Chcf tq,r

Quasicrystals are structures which can be found

in many metallic alloys. Polygonal quasicrystals can
have B, 10 or 12 planes of symmetry. They are
known as octagonal, decagonal and dodecagonal
quasicrystals respectively.

ft
" l
[- t' tiI I IJ It)5,
t
( lr
r\
()
I trt r t't I ;1 i t['t] Ix
tt r I rl I r) t €
(J
l' {) r) n5

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter,
you should be able to:
. identify different types of
triangles, special quadrilaterals
and polygons, and state
their properties,
. solve problems involving
the properties of
triangles, special
quadrilaterals and
polygons.
 11 lJ r1l rriansres
C Fig. 11 .1 shows a triangle AB C (MBq that has three sides.4-8,
BC and AC. The points A, B and C are called the vertices
(singular: vertex) of the triangle. aAC, edc and AdB are
known as the interior angles ol MBC.

ln primary school, we have learnt about triangles and some

A of their properties. ln this section, we shall learn more
Fig. 11 .1 about triangles.

t
aa
afa
ia a Classification of Triangles
Triangles can be classified according to
. the number of equal sides they have,
lr I

, Name ; Definition
l

I
Figure Properties I

li I All the angles in an

1
I

A triangle equilateral triangle

Equilateral are equal, i.e. 60".
with 3 equal
triangle (Abbreviation:
sides
Zs of equilateral A)
I

The base angles of an

A triangle isosceles triangle are
lsosceles equal.
with at least Euclid first defined an isosceie'
triangle (Abbreviation: triangle to have exactly 2 equ;
2 equal sides
l:ase ls of isos. A) sides. However, nowadays, a-
isosceles triangle is defined to ha" -
,-i at least 2 equal sides. Hence, a-
I equilateral triangle is a specialtr p-
of an isosceles triangle.
A All the angles in
Scalene a scalene triangle
with
triangle are different.
I

I
! 1..
Table 11.1

.rlrmlnr {t lr''!
aJ''---- \
j

il . the types of angles they have.

I

Name Definition Figure

A triangle with
Acute-angled triangle
3 acute angles

A triangle with
Right-angled triangle
1 right angle

A triangle with
Obtuse-angled triangle
1 obtuse angle

Table 11.2

Thi*king
t lme
How are the 6 types of triangles in Tables 11.1 and 11.2 related to one another?
For example, can an obtus6-angled triangle be an equilaterar triangle?

The relationships among them are illustrated in Fig. 11.2.

Equilateral triangles

Fig. 11 .2 is a Venn diagram

which will be covered in
the chapter on Sets in Upper
Secondary Mathematics.

Obtuse- C
angled
triangles
Fig. 11.2
What types of triangles do A, B, C and D represent?

Triangles. Quadritarerats and Polygons Chapter 11

 at
ta
a
Recap {An*l* 5un': qst aTriavzlebi
We have learnt in primary school that:
The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180".
(Abbreviation: Z sum of A)

A proof of the above result is given as follows:

Consider MBC in Fig. 'l 1.3.

C
o

y:ir,lr, X l ,.1

Draw a line PQ that is parallel to AB and passes through C.

nAc = le p Glt. zs, pe AB) l
e4c = ne e Glt. zs, Pe AB) l
We also have te p +,qe a + ne Q= 180" (adj. Zson a str. line).
.'. sAc + te n + ,qfic = l8o' (Z sum of A)

Calculate the value ol a in the figure. C

800

ao 65o
B
a" + 65'+ 80" = 180" (Z sum of A)
a' = 180" - 65'- 80'
= 35"
.'. a=35

1. Find the value of a in the figure. 2. ln the figure, AC = BC. Find the Exercise 1 1A Questions 1(a)-tcl
value of b. 2(a)-(d), 3(a)-(f), s, 9(b), (d), 1o
12-1 5
C C

65'
52"

oB "n The base angles of an isoscele.

lriangle are equal. rAbbreviatior
base Zs of isos. A)

{;}
:i': Basic Properties of a Triangle

Investigation
l
Basic Properties of aTriangle

ln this investigation, we shall explore two basic properties of a triangle.

Co to http://www.shinglee.com.sg/StudentResources/ and open the geometry software template 'Basic Properties

of Triangle'.

Basic Properties of Tfiangle

What is the relationship between an angle of a triangle and its opposite side?

o lA= 65.6" a= 5.6 cm

lB =34.7' D=3-5cm

lC='79.8" c=6.1 cm
*,
A
i
Fig. 11.4

1. The template in Fig. 11.4 shows a triangle with 3 angles and their opposite sides, e.g. the side a is
opposite ZA. Name the side opposite ZB and the side opposite ZC.
2. State the largest and the smallest angle. Compare the lengths of the sides opposite these angles.
What do you observe?
3. Click and move a point A, B or C to change the size of the triangle' What can you conclude about the
relationship between an angle of a triangle and the length of its opposite side?
4. Use a calculator to add the lengths of the two shorter sides of a triangle and compare it with the length of
the longest side. What do you notice?
5. Repeat Step 3. ls your observation in Step 4 still applicable? Explain your answer.

,.:;:'.r,li$ ilcr# Frligri*;t'.-; Shapter 11 (

Click'2' in the template to proceed to the next page as shown in Fig. 11.5.

Basic Properties of Triangle

a
can you form a triangle if the sum of the lengths of the two shorter sides
is less than or equal to the length ofthe longest side?
o c = 5.0 cln

} = 2.1; .ttt

r'= 9.0 cnr

A
,'
i adjttst length ofa

>: adjust length of b

Fig. 1 1.5
6. ThetemplateinFig. ll.5showsthreelinesegmentswithlengths e=5cm,b=2cmandc=gcm.Noticethat
the sum of the lengths of the two shorter line segments, i.e. a + b, is shorter than the length of the longest
line segment. Click and move the two points labelled C to see if it is possible to form a triangle.
7. Adjust the lengths a and b so that a=3 cm and b = 4 cm. Adjust the length c by clicking and moving either
pointA orB such thatc=7cm. Whatdo you notice abouta + b and c?fry toform a triangle if possibie.
B. Change the lengths of the three line segments. Are you able to form a triangle? What can you
conclude
about the relationship between the sum of the lengths of any two line segments and the length of the third
line segment?

