ROADS

1 Historical development

1. Roman Roads:

• Roman roads were a network of highways constructed by the ancient Romans, primarily
during the Roman Republic and Empire.

• They were known for their durability and straight paths, often laid with carefully fitted
stones, gravel, or other materials.

• Roman roads played a significant role in facilitating trade, military movement, and
communication within the Roman Empire.

• Many modern roads and highways in Europe still follow the routes of ancient Roman
roads.

2. Telford Roads (Telford Macadam Roads):

• Telford roads are a type of road construction developed by the Scottish civil engineer
Thomas Telford in the early 19th century.

• They are characterized by a multi-layered structure, which typically includes a

foundation of large stones or concrete, a layer of smaller stones, and a smooth,
compacted surface of broken stone or gravel.

• Telford roads were an improvement over earlier road surfaces and were used extensively
in Britain during the industrial revolution.

• They contributed to better transportation and trade.

3. Macadam Roads:

• Macadam roads, named after Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam, were a
significant advancement in road construction during the late 18th and early 19th
centuries.

• They featured a simple, effective, and cost-efficient design, consisting of three layers: a
well-draining base, a middle layer of crushed stones, and a top layer of small, uniformly-
sized stones.

• McAdam's road design helped reduce maintenance and provided a smoother surface for
horse-drawn carriages and early automobiles.

• Macadam roads were a precursor to modern asphalt roads.

4. Modern Roads:

• Modern roads refer to the contemporary road infrastructure constructed using advanced
materials and engineering techniques.
 • They often consist of asphalt or concrete surfaces, providing a smooth and durable
driving experience.

• Modern roads incorporate features like lane markings, traffic signs, lighting, and safety
measures to accommodate motor vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists.

• These roads are vital for transportation, commerce, and daily life, connecting cities,
towns, and rural areas in a vast network.

2 FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS

Flexible Pavement Construction

Flexible pavements are those which on a whole have low or negligible flexural strength and rather
flexible in their structural action under load. Flexible pavements or roads are areas of asphalt that
“bend” or “deflect” due to traffic loads, making them less susceptible to damage and requiring fewer
repairs over time. A flexible pavement structure is composed of several layers of different materials
which together enable the road to accommodate this flexing.

I. Functions of Pavement Layers

A. Surface Course

1. Provides a smooth and skid-resistant driving surface.

2. Distributes traffic loads to lower layers.

B. Binder Course

1. Offers structural support and load distribution.

2. Prevents water penetration.

C. Base Course

1. Provides further load distribution.

2. Enhances pavement stability.

D. Subbase

1. Offers additional support and drainage.

2. Mitigates frost heave effects.

E. Subgrade

1. Forms the foundation and supports all upper layers.

2. Must be well-compact and prepared to prevent settling.

II. Principle of Design

A. Load-Bearing Capacity

1. Design based on expected traffic loads.

B. Proper Drainage

1. Adequate slope and drainage to prevent water damage.

C. Material Properties

1. Select appropriate materials based on strength and durability.

D. Structural Integrity

1. Ensure the pavement can withstand loads without excessive deformation.

III. Construction Procedures

A. Clearing and Grubbing

B. Subgrade Preparation

C. Subbase and Base Course Installation

D. Binder Course Placement

E. Surface Course Installation

F. Compaction

G. Quality Control and Testing

H. Curing and Settling Period

IV. Materials

A. Asphalt or Bitumen

B. Aggregates (crushed stone, sand, gravel)

C. Cement (for stabilization if needed)

D. Geotextiles (for separation and filtration)

E. Drainage materials (e.g., geogrids, pipes)

V. Paving Plant

A. Asphalt Mixing Plant

B. Pavers (machines for spreading asphalt)

C. Compactors (to achieve proper density)

D. Quality Control Equipment (for testing)

VI. Road Furniture

A. Guardrails

B. Signage

C. Road Markings

D. Lighting

E. Traffic Signals

VII. Drainage

A. Proper slope for water runoff.

B. Drainage channels or ditches.

C. Permeable layers to prevent water accumulation.

VIII. Routine Maintenance

A. Regular inspections for cracks, potholes, and signs of distress.

B. Cleaning and debris removal.

C. Resealing and patching as needed.

D. Surface treatments (e.g., chip seals) for maintenance.

IX. Overlaying

A. Application of a new surface course to extend pavement life.

B. Surface preparation and quality control are essential.

X. Major Road Reconstruction

A. Full-depth reconstruction when pavement structure is compromised.

B. Removal of old layers and rebuilding the pavement structure.

C. Consideration of traffic management during reconstruction.

Rigid Pavement Construction

Rigid pavement, often made of concrete, serves as a critical component of our road infrastructure,
offering durability and strength.

