest); (ii) ERIDA (KUAB); (iii) MODCOMP (Cornell
University); (iv) MODULUS (Texas DOT); (v) EVERCALC (Washington DOT); (vi)
CalBack (California).
There are more advanced backcalculation methods, employing more advanced structural
and constitutive models, attempting to compute more realistic/representative layer properties.
These methods try to make use of the entire measured time-history. Perhaps due to their high
level of sophistication, they are not commonly used in engineering practice. Often, FWD test
data are used without modeling. Such direct usage includes: (i) observing deflection variability
(spatial, seasonal); (ii) joint load transfer efficiency in concrete pavements; and (iii) void
detection.
Class Exercise #5: Backcalculation
Project #2: Backcalculation

Linear Viscoelastic Solids
3. Boltzmann Superposition
Linear (isotropic) elasticity is considered the simplest type of constitutive model for pavement
layers. Mathematically, it implies that the state of strain at any given time in the material (or
structure) is directly proportional to the stress state at that time; the constants of proportionality
being the elastic properties. In reality, however, pavement materials (and especially asphalt
concrete), display time-dependent mechanical behavior; to list a few examples: (i) the material
creeps under a constant level of load, (ii) the material relaxes under a constant level of
deformation, and (iii) the material exhibits dependence of strain on stress-rate. A more realistic
(improved) constitutive theory, that can mathematically capture and reproduce these properties,
is the theory of linear viscoelasticity first formulated by Boltzmann in 1874. According to the
theory, any 'response' of interest R in a viscoelastic body (e.g., stress state or displacement at
a point) is a function of the entire 'input' history I (e.g., boundary force or displacement) up to
the present time, and not simply a function of the current value of I ; mathematically, this can
be written as
R  R I  (42)
in which the curly brackets are used to denote the fact that the present value of R is a function
of the entire history of I ( R is said to be a functional of I ). A linear dependence of R on I
means that the superposition criterion is satisfied

R  I a  I b   R I a   R I b  (43)
where I a and I b are either the same or different input histories.
Boltzmann offered a mathematical operator that can reproduce linearity, and compute a
'response' considering the entire 'input' history up to the current time

 t
R(t )  
 
RH (t   )dI ( ) (44)
in which t is current/calculation time,  is a time-like integration variable, R(t ) is the

computed 'response' at time t , and I ( ) is the 'input' applied at time  . The lower integration

limit can be changed to   0 instead of    whenever the input I ( ) equals zero or does
not exist for negative's. The time function RH (t ) serves the task of a weighing function; it is
the kernel of the operator; the argument of RH is t  in order to generate a 'response' that
depends upon the time elapsed since the application of the 'input'. This operator is identified in
the technical literature by several names: (i) Boltzmann superposition; (ii) hereditary integral;
(iii) convolution integral; and (iv) Duhamel's integral.
The integral in Equation 44 is a Stieltjes type of integral, with

dI ( )  lim  I (   )  I ( )  (45)
 0
If the first time derivative of I ( ) is continuous, it can be re-written in the usual, Riemann
type, format
 t
dI ( )
R(t ) 



RH (t   )
d
d (46)
When the Heaviside unit step function is used as an input, i.e., I  H ( ) , we have
dI ( ) dH ( )
   ( ) (47)
d d
in which  ( ) is the Dirac delta function (or the impulse function), having the following
properties (with   0 )

 ( x)  0 for x  0 and   ( x)dx  1

(48)
 ( x)
1/ 

Figure 6. The Dirac delta function (   0 ).
Substitution of I  H ( ) into Equation 46 gives

 t
R(t )  
 
RH (t   ) ( )d  RH (t ) (49)
The result above means that the "weighing" function RH (t ) is equal to the material (or system)
response R when the input I is a unit step.
Class Exercise #6: Unit Step Input
3.1 One-dimensional creep formulation
Consider a one-dimensional loading of a linear viscoelastic material. The 'input' I is a stress
history  ( ) and the 'response' R at time t is the resulting strain  (t ) . In this case, the
Boltzmann superposition integral gives

 t
 (t )  
 
D(t   )d ( ) (50)
in which RH (t ) was replaced by D(t ) , the so-called 'creep compliance'; a material property to
be determined experimentally. Equation 50 is the one-dimensional viscoelastic creep
formulation. Based on the previous analysis (i.e., Equation 49), D(t ) may be directly
determined by applying a step stress input. This is the case for a creep test, where the applied
stress history is  (t )   0 H (t )
 ( )
0 
Figure 7. Applied stress history in a creep test.
Going back to the superposition integral, we have

 t  t
d ( )
 (t )   D(t   ) d   D(t   ) 0 ( )d  0 D(t ) (51)
  d  
It can be seen that D(t ) is directly obtained from the recorded strain  (t ) in the creep test