From the investigation, two basic properties of a triangle are:

' The largest angle of a triangle is opposite the longest side, and the smallest angle is opposite the _ side.
r The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the length of the third side.

i ,,, lj ,!
,_--z
i:'! Exterior Angles of a Triangte
Fig. 11.6 shows MBC with AB produced to P, BC produced to Q and CA
produced to R. Za, Zb and Zc are the interior angles of MBC. Zp, Zq and
Zr are the exterior angles of MBC. 6
There are two ways in whidr the
exterior angles of a triangle nray
be drawn,

Fig. 11.6

ln particular, Za and lb are called the interior opposite angles with

reference to Zq.
Similarly, Za and Zc are called the interior opposite angles with referen ceto lp.
Which are the interior opposite angles with referen ce to Zr?

Consider MBC in Fig. 11.7.

C Zb + ld = 180' (adj. Zs on a str. line)
We also have Za + lb + Zc = I80" (Z sum of A).
:.Zb+Zd=Za+Zb+/.c
:.Zd=Z-a+Zc

Fig.11.7

Hence, we conclude that:

An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of its interior opposite angles.
(Abbreviation: ext. I of L)

Chrpt.r1l
Triangles, Quadrilatsrals and Polygons
d
 (a) ln the figure, ABD is a straight line.
Calculate the value of a.
C

56.

00
500
ABD

(b) ln the figure, ACE, BCD and DEF are straight lines.
Calculate the value of b and of c..
D

A 25"

b"
94"
C
39.
coE
B

(a) a" =56" + 50'(ext. I of L)

= 106'
.'. a = 106

(b) g =94'(vert. opp. zs)

.a.e
b" +38" +94'=180" (t sum of MBC)
b' = 180" -38" -94'
= 49"
.'.b=48
c' =25" +94"
= 119' (ext. 1of LCDE)
.'. c = ll9

(a) ln the figure, ABD is a straight line. (b) ln the figure, ABC, ADF and ADE Exercise l lAQuestions4(ar-
Find the value of a. are straight lines. Find the value of 7(a)-(b),8(a)-(b), e(a), (c), 11

c bandofc.
48' u a,' h"F
ao
A 53"
BDI) 9-r.
.o
lro
A"Bc

t:W;ltt'ifr.x \ I
 .l

Exercise
- 11A

1. For each of the following, given the sizes of ZA Given thal DAB is a straight line, find the value(s)
and zB, sketch MBC. Find lC and hence of the unknown(s) in each of the following figures.
classify each triangle according to the number (a) c
of equal sides it has, and the types of angles 'l'
55"\
it has, e.g. equilateral triangle and acute-angled \
triangle.
(a) ZA=20", ZB=60' a
47"
(b, ZA=7O", ZB=40"
(cl ZA=60", ZB=ffi"
(d\ ZA=42", ZB=48" (b) C
.l'.
b"
35"

2. For each of the following, the given angle is the

base angle of an isosceles triangle. Find the third
angle of the triangle
p io' t 'B

(a) a0' (b) 87'

(c) 15' (d) 7e' (c) C

2e'

3. Find the value of the unknown in each of the

following figures.
(") cp;--- ,;a q d" tc,:

'\l .'2b" .

\l\399 cd64'
,/t
,/l

5. lf the sizes of the angles of a triangle are 3x', 4x"

\- -\ and 5x', find the smallest angle of the triangle.
\ -_ 68'_
A
A

B (d) c
ln the figure, ABC is a straight line.
-'":l
3c"/ ,rf'-.
-''" t\
\ D
c.{N" qrf B
tt
,/
4c" t '3t
\,.,
A A
|, 20'-i -
ABC
(e) c (DC /:
f---, ,:f" Civen that l6n = abC, find
| ,:- -B (i) sbc,
tg-u'' $l cdo.

Chapter 11
 (a) ln the figure, ABD is a straight line.
Calculate the value of a.
C

56

00
50.
ABD

(b) ln the figure, ACE, BCD and DEF are straight lines.
Calculate the value of b and of ...

A 25"

b"
94"
C
380
('o E

(a) a' = 56" + 50'(ext. Z of L)

= 106'
.'. c = 106

(b) te n =94'(vert. opp. ls)

b" +38' +94" = 180" (l sum of MBC)
b' = 180'- 38'- 94'
= 48"
.'.b=48
c' =25'+94"
= I 19' (ext. I ol LCDE)
.'. c = 119

(a) ln thefigure, ABDis a straight line. (b) ln the figure, ABC, ADF and BDE Exercise ltAeuestions 4(a)1c\,6,
Find the value of a. are straight lines. Find the va lue of 7(a)-(b), B(a)-(b), e(a), (c), 1 1

c bandofc.
48' u
-t-t"
b"F
a"
A 5l'
BDI) 9-l'
to
A *'
,,

B c
1- \
I
I
i
I

- Exercise
11A

1. For each of the following, given the sizes of ZA Civen that DAB is a straight line, find the value(s)
and Z.B, sketch MBC. Find lC and hence of the unknown(s) in each of the following figures.
classify each triangle according to the number (a) c
of equal sides it has, and the types of angles
,,55'''\
it has, e.g. equilateral triangle and acute-angled tt
triangle.
(a) a
ZA=20', ZB=60" 47])'
(b) ZA=70",18=40' DA
(c) ZA=ffi", ZB=ffi"
(d) ZA=42", ZB=48" (b) I
b":
:35""
For each of the following, the given angle is the
base angle of an isosceles triangle. Find the third
D. ,5!'
t
, :,,8
ro'
angle of the triangle A
(a) 40' (b) 87"
(c) 15" (d) 7e"
(c) C

2e"

Find the value of the unknown in each of the

following figures. I 10'
(l) c---B (b) q
D 'A. d' 5e

\']
\l
\rsi ^Xu
"
-a-\
,'/
,/l
,.tib

l
5. lf the sizes of the angles of a triangle are 3x", 4x"
\ 681 and 5x', find the smallest angle of the triangle.
----_
A A
(c) ,,8 (d) g. ln the figure, ABC is a straight line.
\aP
--.

c.(n-"'-"{'/ / +tr.'B
D

\. o*,/ '3t.
\7 fr"
A A
t,-,. . ..- --- --. - 20' r-
ABC
.u,.>-^ C

--)-r* i'f'' Civen that AbB = BbC, find

!'\ (i) nbc,
t_..-, + $D cfro.