 (t )  unitless 
D(t )   stress units   stress units 
-1
(52)
0  
A typical strain outcome in a creep test is shown in Figure 8 wherein  0 is the instantaneous
strain response, and   is the equilibrium strain level.
 (t )

0 t
Figure 8. Typical strain-history response in a creep test.
Accordingly, the limiting values of D(t ) are

0 
lim D(t )  D0  and lim D(t )  D  (53)
t 0 0 t  0
If D(t ) is known, the creep formulation allows for computing the strain response to an
arbitrary-shaped stress history - not just a simple step. To better understand how this is
achieved, consider the case shown in Figure 9, dealing with a two-step stress history. The creep
stress 1 is applied at time 1 , and  2 is applied at time  2 , with  2  1 . The resulting
strain is also (schematically) shown
Figure 9. Two-step creep and strain response.

For the time interval  1  t   2 we have

 (t )  D(t 1 )1 (54)
and for the time interval t   2 , we have

 (t )  D(t 1 )1  D(t  2 ) 2 (55)
Alternatively, we can write  as a function of time  , i.e.,    ( )

1   (1 ) and  2   ( 2 ) (56)
which gives
 (t )  D(t 1 ) (1 )  D(t  2 ) ( 2 ) (57)
and finally, for i creep 'steps'

 (t )   D(t   i ) ( i ) (58)
i
The above summation can be viewed as the discrete (series) version of the original integral
 t
 (t ) 



D(t   )d ( ) (59)
Class Exercise #7: Viscoelastic Response
Here is a graphical (log-log scale) example of D(t ) vs. t for an asphalt concrete specimen at a
temperature of 30˚C
Figure 10. Example of an asphalt concrete creep compliance master curve.

The fact that the D(t ) curve levels off towards a finite value as t   means the material is a
viscoelastic solid. If D(t ) were to increase indefinitely with time, i.e., limt  D(t )   , then
we would have a viscoelastic fluid.
Assignment #2: One-Dimensional Linear Viscoelastic Strain Response
3.2 One-dimensional relaxation formulation
Let as consider (again) a one-dimensional loading of a linear viscoelastic solid. This time, the
'input' I is a strain history  ( ) and the "response" R at time t is the resulting stress  (t ) .
The Boltzmann superposition gives in this case

 t
 (t )  
 
E (t   )d  ( ) (60)
here, E (t ) is the relaxation modulus, a complimentary material property to the creep
compliance D(t ) . This is the one-dimensional viscoelastic relaxation formulation. As before,

E(t ) can be determined from a relaxation experiment in which a step-strain history is applied:
 (t )   0 H (t ) and the resulting stress recorded.
 ( )
0 
Figure 11. Applied strain history in a relaxation test.
Going back to the superposition integral, we have

 t  t
d  ( )
 (t )   E (t   ) d   E (t   ) 0 ( )d  0 E (t ) (61)
  d  
from which it can be seen that E (t ) may be directly obtained from the recorded stress in the
relaxation experiment

 (t )  stress units 
E (t ) 
0  unitless   stress units (62)
A typical stress response in a relaxation test is
Figure 12. Typical stress-history response in a relaxation test.
The limiting values of E (t ) are

lim E (t )  E0 and lim E (t )  E (63)
t 0 t 
Note that if the material properties were time-independent, the relaxation modulus would
become Young's modulus E (or loosely: elasticity modulus), in which case we would have
E  1/ D . However, for viscoelastic materials, this relationship does not hold, i.e.,
E(t )  1/ D(t ) .
3.3 Three-dimensional formulation
At this point, let us extend the one-dimensional treatment onto the multiaxial case. The "input"
is a stress history  kl ( ) and the "output" at time t is the resulting strain  ij (t ) . The Boltzmann
superposition gives
t
 ij (t ) 


Dijkl (t   )d kl ( ) (i, j, k , l  1..3) (64)
in which Dijkl (t ) is a tensor of creep functions and the summation convention is used in which
repeated indices are summed over their range.
The above expression can be written using single index notation

 t
 i (t ) 
 
 Dij (t   )d j ( ) (i, j  1..6) (65)

Similar to linear isotropic elasticity where there are two independent material constants
capturing the material behavior ( E and  ), in the case of linear isotropic viscoelasticity there
are two independent creep time functions:
 D11 (t ) D12 (t ) D12 (t ) 

 D (t ) D (t ) D (t ) 
 12 11 12 
 D12 (t ) D12 (t ) D11 (t ) 
Dij (t )   
 2( D11 (t )  D12 (t )) 
 2( D11 (t )  D12 (t )) 
 