Chapter 11
 E
(b) G

A45"8 H
7. Civen rhat ABC and BED are straight lines,
64"
find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each of
the following figures. F d'
(a) D c"

Eb"c32'rD
tt" J
F32'G(c)A
I
115' 2e"
ABC:
(b) A f po"
CI..D t'. f
B 22'
C 8e" (d) E K
E c. h' 6-5"-
a
2'r"^FJB
c 68'^ D
GI
Di
B. Civen Ihar ABC, ADF and BDE are straight lines, H

find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each of

thefollowingfigures. 10. lfthesizesoftheanglesofatriangleare(-x-35)',
(a)e u /t
(x-25)"andl*r-l0l,findthevalueofx.
40. \2 )'
4s"
D82'a" 11. ln MBC, nAc = 5o' and ne ,q =26" .
cl ii"a'abC'
B b" F (ii) lf AB is produced to D, find CED.
C

(b) 12. ln the figure, ACE and BCD are straight lines.
F c E
57"c"8D6t.41"

-44'
L
D c
5l'
A
o5o"B
9. Civen thatAB /l CD,findthevaluesoftheunknowns
in each of the following figures. Find
(a) A B (i) te n,
108" 11"
$) A6c.

Q"n-o h"
JI
CDE
13. ln the figure, AC // ED and BE // CD.
ED
JZ 14. The figure shows LABC inscribed C
in a circle with centre O.lf CEO
is twice of cAo and aAo is one
and a half times of C6o, o
106" 47" find CAo. B
ABC A
Find
(i) oFn, 15. ln the figure, each side of MBC is produced.
$) B6c. lf AB = AC, BD = BE and AF = DF, find eBC.

C
B E

11 1l ,%euadrilaterals
Fig. 11.8 shows a quadrilateral ABCD. A quadrilateral is Diagonal
a closed plane figure that has four sides, four vertices and '\u.)r
four interior angles. The line segment BD that joins the
vertices, B and D, is a diagonal of the quadrilateral ABCD. p A quadrilateral is named by taking
sc the vertices either in a clockrr ise or
Now let us find the sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral. anticlockwise order. Hence,,4BCD.

lp + lq + Zu = 180" (Z sum of MBD) BCDA, CDAB and DABC are correct

qr ways of naming the quadrilateral
Zr + ls + Z.t = 180' (2, sum of LBCD) bul ABDC and CDBA are not.
Sum of interior angles of the quadrilateral ABCD B

=Zp+lq+Zr+ls+lt+lu Fig. 1l.B

=Zp+Zq+lu+Z-r+ls+Zt
= 180'+ 180"
= 360"

The sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360'.

*tnmpt*r 1r @
 l:.i Properties of Special Quadrilaterals

Investigation
Properties of Special Qra&ilaterals
ln this investigation, we shall explore the properties of special quadrilaterals.
Co to http://www.shinglee.com.sg/StudentResources/ and open the Seometry software template
'special Quadri laterals'.
DN_---->-----zc
i\
l\--i ./1
I.A't
t,,,,
SIA a,, --
\J Ll6
Rectangle

Fig. 11.9

1. A rectangle- .BCD is shown. Measure the lengths of AB, BC, DC and AD. What do you notice?
2. Measure BAo, AEc, neo andeDc. what do you notice?
3. Measure the lengths of AE, BE, CE and DE- What do you notice?
4. Find the sum of the lengths AE and CE and the sum of the lengths BE and DE. What do you notice?
5. Click and drag the points A, B and D to form rectangles of different dimensions and repeat Steps 1 - 4-

What conclusions can you draw?

Farallelogram Rhombus Trapezium

Square

Fig. 11.10

6. Click on the different tabs to view other special quadrilaterals, namely a square, a parallelogram, a rhombus,
a trapezium and a kite. Consider each of the quadrilaterals and answer the following questions.
(a) What can you say about the lengths of its sides?
(b) What can you say about its interior angles?
(c) Do the diagonals have the same len$h?
(d) Do the diagonals bisect each other? For example, in the parallelogram ABCD, is AE = EC and BE = ED?'
(e) Are the diagonals perpendicular to each other?
(0 Do the diagonals bisect the interior angles? For example, in the rhombus ABCD, is nAC = CAD and
t6o = cipt
i

t_ ^-.
 I

Table 11 .3 gives a summary of the properties of the special quadrilaterals which have been covered in the investigation. i

Quadrilateral Parallelsides Equalsides lnterior angles Diagonals

+_ ____r_r c There are r
r--\
l\,/1
r-l Opposite All four angles The two diagonals are
I \-,,"
-6.- two pairs of sides are are right equal in length.
t
i

r parallel sides. equal in angles. . Diagonals bisect each

'- t \-1
___j:.tB
A4__,.+> length. other, i.e. AE = EC and
Rectangle BE = ED.

There are Allfour All four angles o The two diagonals are
two pairs of sides are of are right equal in length.
D- 9- -
-,C parallel sides. the same angles. . Diagonals bisect each
length. other at right angles, i.e.
i

l_: i
AEB=BEC=AED
= CED =go'.
. Diagonals bisect the
Square interior angles, e.g.
BAC = CAD = 45' and
t6o=cdo=qs'.
?ro'.'*
/\
i'.-''/
-;ic -
There are Opposite Opposite angles Diagonals bisect each
LYI two pairs of sides are are equal, i.e. other, i.e. AE = EC and
///\-/'
/
'/L/

-' -+> / parallel sides. equal in ADC=ABC and BE = ED.