 2( D11 (t )  D12 (t )) 
One practical way to simplify this representation is to write Dij (t ) as a product of two separate
terms
Dij (t )  Pijve  D(t ) (66)
in which Pijve is composed of unitless engineering parameters that are explicitly independent of
time and the scalar time-function D(t ) is the linear one-dimensional viscoelastic creep-
compliance. The consequence of this simplification is that one unique creep (time) function
controls the viscoelastic deformation in all directions; this has been experimentally validated
for asphalt concrete.
Similarly, it is possible to write a three-dimensional relaxation formulation

 t
 i (t ) 



Eij (t   )d  j ( ) (i, j  1..6) (67)

4. Interconversion and Laplace Transform
Referring to the creep formulation, suppose we would like to apply a stress input  (t ) such
that the strain response is a unit step H (t ) . This can be achieved if the applied stress history
resembles E (t ) - because E (t ) is by definition the stress response to a unit step strain

 ( )  H ( ) . Using this reasoning we can establish the classic relation between D(t ) and E(t )
dE ( )
t t


0
D(t   )dE ( ) 

 D(t  )
0
d
d  H (t ) (68)
In order to formally derive the relationship between the creep compliance and relaxation
modulus (along with other useful results), the Laplace transform is used. If f (t ) is a continuous
'time' function ( t  0 ) that is of exponential order1 as t   , its Laplace transform L  f (t ) is
f (s) , defined as

L  f (t )  f ( s)   f (t )e st dt (69)
t 0
As can be seen, a function of t is transformed into a (different) function of s . Some noteworthy
Laplace transform properties:
(i) The transform is unique;
(ii) Linearity
L c1 f1 (t )  c2 f 2 (t )  c1 f1 ( s)  c2 f 2 ( s) (70)
(iii) Translation theorem:
Translation of the "real" function by an amount a

L  f (t  a) H (t  a)  e  as f (s ) (71)
Translation of the "transformed" function by an amount a
L  f (t )e at   f (s  a) (72)
(iv) Transform of a derivative ( f discontinuous at t  0 )

 df (t )  
L   sf ( s )  f (0 ) (73)
 dt 
1
A function is of exponential order if e at f (t )  M with a and M positive constants.

(v) Transform of a definite integral
 t  f ( s )
L   f ( )d   (74)
 0  s
(vi) Transform of a convolution (Borel's theorem):
Convolution of the two functions f1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) is given by the expression

t


0
f1 (t   ) f 2 ( )d (75)
Laplace transform of the convolution integral is given by
 t 
L   f1 (t   ) f 2 ( )d   L  f1 (t ) L  f 2 (t )  f1 ( s ) f 2 ( s ) (76)
 0 
Hence, since f1 (s) f 2 (s) is commutative, it follows that the convolution expression is also
commutative
t t

 0
f1 (t   ) f 2 ( )d  
 0
f1 ( ) f 2 (t   )d (77)
(vii) Initial and final limit value theorems

lim f (t )  lim sf ( s) (78)
t 0 s 
lim f (t )  lim sf ( s) (79)

t  s 0
(viii) Useful transforms

f (t )   (t ) f (s)  1 (80)
f (t )   (t  a) f (s)  eas (81)
f (t )  H (t ) f (s)  1/ s (82)
e  as
f (t )  H (t  a) f ( s)  (83)
s
0
f (t )  et / 0 f ( s)  , 0  0
1 0s (84)
1
f (t )  1  et /0 f (s)  , 0  0
s (1   0 s ) (85)
f (t )  t f (s)  1/ s2 (86)

 ( n)
f (t )  t n1 f (s)  , n0 (87)
sn
1
f (t )  ei0t f ( s)  , 0  0
s  i0 (88)
0
f (t )  sin(0t ) f ( s)  , 0  0
s  02
2 (89)
s
f (t )  cos(0t ) f ( s)  , 0  0
s  02
2 (90)

* the Gamma function: (n)   x n1e x dx for integer n, (n)  (n  1)!
0
Class Exercise #8: Laplace Transform
Now, applying the Laplace transform to the creep formulation gives
 t d ( ) 
L  (t )   ( s)  L   D(t   ) d 
 0 d  (91)
 d (t ) 
 L D(t ) L    D( s) s ( s)
 dt 
or
 (s)  sD(s) (s) (92)
Similarly, applying the Laplace transform to the relaxation formulation gives
 d  ( ) 
t
L  (t )   ( s)  L   E (t   ) d 
 0 d  (93)
 d  (t ) 
 L E (t ) L    E ( s) s ( s)
 dt 
or
 ( s )  sE ( s) ( s) (94)
From the above two transformed equations, both  ( s ) and  ( s) can be eliminated to yield
1
D(s) E (s)  (95)
s2
Also, using the limit value theorems we find that

D0  lim D(t )  lim sD( s)

t 0 s 
 1  1
 lim   

s  sE ( s )
 lim sE ( s) (96)
s 
1 1
 
lim E (t ) E0
t 0
D  lim D(t )  lim sD( s)

t  s 0
 1  1
 lim  

s 0 sE ( s )
 lim sE ( s) (97)
s 0
1 1
 
lim E (t ) E
t 
Assignment #3: Analytic Interconversion
Project #3: Numerical Interconversion