ALL... -- B
length. nAo = neo.
Parallelogram
There are Allfour Opposite angles . Diagonals bisect each
o/',,-n two pairs of sides are of are equal. i.e. other at right angles, i.e.
-.7c parallel sides. the same ADC=ABC and AEB=BEC=AED
; ,E ;.Y"
length. aAo = neo. = CED =go'.
eL-l -, .t/n . Diagonals bisect the
Rhombus interior angles, e.g.
BAC = CAD and
t6o = c6o.
2.-,_ - , .;-c There is at
,/ --
_-.-.
,.i ,..,--''E--. ",
least one pair
AL: .+ :rB of parallel
Trapezium sides.

The opposite There are . Diagonals cut each

sides may be two pairs other at right angles, i.e.
parallel. of equal AEB=BEC=AED
adjacent = cED =go'.
sides. o One diagonal bisects the
interior algles, i.e.
.l
B ADB = CDB and
Kite t6o = c6o.
Table 11.3
 Thinking

Quadrilaterals
How are the 6 types of special quadrilaterals in Table 1 1 .3 related to one another?
For example,
(a) is a square a special type of rectangle? Trapeziums

(b) is a rectangle a special type of parallelogram?

(c) is a parallelogram a special type of trapezium? B
(d) is a square a special type of rhombus?
(e) is a rhombus a special type of kite? Rectangles
The relationships among them are illustrated in Fig. 11.11, where for instance,
'C -+ A' means C is a special tYPe of A. D

Fig. 1 1.1 1
What types of quadrilaterals do A, B, C and D represent?

Discussion
Symmetric Properties of Special Qradrilaterals
Work in pairs.
(i) A tine of symmetry divides a figure into two identical halves'
Fig. 11.12 shows examples of real-life objects that exhibit line symmetry.
The lines of symmetrY are shown.

J !

+
(a) The apple has
of symmetrY.
t line
.r,:
F"
't

(b) The biscuit has 2 lines

of symmetry.
T

Fig. 11.12

Let us now consider a rectangle ABCD.

P
C

R -.-----"------ --'-1--"-'----' -- -- ",

A'
o
Fig. 11.13

Sinceeach of the lines, PQandRS, dividesthe rectangle intotwo identicalhalves, ln the case of order 1, we say tha:
the rectangle ABCD has 2 lines of symmetry' there is no rotational symmetn.

A
 I

(ii) The order of rotational symmetry about a particular point is the number of
distinct ways in which a figure can map onto itself by rotation in 360'.
Fig. 1 1 .14 shows examples of real-life objects that exhibit rotational symmetry.
-

(a) The order of rotational (b) The order of rotational

symmetry of the starfish is 5. symmetry of the pinwheel is 6.
Fig. 11.14

Now, let us consider the same rectangle ABCD where the diagonals AC and BD
intersect at E.

o
[,, --7'
------------)
rotate 90'
clockwise l\/i
r/\ l

rotate
clockwise
90't
"
t/' --\.
I
I rotate 90'
'[', B--.-A
+
I clockwise

Z" t\ /

l/ri
l/ \i
+-
rotate 90'
clockwise
\ --x
,.tE'-
cl-'t _---_--_!,
-"-

nL----fo
Fig. 11.15

Since the rectangle maps onto itself twice in a 360' rotation about E, the order
of rotational symmetry of the rectangle is 2.

Consider a rhombus and a kite.

Using paper cut-outs of these quadrilaterals, fold or rotate them to explore their
symmetry. Discuss with your classmates the following questions:
(a) How many lines of symmetry are there in a rhombus/kite?
(b) Does a rhombus/kite have rotational symmetry? lf so, what is its order of
rotational symmetry?
(c) From the symmetries, are you able to observe any geometrical relationships?
For example, from the line of symmetry of a kite, we can see which angles
are equal.

';,ltu
*n{J fr$lvg$fl*, Chapter 11
@
 The figure shows a rectangle ABCD E lies on AB such
that cED = 85' ancl oe g = +s'.

45" OAB is a quadrant of a circle with

centre O and OCDE is a rectangle.
lf OE= 3crnand EB=2cm.
find the length of aC.
8-s"
B
A
E
ED
Ca lcu late
gA
G) 'qbt,
fi) e4o.

(i) CDe + 85" + 45' = 180'(Z sum of LCDE)

cbe=180"-85'-45'
= -50.
ebn + 50'= 90" QqDc is a right angle.)
tbe = 90" -.50"
= 40"
( ii) sAn = go'
,qio + 40" + 90'= 180" (l
of MDE) sum

,q,Eo=l80'-40"-90'
= 50'

1. The figure shows a rectangleABCD. 2. The figure shows a rectangle Exercise 1 1B Questions 1(a)-(b)
4(a)-(b), 6, 12
E lies on AB such that,qbt = 51" ABCD where the diagonals AC and
and o0r = 68". BD intersect at E.
DC DC
68'
51"

Use four identical 3-by-2 rectangles

to form two squares.
A A

Find Civen that Ae B = 63', find

() AED, 0 nic,
$) cEo. tiil cbr.
 The fisrrre shous a p,rrallelogram ABCDwhere gAO =O+".
E lies on .{B sLrclr that .lDf = +g'.
t)c

Ca lcu late
(l eic,
(ii) cDt

(i) edc + = t8o' (inr. zs. AD t/ BCt

64"
,qic=180"-64"
= l16'

(D lbC = l16' (opp. ls of /tgram)

CDE+49"=116"
cbe = trc" - 49"
= 6J'

1. The figure shows a parallelogram ABCD where efrC = 108". t lies on AB such rrc'rcise 1l13 eue,sti,n. I
7'1t
thatrdE=3g'.