5. Frequency Domain
When a linear viscoelastic solid is exposed to simple harmonic excitation (sine or cosine input
wave), the steady-state response attained after a 'long time' is also sinusoidal, having the same
frequency as the excitation but different amplitude and phase. To give a one-dimensional
example, let the 'input' be a strain history of the form  (t )   0 sin(t ) in which  0 is the
applied strain amplitude and  is the applied angular frequency (   2 f ). The resulting
steady-state stress response is  (t )   0 sin(t   ) in which  0 is the stress amplitude and 
is the phase angle by which the strain lags behind the stress (or the angle by which the stress
leads the strain).

t=/
Figure 13. Steady-state viscoelastic response to a sinusoidal excitation.
The stress amplitude  0 is a function of the applied frequency, i.e.,  0   0 ( ) . In general, as

 increases,  0 also increases. However, at both extremes, when   0 or    ,  0
approaches a finite value. Given that  0 is a frequency independent constant, it is instructive
to depict  0 /  0 vs.  . This "amplitude ratio" of stress to strain under steady-state sinusoidal
excitation is called 'dynamic modulus', usually denoted by E * . This term is a little misleading
since it has nothing to do with dynamic/inertia effects.

Log-scale
Log-scale
Figure 14. Norm of complex modulus vs. angular frequency (log-log scale).

The phase angle  also depends on the frequency level, i.e.,    ( ) with positive values up
to  / 2 (or 90 ). For elastic (time independent) solids the phase angle is identically zero, which
means that the stress and strain are always in-phase. However, for viscoelastic solids, the
dependency of  on  is such that elastic behavior is approached only at very high and very
low frequency levels:
Phase angle
Log-scale 
Figure 15. Phase angle vs. angular frequency (semi-log scale).
5.1 Storage and loss moduli
Using the trigonometric relation sin(   )  sin( ) cos( )  cos( )sin( ) it is possible to
decompose the steady-state stress response into two elements; the first in-phase with the
applied strain and the second 90 out-of-phase
 (t )   0 cos( )  sin(t )   0 sin( )  cos(t )

(98)
in-phase with 90 out-of-phase
appliedstrain with appliedstrain
Using the above expression, an in-phase modulus can be defined by taking the amplitude ratio
of the in-phase stress to strain. Similarly, an out-of-phase modulus can be defined by taking
the amplitude ratio of the out-of-phase stress to strain

0 0 E2
E1  cos( ) E2  sin( ) tan( )  (99)
0 0 E1

E1 is called "storage modulus" and E2 is called "loss modulus". Given that both  0 and  are
functions of  , we have E1  E1 () and E2  E2 ( ) . And finally, the steady-state stress
response can be written as

 (t )   0 E1 sin(t )   0 E2 cos(t ) (100)
Formally, the entire aforementioned derivation can be obtained by using the "relaxation"
formulation
 t
 (t ) 



E (t   )d  ( ) (101)
For later use, we decompose the relaxation modulus as follows E(t )  E  E(t ) such that
lim E (t )  0 (*Reminder: lim E (t )  E ) (102)
t  t 
Hence, the above Boltzmann integral is re-written

 t
 (t )  E (t )  
 
E (t   )d  ( ) (103)
Application of the harmonic excitation  ( )   0 sin( ) , from which we have

d ( )   0 cos( )d , gives upon substitution
 t
 (t )  E 0 sin(t )   0

 
E (t   ) cos( )d (104)
Changing the integration variable from  to s using t   s , from which we have ds  d
, generates a corresponding change of integration limits: s   (  ) and s  0(  t )
, and yields
s 
 (t )  E 0 sin(t )   0
s 0
 E ( s) cos(t   s)ds (105)
Using the trigonometric identity cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin  we obtain
 (t )  E 0 sin(t )
s  (106)
 0  E ( s )  cos(t ) cos( s)  sin(t ) sin( s)  ds
s 0
which gives after some rearrangement

 s 

 (t )   0  E  


s 0
E ( s ) sin( s )ds  sin(t )

în-phase with appliedstrain
(107)
 s 

  0    E ( s ) cos( s )ds  cos(t )
 s 0 
90°out-of-phase with appliedstrain
Comparing with previous derivation gives

s 
E1 ( )  E   
s 0
E (s)sin( s)ds
(108)
s 
E2 ( )   
s 0
E ( s) cos( s)ds
t 
E1 ( )  E     E(t )  E  sin(t )dt
t 0

(109)
t 
E2 ( )     E(t )  E  cos(t )dt
t 0

These expressions converge because of the requirement that lims E(s)  0 . They provide
a direct mathematical relation between the frequency-domain dynamic modulus (and its storage
and loss components) and the time-domain relaxation modulus.
5.2 The complex modulus
Because E1 and E2 are essentially normal entities (90° out-of-phase), a complex representation
suggests itself
E*  E1  iE2 (110)
In which E * is the linear viscoelastic 'complex modulus,' having the 'storage modulus,' E1 , as
its real component and having the 'loss modulus,' E2 as its imaginary component.
Using complex notation, the applied strain history is expressed as

 (t )   0eit   0  cos(t )  i sin(t )  (111)
and the resulting steady-state stress is

 (t )   0ei (t  )   0eit ei   0  cos(t   )  i sin(t   )  (112)
In an Argand diagram the stress and strain can be visualized as two rotating vectors with an
identical angular frequency  . The stress leads the strain by an angle  which changes

depending on the level of  . The length of the strain vector remains constant at  0 while the
length of the stress vector varies with  .
Im
 (t )


 (t )
Re
Figure 16. Argand diagram of sinusoidal stress and (lagging) strain.
Both cosine and sine excitations are included is the complex strain representation. Since we
deal with steady-state conditions, either the real or imaginary parts can be viewed as physically
meaningful. Regardless of our observation choice, the complex modulus expressing the ratio
of stress and strain is unique, directly obtained by the quotient
 (t )  0ei (t  )  0 i  0
E*    e   cos( )  i sin( )   E1  iE2 (113)
 (t )  0eit 0 0
To formally arrive at the above derivation, we begin by substitution of the sinusoidal strain
history, i.e., Euler's formula, into the hereditary integral (with d ( )  i 0ei d )
 t

it
 (t )  E 0e  i 0 E (t   )ei d (114)

As before, changing the integration variable from  to s using t   s , from which we have
ds  d , generates a corresponding change of integration limits: s   (  ) and
s  0(  t ) , and yields

s 

it
 (t )  E 0e  i 0 E (s)ei (t s ) ds (115)
s 0
s 
 (t )  E 0eit  i 0eit 
s 0
E (s)eis ds (116)
 s 

 (t )   0 eit  E  i


s 0
E ( s )e i s ds 

(117)

 s 

 (t )   0eit  E  i


s 0
E ( s )(cos( s )  i sin( s ))ds 

(118)
 s  s 

 (t )   0eit  E  


s 0
E ( s ) sin( s )ds  i 
s 0
E ( s ) cos( s )ds 

(119)
 (t )   0eit  E1  iE2  (120)

 0 0 
 (t )   0eit  cos( )  i
sin( )  (121)
 0 0 
 (t )   0e  cos( )  i sin( )    0e e
it it i
(122)
Additional relations of interest

lim E1 ()  lim E(t )  E0 and lim E2 ( )  0 (123)
  t 0  
The complex compliance is defined as: D*  1/ E*  D1  iD2 , which under steady-state
sinusoidal excitation gives:  (t )  D * (t ) . Also: tan( )  D2 / D1  E2 / E1 .
Assignment #4: Complex Modulus Relations

6. Time-Temperature Superposition
The time domain material properties D(t ) and E (t ) and also the frequency domain properties
D *( ) and E *() are applicable for a given reference/test temperature, T0 . The assumption
of thermo-rheological simplicity states that these relations can remain applicable for a different
(albeit constant) temperature, T , simply by replacing physical time with reduced (or pseudo)
time, t r , defined as tr  t / aT , or by replacing the angular frequency with reduced angular
frequency, r , defined as r   aT . In both cases, aT  aT (T , T0 ) is the so-called time-
temperature shift factor which is a function of temperature only.
For the selected reference temperature, i.e., T  T0 , the time-temperature shift factor
equals unity by definition. For the case in which T  T0 , aT decreases to a value smaller than
unity ( aT is always positive) and for T  T0 , aT increases (increase is unrestricted). Hence,
frequency (or time) domain material functions obtained at different temperatures can be viewed
as measured under one (reference) temperature, T0 , but at different frequencies (or times).
Using this feature, the time-temperature shift factor aT provides means for extending the
experimental data range beyond that for which direct measurement methods are available.
For instance, when plotted with respect to the reference temperature, T0 , complex
modulus test data obtained at T  T0 will be translated horizontally to low frequencies.
Similarly, relaxation modulus information obtained at T  T0 will be translated horizontally
along the positive direction on the time axis. These translations form so-called "master curves"
while at the same time they help define the time-temperature shift factor.
For a certain class of polymers, and for a limited range of temperatures, aT tends to follow the
WLF equation, which is based on the assumption that aT (T , T0 )  aT (T  T0 )
c1 (T  T0 )
log( aT )  (124)
c2  (T  T0 )
in which c1 and c 2 are both positive constants; c1 is unitless and c 2 has temperature units.
This equation was found applicable to bituminous materials, both binders and asphalt concrete.