ALB
(i) Civen that,qAC = 9-r', fincl the value of .r.
(ii) Find piE.

2. The figure shorvs a parallelogrant ABCD. Find the value of .r and of r'.

DC
(5.\ + 6)' (r'+ l7)'

tl.r + l.l t"

-,'|
'{
 The figure shows a rhombus ABCD. The diagonal BD
is produced to g such that AD = DE.

o68'8
tf16g = 68', calculate
(t neo,
fii) oAs,.

(i) CBO = 68" lrlr,rgori,rls iri.,r.r I intt,r'ir.rr ,lnglr-.s o1 .r rlronrlrrrsi

se o + 68' + 68" = l8o" fint. Zs, AB // DC)
neo = r80'- 68" - 68"
= 44'
(ii) ,qbn =68' (base zs of isos. MBD)
OAe + ,qEO = 68" (ext. I of L)
^ Aa'
DAE = +')
(base ls of isos. MDE)
= ll+"

1. Thefigureshowsarhombus ABCD where,qeO=32'.AB isproducedtoE

!i;::TllBQuestionss(a-
such that AC = CE.

DC 32"

Au
Find
() A6c,
$D nen.

2. The figure shows a rhombus ABCD where D C

(3x + 13)"
the diigonals AC and BD intersect at E.
Find the value of x.
E
(,r.- +'15)"
A
,J- Ex-elcise
c 11B

1. Find the values of the unknowns in each of the

3. Find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each or
following rectangles. r

following kites.
(a) o C (a)
a
D
54'
100'

b" AA
A B 61"

b)D C
d' b"
39'
B
78' .
c
E B (b) D
c

A 26"
2. Find the values of the unknowns in each of the 40" C

fol lowi ng paral lelograms.

(a) o
b' a.

I 06" 48'
A B Find the values of the unknowns in each oi :-
following squares.
(b) D C (a)o c
5c" 2d"

82'
4c"
E
b'
A FB

(b) D FC
c
d" c"

{)h11i;1., A
5. Find the values of the unknowns in each of the B. The figure shows a rhombus ABCD. The diagona
following rhombuses. DB is produced to E such that BC = BE anc,
(a) u,/-'1---->+ CDE = 46' .

,/"t"
t --'
n+",y'
B

(b) n
38"

Find
(c) (i) nAo,
fii't nen.

9. The figure shows a

rhombus ABCD where
the diagonals AC and BD intersect at E. Find the
value of x.
(3x
A D#< + 7\"
6. The figure shows a rectangle ABCD where the
diagonals AC and BD intersect at E.
D C
(2x + 53)"

52" 10. The figure shows a trapezium ABCD where

AB//DC. Find the value of x and of y.
A B

Civen that nEC = 52", find

(i) tbn,
fii teo.

7. The figure shows a parallelogram ABCD where 11. The figure shows a kite ABCD where AB = AD.
gAo = 65' . E lies on DC such that BED = t25' .
BC = CD and the diagonals AC and BD intersect

"r----+"-lc
r2s.\
at E.

/ /

Find
-% / \/

(i) tbn, Find

$il c6n. (i) tdo,
$i't c6o.

lrlranlna'l { Triql.*log l1a.,g dyilq,f *ytlr *rtel &c!u*-'"",

12. ln^a rectangle ABCD, E is the midpoint of AB and 15. ln a trapezium ABCD, AB // DC, AB=AD, ge O=SZ"
CED = 118'. Find and ebc = 62" . Find
(i) tbz, (i) 46o,
$D nen. tiil cio.
13. ln a parallelogram PQRS, e4n=42" andpFS= ZO.. 16. ln a kjte peRS, pe = eR, p,S
= RS, gFn = +2.
Find and p,9R = 64". Find
(i) pAn, (i) Pfs,
fi) PRQ. $t pan.
14. ln a rhombu s WXYZ, Wfty = 108". Find
(i) x2Y,
GD xtz,
(,ii) xfi/Y.

We have learnt about triangles and quadrilaterals in the previous sections.

Triangles and quadrilaterals are examples of polygons.

.A polygon is a c/osec/ plane figure with three or more straight line segments as
its sides. Fig. 11.16 shows some other examples of polygons.

Fig. 1t.t6

The shapes shown in Fig. 11.17 are not polygons. Why?

Fig. 'l I .17

tlhapter'tr'l @
 The first two polygons in Fig. 11.16 are called simple polygons because their
boundaries do not cross themselves, i.e. the line segments do not intersect
one another, unlike the third polygon.

The first polygon in Fig. 11 .16 is called a convex polygon because a// of its interior
angles are less than 180".

lndicate the interior angle that is greater than 180' on the second polygon in
Fig. 1 1 .16. A simple polygon in which at least one of its interior angles is more
than 180" is called a concave polygon (notice that the second polygon in Fig. 1 'l .16
caves in at that vertex whose interior angle is more than 180').

The third polygon in Fig. 11 .16 is neither convex nor concave because it is not a
simple polygon.

ln this section, we will study only convex polygons.

Class
Discussion
Naming of Polygons

Polygons are named after the number of sides that they have. Search on the lnternet
for a video titled 'Polygon Song'. Listen to the song and work in pairs to write down
the names of the following polygons.
.lnternet

a^> N-s
)Resources

\
Triangle (3-sided) Quadri lateral (4-sided)
\t (5-sided)
The names of the polygons ir'
Fig. 1 1.18 contain prefixes whil
are determined by their nunter
of sides. Search the lnternet to frrt
out other uses of these prefixer

O (6-sided) Heptagon (7-sided) (B-sided)

Nonagon (9-sided) (10-sided)

Fig. 11.18

l.
 i

i
I
For polygons with more than 10 sides, some of them also have special names, but I

1
I
they are not easy to remember. To make naming of polygons easier, we call a polygon t
I
with n sides an n-sided polygon or an n-gon. For example, a polygon with 12 sides
is known as a 12-sided polygon or a 12-gon.

ii.! Regular Polygons

A regular polygon iss,a polygon with a// sides equal and all angles equal.
Which polygons in Fiig. 1 1 .18 are regular polygons?