Figure 17. Asphalt concrete master curve in the frequency domain.

log E (t )
log t
Figure 18. Asphalt concrete master curve in the time domain.
Project #4: Mastercurve Construction

7. Mechanical Analogs and Spectra
In the early development of the theory of viscoelasticity, material behavior was
diagrammatically represented using a collection of massless elastic and viscous elements. Such
modeling reveals nothing about the structural details of the material being deformed; it is
merely useful for illustrating the physical significance of a constitutive equation and
approximating observed behavior for numerical calculations.
The elastic element is a Hookean spring characterized by a stiffness constant E (stress

units) and obeying the relation  (t )  E (t ) . The viscous element is a Newtonian dashpot
characterized by viscosity constant  (units of stress×time) and obeying the relation
 (t )   (t ) .
Hookean Newtonian
spring 
l 1 E l 1 dashpot




Figure 19. Basic mechanical analog elements.
Class Exercise #9: Dashpot under Harmonic Loading
Hookean springs and dashpots can be combined in many different ways to describe
viscoelastic bodies. The two most basic models are Maxwell (James Clerk Maxwell 1831-
1879) and Kelvin-Voigt (Lord Kelvin 1824-1907; Woldemar Voigt 1850-1919).
The Maxwell model consists of a spring and dashpot arranged in series, reproducing
fluid-like behavior. The operator equation for the Maxwell model is obtained by noting that
the overall stress at any point in time  (t ) equals the stress in the spring  E (t ) and also equals
that in the dashpot  (t ) (i.e.,    E   ). At the same time, the overall strain  (t ) equals
the sum of the individual strains (i.e.,    E   ). Consequently, the constitutive equation for
the Maxwell model is

1 1 d (t ) d  (t )
 (t )   (125)
m Em dt dt
Em Maxwell
l 1
m


Figure 20. Maxwell mechanical analog.
The Kelvin-Voigt model consists of a spring and a dashpot arranged in parallel.
Kelvin-Voigt
Ekv kv
Figure 21. Kelvin-Voigt mechanical analog.
The constitutive equation for the Kelvin-Voigt model is obtained by noting that the overall
strain  (t ) equals the strain in the spring  E (t ) and also equals that in the dashpot  (t ) (i.e.,
   E   ). The overall stress  (t ) equals the sum of the individual stresses (i.e.,
   E   ). Consequently, the governing equation for the Kelvin-Voigt model is
d  (t )
 (t )  Ekv (t )   kv (126)
dt

To explore the behavior of the Maxwell model, a virtual relaxation experiment is carried out
by "applying" a step-strain history of the form  (t )   0 H (t ) . The resulting stress relaxes

according to the expression
 (t )  Em 0et /  m (127)
in which m  m / Em (units of time) is a characteristic "relaxation time" controlling the rate
in which the stress relaxes. Physically,  m represents the time needed for the stress to fall to
e 1 of its initial value; it is also the time at which the stress function passes through an inflection
when plotted against log time. By normalizing the above expression with respect to  0 the
relaxation modulus of the Maxwell model is obtained

E (t )  Emet / m (128)
When a Kelvin-Voigt model is exposed to a virtual creep experiment, i.e., a suddenly applied
stress history of the form  (t )   0 H (t ) , the resulting strain is

0
 (t ) 
Ekv
1  e  t / kv
 (129)
in which  kv  kv / Ekv (units of time ) is a characteristic "retardation time" controlling the
development of delayed/retarded deformation.
By normalizing the above expression with respect to  0 the creep compliance for the Kelvin-
Voigt model is obtained

D(t )  Dkv 1  et / kv  (130)
in which Dkv  1/ Ekv .
Assignment #5: Mechanical Viscoelastic Analogs
More complexity is needed to reproduce realistic viscoelastic behavior. This can be
achieved by combining several basic Maxwell or Kelvin-Voigt elements. Any number of
Maxwell elements in series or any number of Kelvin-Voigt elements in parallel can be reduced
to a single Maxwell or Kelvin-Voigt element (respectively). However, Maxwell elements in
parallel or Kelvin-Voigt elements in series have more complicated properties. In the case of
the Generalized Maxwell model ( N elements in parallel), the relaxation modulus is

N
E (t )   Ei e  t / i (131)
i 1
with i  i / Ei .
To reproduce solid behavior, one of the dashpots must have infinite viscosity (or
equivalently, one of the relaxation times must be infinite), and the corresponding spring
constant becomes the equilibrium modulus E . This is called Maxwell-Weichert model:
E1 E2 Ei
E
1 2 i
Figure 22. Generalized Maxwell-Weichert mechanical analog for modeling a linear

viscoelastic solid.
A Generalized Kelvin-Voigt model ( M elements in series) is shown below:
E1 E2 EM
E0
1 2 M
Figure 23. Generalized Kelvin-Voigt mechanical analog for modeling a linear viscoelastic
solid.

The creep compliance of the generalized Kelvin-Voigt mechanical analog is
 
M
D (t )   Di 1  e  t / i (132)
i 1
with Di  1 / Ei and  i  i / Ei . To account for an instantaneous compliance (i.e., elastic
response upon loading), one of the dashpots must have zero viscosity (or one of the retardation
times must be zero), and the corresponding spring constant is denoted by D0 (  1/ E0 ).
Mathematically, the constitutive equations for the generalized models may be cast in the
following differential form
 d d2   d d2 
 0
p  p1  p2 2
 ...  (t )  q 
 0 1 q  q2 2
 ...  (t ) (133)
 dt dt   dt dt 
in which the pi 's and qi 's are constants representing material properties. If chosen
appropriately, the generalized models (Maxwell-Weichert and Kevin-Voigt) can be made
mathematically equivalent and thus depict identical behavior.
The generalized models have discrete spectrums of relaxation times and retardation
times: each relaxation time  i is associated with a spectral strength Ei and each retardation
time  i is associated with a spectral compliance magnitude Di . In principle, the above models
may be used to fit relaxation or creep test data by taking N or M to be sufficiently large.
However, the determination of the discrete spectrum lines (times and intensities) in these cases
is not unique.
If the number of elements in the generalized models is increased without limit, the result
will yield continuous relaxation and retardation spectrums which are unique

 h( )e
 t /
E (t )  E  d ln  (134)
 0

 l ( ) 1  e  d ln 
 t /
D(t )  D0  (135)
0
in which  is a time-like integration variable. h( ) is the relaxation spectrum (units of stress),
l ( ) is the retardation spectrum (units of stress-1), with E and D0 previously defined.
Because experience has shown that logarithmic time scales are more convenient, the integration

is carried out with respect to ln  and not with respect to  . The functions h( ) and l ( ) are
interrelated (e.g., Gross and Pelzer, 1952).
Of all the viscoelastic functions, the relaxation spectrum (or equivalently the retardation
spectrum) is considered to be the most closely related to the underlying chemo-physical
mechanisms responsible for the viscoelastic behavior. Two possible candidates for asphalt
concrete are
h( )  a1 (a3 /  )a2 exp(a3 /  ) (136)
h( )  a1 exp(a2 (ln( / a3 ))2 ) (137)
In both cases, a1 has stress units, a3 has units of time, and a2 in unitless. The components of
the complex modulus can be expressed in terms of the spectra functions

 2 2
E1 ( )  E   h( ) d ln  (138)
 0 1   2 2


E2 ( ) 

 h( ) 1   
0
2 2
d ln  (139)

Appendix: Bibliography
Burmister, D. M. (1945), "The General Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems,"
Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 16, pp. 89-94 (Part I); pp. 126-127 (Part II); pp. 296-302 (Part III).
Burmister, D.M. (1943), "The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems and
Application to the Design of Airport Runways," Proceedings of the Highway Research Board, Vol. 23,
Washington, D.C., pp. 126–148.
Christensen, R. M. (2003), "Theory of Viscoelasticity," Second Edition, Dover, New York, pp. 378.
Ferry, J. D. (1980), "Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers," Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, pp. 641.
Flügge, W. (1975), “Viscoelasticity,” Second Edition, Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. 194.
Gross B. and Pelzer H. (1952), "Relations between Delta Functions," Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 210, No. 1102, pp. 434–437.
Haddad, Y. M. (1995), "Viscoelasticity of Engineering Materials," Chapman & Hall, London.
Hopkins, I. L. and Hamming, R. W. (1957), "On Creep and Relaxation," Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 28, No. 8, pp. 906-909.
Huang, Y. H. (2004), "Pavement Analysis and Design," 2nd Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall.
Lockett, F. J. (1972), "Nonlinear Viscoelastic Solids," Academic Press.
Longman, I. M. (1956), "Note on a method for Computing Infinite Integrals of oscillatory Functions,"
Cambridge Philosophical Society Proceedings, Vol. 52, p. 764.
Lytton, R. L. (1989), "Backcalculation of Pavement Layer Properties," Nondestructive Testing of
Pavements and Backcalculation of Moduli, ASTM STP 1026, A.J. Bush III and G. Y. Baladi, Eds.,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 7–38.
Park, S. W. and Schapery, R. A. (1999), "Methods of Interconversion between Linear Viscoelastic
Material Functions. Part I - A Numerical Method Based on Prony Series," International Journal of
Solids and Structures, Vol. 36, pp. 1653–1675.
Schapery, R. A. (1962), "Approximate Methods of Transform Inversion for Viscoelastic Stress
Analysis," ASME Proceedings of the 4th U.S. National Congress on Applied Mechanics Vol. 2, 1075–
1085.
Schwarzl, F. and Staverman, A. J. (1952), "Time-Temperature Dependence of Linear Viscoelastic
Behavior," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 23, No. 8, pp. 838-843.
Soo, C. K. (2009), "Geometric Interpretation of Time-Temperature Superposition," Korea-Australia
Rheology Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 13–16.
Sugihara, M. (1987), "Methods of Numerical Integration of Oscillatory Functions by the DE-formula
with Richardson Extrapolation," Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 17, pp. 47–
68.
Uzan, J. (1994), "Advanced Backcalculation Techniques," Nondestructive Testing of Pavements and
Backcalculation of Moduli (second volume), ASTM STP 1198, H. L. Von Quintus, A. J. Buch III, and
G. Y. Baladi, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 3–37.
Uzan, J., Lytton, R. L., and Germann, F. P. (1989), "General Procedure for Backcalculating Layer
Moduli," Nondestructive Testing of Pavements and Backcalculation of Moduli, ASTM STP 1026, A.J.
Bush III and G. Y. Baladi, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 217–
228.
Van Cauwelaert, F. (2003), "Pavement Design and Evaluation—The Required Mathematics and its
Applications," M. Stet (ed). Federation of the Belgian Cement Industry, Brussels, Belgium.