Thinking
Time
What is the name of a regular triangle and of a regular quadrilateral?

Investigation
Properties ofa Regular Polygon

1. ls it possible for a polygon to have all sides equal without being a regular polygon?
(a) What is the name of a non-regular quadrilateral with all sides equal?
(b) Fig. 11.19 shows the pulling of a regular hexagon as indicated by
the arrows to form a non-regular hexagon with all sides equal. Draw another
non-regular hexagon with all sides equal but of a different shape as the one
shown in Fig. 1'1.19.

a\becomes[l
(
\--l
t
) '(
L_l
)

Fig. 11.19

2. ls it possible for a polygon to have all angles equal without being a regular polygon?
(a) What is the name of a non-regular quadrilateral with all angles equal?
(b) Draw two different non-regular hexagons with all angles equal.

Triangles, 0uadrilaterals and Falygons n@|

Chapter 11

---..-... :
 Journal A regular polygon
a polygon with
is

Writing All the sides of a regular

polygon are equal. all sides equal.

The teacher says that Devi is correct but

Michael is wrong. In your journal, explain the
differences between the statements made by
Devi and Michael.

Investigation
Symmetric Properties of Regular Polygons

ln this investigation, we shall take a look atthe symmetric properties of regular polygons.

Using paper cut-outs of a few regular polygons, i.e. a pentagon, a hexagon and an
octagon, fold or rotate them to explore their symmetry.

(a) How many lines of symmetry are there in each of the regular polygons?
(b) Does each of the regular polygons have rotational symmetry? lf so, what is its
order of rotational symmetry?

(c) From the symmetries, are you able to observe any geometrical relationships?
For example, in the hexagon shown in Fig. 11.2O, using rotational symmetry,
we can see that there are 6 identical triangles. Are you able to identify other
angles which are equal to Zx?

Fig. 11.20

F I

s
F

t-
 I
rt
aa
o.a
aaa
aaa Sum of lnterior Angles of a Polygon
ln the previous sections, we have learnt that the sum of interior angles of a
triangle and of a quadrilateral is 180' and 360' respectively. What is the sum of
interior angles of other polygons?

Investigation
Sum of InteriorAngles of a Polygon

ln this investigation, we shall deduce a general expression for the sum of interior
angles of an n-sided polygon.
l. Complete Table 11.4.

Number Number of

A
Polygon Sum of lnterior Angles
of sides Triangle(s) formed

3 I 1x 180" =(3-2) x 180"

Triangle

./i\,
\i)
\r"
4 2 x 180' =(4-Z) x 180'

Quadrilateral

/\
,/ /.:
,, )
..'I
(t
\, I
\.'-.' I
v____J
Pentagon

Hexagon

Table 11.4
 porygon :i#""J ,,,Jjl|iil",t sum or Interior Anstes
"o

Heptagon

Octagon

n-gon
.[",4
T*hf* I

2. From Table 11.4, what can you say about the number of triangles formed by
a polygon in relation to the number of sides it has?

From the investigation, we have deduced that:

The sum of interior angles of an n-sided polygon is (r - 2) x 180".

Calculate the value of a in the figure.

D
E
93" t42'
48' c
2a" 133'

AB

Sum of interior angles of a pentagon = (.n 2) x 180'

-
= (5 _2) x 180'
= 540"
2a" + 133" + 48'+ 142" +93" =540" A pentagon has 5 sides, i.e
2a" = 540" - 133" - 48' - 142" -93'
= 124"
a" =62'
.'.a=62
 I
l"

-->

m
l. Find the value of a in the figure. Find the value of b in the figure. Exercise 1 1C Questions 1(a)-(d),
z(a)-(d),7
D
E------S
F
fl,'"'i;"b.
et22"o?//
\:,

Worked Ff ;:i.,, ,,. i,

(i)
Example JI
Calculate the sum of interior angles of a
regular decagon.
(ii) Hence, calculate the size of each interior
angle of a regular decagon.

Solution:
(i)

(ii)
Sum of interior angles of a regular decagon

Size of each interior angle of a regular decagon

-
=
(10
1440"

=
-

#
= lM"
2) x 180'

6
A regular decagon has l0 sides.

@
(i) Find the sum of interior angles of a regular polygon with 24 sides. Exercise 11C Questions
(ii) Hence, find the size of each interior angle of a regular polygon with 24 sides. 3(a)-(b)

li.i Sum of Exterior Angles of a Polygon

Fig. 1 1 .21 shows a pentagon ABCDE with A,B produced to p, BC produced to
Q, CD produced to R, DE produced to S and EA produced to Z. Za, Zb, lc, Zd
and Ze are the interior angles of the pentagon. Zp, Zq, Zr, Zs and Z.t are the
exterior angles of the pentagon.
There are two ways in which the
exterior angles ofthe pentagon may
be drawn.

Fig. 11.21

ir rangies, {ir*clrrlal,*r*ls nnr} Fcfygoll* Chapter 11

___r,_r.s@ rrrlagsr_rr__\|
 Investigation
Sum of ExteriorAngles ofaPentagon

Co to http://www.shinglee.com.sg/StudentResources/ and open the geometry

software templ ate' Exterior Angles of Polygon'.

Sum of Exterior A
Exterior angles are coloured

o
*, Drag me towards O
A
L
B
>:
Fig. 1 1.22

1. The template shows a pentagon with 5 exterior angles. Click on the point
'Drag me towards O' and drag it until it reaches O. Fig. 11.23 shows the
figure just before the point reaches O.

Angles of Polygon
Exterior angles are

Drag me towards O

Fig. 11.23
2. What do you think is the sum of the exterior angles of a pentagon?
Explain your answer.

L@ Chaoter 11 Trianqles. 0uadrilateral* and Pslygons

!
E
F

r -1
 i

1
i
I

qJ-

From the investigation, we observe that the sum of exterior angles of a pentagon is 360'.
A proof of the above result is given as follows:
Consider the pentagon in Fig. 11 .24.