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11451: Pavement Mechanics

1. Layered Elastic Half-space .......................................................................................... 1

Linear Viscoelastic Solids

Appendix: Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 37

1. Layered Elastic Half-space

The standard layered elastic formulation involves a semi-infinite medium composed of I  1

and i  1 is denoted by zi . Accordingly, z1 is the thickness of Layer 1 (i.e., z1  h1 ), z 2 is the

all I  1 layers is denoted by H , i.e., H  zI 1  h1  h2  ...  hI 1 . Vertical loading,

Figure 1. Cross-sectional view of a standard layered elastic pavement model.

directions for layer i are respectively denoted by: (u z ) i , (u r ) i , and (u )i .

Because the problem is axisymmetric, the following simplifications apply

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 1

where ( z ) i , ( r ) i , (  ) i , ( rz )i , ( r )i , and ( z )i are the strains in z , r ,  , r  z , z   , and

where ( r )i , (  )i , ( z )i , and ( rz )i are the respective stresses in the z , r ,  , and r  z

directions for layer i .

equilibrium equations are reduced to

Recalling that ( r )i  0 and also that ( z )i  0 .

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 2

1.2 Hankel transform

self-reciprocal, with the inverse transform of F (m) to yield f (r ) calculated as follows

Say f (r ) represents a distributed circular load with intensity q0 and radius a

in which H ( x) is the Heaviside step function defined as

Graphically, the Heaviside step function is represented as follows (with   0 ):

Figure 2. Graphical representation of the Heaviside step function (   0 ).

Substitution of f (r ) in Equation 15 into Equation 13 gives

Now, using the inverse Hankel transform in Equation 14, we get

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 3

Class Exercise #3: Numerical Hankel Transform

of force×length) that satisfies the biharmonic equation 22  0 , where  2 is the

axisymmetric Laplace operator ( 2   2 / r 2  r 1 / r   2 / z 2 ) may be used to derive

stresses and displacements in an elastic medium under axisymmetric conditions (compatibility

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 4

in which a  a / H , r  r / H , z  z / H , and zi  zi / H are dimensionless entities (with

functions of m that embody the layered system properties and connectivity.

 i   J1 (ma )dm (28)

wherein the m functions Ai , Bi , Ci , and Di for i  1, 2,..., I are to be obtained by imposing

wherein, based on Equation 19, q(r ) is simply given by

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 5

1.4 Numerical considerations

The integration over m in Equations 27-32 is to be performed numerically. In general, selecting

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 6

acceleration techniques such as the double exponential formula or Richardson extrapolation

(or both) may be used.

Project #1: Layered Elastic Half-Space

1.5 Multiple and moving loads

positive direction of the x -axis to that of the y -axis.

Figure 3. Coordinate transformation from Cylindrical to Cartesian.

quasi-static approximation loses its accuracy and relevancy.

Class Exercise #4: Layered Elasticity

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 8

2. Elastostatic FWD Backcalculation

The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a nondestructive pavement testing device; it

geophones positioned at different distances from the load plate center.

Figure 4. Typical FWD load plate and geophone arrangement.

Figure 5. FWD load-deflection history.

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 9

layers; and (iv) interface attributes.

Backcalculation refers to the process of determining the mechanical properties of layers

measured and computed deflections is minimized. This approach is called 'elastostatic

backcalculation' because we disregard wave propagation effects (time dependence in material

properties is also disregarded). Common computer programs that perform elastostatic

Project #2: Backcalculation

© 1999–2021 Eyal Levenberg 10