We have Za+ Zp = 180", Zb + Zq = 180",

Zc+Zr7_rZd+Zs=
and Ze+Zt=_.
.'. Za + ./.p + Zb + Zq + Zc +,Zr + Zd + Zs + Ze + Zt =- x 180'
(./.a + lb + Zc + Zd + Ze) + (Zp + Zq + Zr + ls + lt) =999"
Since the sum of interior angles of a pentagon = Za + Zb + Zc + Zd + Ze
= (5 - 2) x 180' =540",
540'+ (lp + lq + Zr + Zs + Zt) =999".
:. lp+lq+ Zr+Zs+lt=900'- i

l-,"
By using this method, we can show that the sum of exterior angles of a hexagon, E:-.-- ----?{g
of a heptagon and of an octagon is also 360'. I

Fig. 1't.24
ln general, we have:
The sum of exterior angles of any polygon is 360'.

Thinking

1. (i) ls it possible for a regular polygon to have an exterior angle of 70'? Explain your answer.
(ii) lf an exterior angle of a regular polygon is an integer, what are all the possible values of the angle?
2. ls it possible for a regular polygon to be a concave polygon? Explain your answer.

H:;ff[8 Calculate the number of sides of a regular polygon if

(a) each exterior angle of the polygon is 24" ,
(b) each interior angle of the polygon is 162'.

Solution:
(a) The sum of exterior angles of the regular polygon is 360".
36q"
.'. Number of sides of the oolvson
t IQ- = 24"
=15
(b) Method 1:
Let the number of sides of the regular polygon = n. il
(n:?LJt0" I
Size of each interior angle of the polygon = n
(n - 2) x 180'
... = 162.
n
(n-2) x 180'=162'n
180n-360=162n
180n - l62n =360
l8n = 360
:. n =20
.,. : r.-.lir i;,!i-if ;xiri iirfld qinlrtrg*rt'r:, Chaptef 11
 Method 2:
Size of each exterior angle of the regular polygon = 180' - 162'
= tg' (adj. Zs on a str. line)
Cenerally, it is easier to use the
360'
.'. Number of sides of the polygon =- 18' formula for the sum of exterior
angles of a polygon. We can find
each exterior angle by using this
--20
formula: int. Z + ext. Z = 180'.

1. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon if Exercise 1 'lC Questions 4(a)-(b),
s(a)-(d), 6(a)-(d), B-1 0
(a) each exterior angle of the polygon is 40',
(b) each interior angle of the polygon is 178".
2. By finding the size of each exterior angle of a regular decagon, find the size of
each interior angle of the decagon.
Note: Refer to Worked Example 7. This is another method to find the size of each
interior angle of a regular polygon.
3. Two of the exterior angles of an n-sided polygon are25" and26', three of its interior
angles are 161' each and the remaining interior angles are 159' each. Find the
value of n.

H:ff*9 ABCDE is a regular pentagon. lf AB and DC are produced

to meet at F, find the value of nFC.

Solution:
360'
D Size of each exterior angle of the pentagon =- 5

E
/ \/ C
i-.
=72"
\l cir = ner =lz"
4-i-
\i
.\ nFc +72" +72" = 180' (l sum of LBCF)
\iLI ,--.,_____. __r,F
A'B a4c= 180" - i2" -72'
=36'

nffire
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. lf AB and DC are produced to meet at G, Exercise 1 1C Question 1 1

find the value of BdC.

-^
 AB, BC and CD are adjacent sides of an rr-sided regular polygon.

C
t2' D
B

lf BbC = 12", calculate

(i) the size of an exterior angle of the polygon,
(ii) the value of n,
Gii AED.

,i) c6o = 12' (base Zs of isos. LBCD)

Size of each exterior angle of the regular polygon = 12" + 12" (ext. Z of LBCD)
= 24'
ii) Value o1 n = ff
=15
tiil,cEC +24' = 180'(aclj. Zs on a str. line)
,qhc=180'-24"
= 156'
,q6o=adc*cio
= 156' - 12'
= 144"

in the figure, ABCDE is part of an rr-sided regular polygon, BPQRC is a regular Exercise llCQLre:ror. -' -

Ilentagon and CRSD is a square.

CR

DS

Fi nd
(i) p^c, (ii) ee n,
ftl BeD, Gv) abc,
(v) the value of n.

(
 Exercise Find the number of sides of a regular poll,gr

1lC if each interior angle of the polygon is

(a) 140', (b) rc2", (c) 172", (d) 175..

7. lf the sizes of the interior angles of a pentagc,-

are 2x' ,3x" , 4x" ,5.r' and 6x', find the largest interic .
angle of the pentagon.
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of each of the
following polygons. The exterior angles of a triangle are 3y., _l_r,
(a) 11-gon (b) 12-gon and 5.y'.
(c) 15-gon (d) 20-gon (i) Find the value of -v.
(ii) Find the smallest interior angle of the triangle
2. Find the value of the unknown in each of the
following figures.
(a)DcO)Dc
9. Three of the exterior angles of an n-sided polygon
llo'4. 84" 2b.
are l5', 25' and 70", and the remaining exterio.
angles are 50' each. Find the value of n.
78"
A
78'
10. Three of the exterior angles of an n-sideC
(c) polygon are 50' each, two of its interior
D (d) E angles are l2i" and 135', and the remaining
E
101'
z( t08' D interior angles are l'73" each. Find the value of n.
4d"

A c' 152"
38' c F ooror" ,o"oo c 11 ' ABCDEFG is a regular heptagon. lf AB and DC are
produced to meet at H, find the value of nfiC.
BAB
12. The points A, B, C and D are consecutive vertices
3. (a) (i) Find the sum of interior angles of a of a regular polygon with 20 sides. Find
regular hexagon. (i) e6c,
(ii) Hence, find the size of each interior angle (ii) e6o.
of a regular hexagon.
(b) (i) Find the sum of interior angles of a regular 13. ln the
figure, ABCDE is a regular pentagon and
polygon with l8 sides. ABPQRS is a regular hexagon. X is the centre of
(ii) Hence, find the size of each interior
the hexagon.
angle of a regular polygon with tg sides. C

PBD
4. (a) By finding the size of each exterior angle of
a regular polygon with 24 sides, calculate
the size of each interior angle of the polygon.
(b) By finding the size of each exterior angle
RS
of a regular polygon with 36 sides, calculate Find
the size of each interior angle of the polygon. (i) tEP,
fi) PAx,
5. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon if fiD AfrB,
each exterior angle of the polygon is $v),qEC,
(a) 90", (b) 45', (c) t2', (d) 4". (v) ,qeo,
(vi) A.ir'.

-
 i"l

h the figure, ABCDE is part of an n-sided regular 18. The figure shows part of an n-sided
polygon. The ratio of an interior angle to an where each side is produced. err a2t a3, ar,
qterior angle of this polygon is 5 : 1. and a_ are the interior angles of the
and r,, x2t x3r x4r ..., and x, are its exterior angles.

Find
(i) the value of n,
$i, eeo,
fiil.\ AbE.
Show that the sum of exterior angles of
15. tn the figure, ABCDEF is part of an n-sided regular the polygon is 360', i.e. x, + x2+ x3 +.x4+ ... + r.
polygon. Each exterior angle of this polygon is 36". = 360'.

19. The figure shows the internal structure of a beehive

made up of regular hexagonal cells that can form
tessellations with no overlaps or gaps.

(i) the value of n,

$i) nbn,
(iii't cio.

(i) Name another two regular polygons that can

16. ln the figure, ACJL, BCEF, DEGH and IGJK are form tessellations and sketch their tessellations.
straight lines. (ii) Why are these regular polygons able to
Find Z.a + Zb + Zc + Zd + Ze + Zf + Zg + Zh. form tessellations?
D Hrnt: What do you notice about their interior
angles?
(iii) Show that there are no other regular polygons
that can form tessellations.
(iv) Suggest a reason why beehives are made up
of regular hexagonal cells and not the
other two regular polygons that can form
tessellations too.

17. ln the figure, AFJD, AGHC, BGFE, BHID and

CIJE are straight lines.
FindZa+Zb+Zc+Zd+Ze.
A

lrrangles. Quadrriaterals and Folyguns Chapter 11

d
 ---

1. The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180" (Z sum of A).

2. An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of its interior opposite angles (ext. Z of A).
3. A quadrilateral is a closed 4-sided plane figure.
. The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360".
. The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other and are equal in length.
. The diagonals of a square bisect each other at 90", are equal in length and they bisect the interior angles.
. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
. The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at 90' and they bisect the interior angles.
. The diagonals of a kite cut each other at 90" and one of them bisects the interior angles.
4. ln a polygon, interior angle + exterior angle = 180'.
5. Sum of interior angles of an n-sided polygon = (n- 2) x 180"
6. Sum of exterior angles of an n-sided polygon = 360'

Rcvncw
Exercise

1. Find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each of the following figures'

(a) c^ (b) c
\---
i io"'r Y b"Y
64".

+
i,Y ,i \D /c"
'egr' 1: ZZ' 'B
A

2. Civen that ABC is a straight line, find the values of the unknowns in each of the following figures.
(a) D (b)
C
A'.
/a ,
/ o\ \
t'

/\,i\
I

ix B ',,ig' +
,\
/'\ \'/ I
I

d"l
,' -.-..- r. -4P?\ , b" )' "il
.-1

A,B,C D

A L- -----!!
 (c) D (d) D
*t 52" lt
) E

,J
:, or"fn 62' c I10" oc
B B

(e) D' (f) D

2i 78"

(5t + 4)'
3t' c An r 3k"

AB B

3. Civen that AB // DC, find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each of the following figures.
(a)o c (b)D
I
16' E ll8' oo
d" 6
h" c" \4
bC f"
AB DlC
B \e'./
A
. 58"

4. Find the value(s) of the unknown(s) in each of the following figures.

(a) D (b)L K J
9s' c b"b'b' c
E
a' (r F'D c' 3b'

H 62"

lt4" n2" G2b'

F B
B 4b"

5. The figure shows a parallelog ram ABCD where IEC = 108" and nAC = qO" .

DC

108'
40"
B

Find
(i) ee o,
$il cAo.

ilr,ifir :i
 6. The figure shows akite ABCDwhere AB = AD, BC = cD, 16o = 62' and aeo = ng'.
A

Find
(i) aAo,
fii nbc.

7. The figure shows a square ABCD and an equilateral triangle ABE. Find CED.

B. The sum of interior angles of a polygon with (2n- 3) sides is equal to 62 right angles. Find the value of n.

9. One of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is 126' and the remaining interior angles are 162' each.
Find the value of n.

10. The ratio of the interior angles of a pentagon is 3 : 4 : 5 : 5 : 7. Find

(i) the largest interior angle,
(ii) the largest exterior angle.

11. Two of the exterior angles of an r-sided polygon are 35" and 72", and the remaining exterior angles are
23' each. Find the value of n.

12. The ratio of an interior angle to an exterior angle of an n-sided regular polygon is 13 :2. Find the value of n.

13. lf the sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is four times the sum of its exterior angles, find the
value of n.

t-@
 J

'?

i
----i l

Challenoe
- \ Youndeilf
l. ln the figure, LABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB=AC and AAC=20".
It AD = BC, find AfrA. a

2. ln the figure, MBC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC and nA,C = 20".

r cdr = 5o' and neo =60', find cDr.

The sum of interior angles of a convex n-gon is (n-2) x 180'. Does this formula
apply to the sum of interior angles of a concave n-gon? Explain your answer.

(i) How do you define an exterior angle of a concave polygon?

(ii) The sum of exterior angles of any convex n-gon is 360". ls the sum of
exterior angles of a concave n-gon also 360'? Explain your answer.

Find a formula for the number of diagonals of an n-sided polygon.