Layers Used: A typical rigid pavement comprises four layers – the surface course, base course (if
necessary), subbase (if necessary), and the subgrade. Each layer plays a vital role in supporting the traffic
loads and ensuring the pavement's longevity.

Functions of the Pavement Layers: The surface course is the top layer that provides a smooth, resilient
driving surface while distributing traffic loads. Base and subbase courses offer structural support and
load distribution. The subgrade serves as the foundation, demanding proper preparation to avoid
settling.

Principles of Design: Designing a rigid pavement involves calculating load-bearing capacity, jointing and
reinforcement to control cracking, appropriate thickness based on concrete strength and traffic loads,
and ensuring the subgrade can withstand loads without excessive deformation.

Construction Procedure: The process starts with site preparation, including clearing, grading, and
subgrade preparation. Formwork is installed to define the pavement's shape. Concreting is done, often
employing specialized equipment like concreting trains or slip form machines for uniform placement.
Jointing and curing are crucial steps to prevent cracks and ensure strength development. Quality control
and testing are integral throughout construction.

Paving Plant: Concreting trains or slip form equipment play a vital role in ensuring continuous, high-
quality concrete placement. These tools guarantee uniform thickness and surface finish, essential for a
durable pavement.

Materials: The concrete mix, composed of cement, aggregates, water, and additives, forms the
pavement's core. Steel reinforcement may be used for added strength. Formwork materials, curing
compounds, and joint sealants are essential components.

Maintenance: Routine maintenance involves regular inspections for cracks and joint deterioration,
debris removal, and joint resealing. Major maintenance and rehabilitation are necessary for extensive
repairs, resurfacing, or reconstruction when the pavement's structure is severely compromised.

Subgrade Reaction and Modulus of Rupture: Proper subgrade preparation is vital to ensure the desired
reaction to loads. The modulus of rupture measures concrete's ability to withstand bending or flexural
stresses, a critical factor in concrete mix design.

In summary, rigid pavement construction demands meticulous planning, adherence to design principles,
and precise execution. This results in strong, long-lasting road surfaces that contribute significantly to
our transportation infrastructure.
Outline notes ( mwakenya summary)

Rigid Pavement Construction

I. Layers Used A. Surface Course (Concrete) B. Base Course (If applicable) C. Subbase Course (If
applicable) D. Subgrade

II. Functions of the Pavement Layers A. Surface Course (Concrete) 1. Provides a smooth, durable driving
surface. 2. Distributes traffic loads to lower layers. 3. Resists wear and abrasion. B. Base Course (If
applicable) 1. Offers additional structural support and load distribution. C. Subbase Course (If applicable)
1. Enhances pavement stability and drainage. D. Subgrade 1. Forms the foundation and supports all
upper layers. 2. Must be well-compact and prepared to prevent settling.

III. Principles of Design A. Load-Bearing Capacity 1. Design based on expected traffic loads. B. Jointing
and Reinforcement 1. Proper joint spacing and reinforcement to control cracking. C. Thickness Design 1.
Determined based on the concrete's strength and expected loads. D. Proper Subgrade Support 1. Ensure
the subgrade can withstand loads without excessive deformation.

IV. Construction Procedure A. Site Preparation 1. Clearing and grading. 2. Subgrade preparation. B.
Formwork Installation C. Concrete Mixing and Placement 1. Concreting train or slip form equipment used
for continuous paving. 2. Concrete poured and spread uniformly. D. Jointing and Curing 1. Sawing or
forming contraction and expansion joints. 2. Curing to prevent cracking and ensure proper strength
development. E. Quality Control and Testing

V. Paving Plant A. Concreting Train or Slip Form Equipment 1. Used for continuous, high-quality concrete
placement. 2. Ensures uniform thickness and surface finish.

VI. Materials A. Concrete Mix (typically includes cement, aggregates, water, and sometimes additives) B.
Steel Reinforcement (if required) C. Formwork Materials (wood, steel, or other materials) D. Curing
Compounds E. Joint Sealants

VII. Maintenance A. Routine Maintenance 1. Regular inspections for cracks and joint deterioration. 2.
Cleaning and debris removal. 3. Joint resealing and surface treatments as needed. B. Major Maintenance
and Rehabilitation 1. Full-depth repairs for damaged sections. 2. Resurfacing or overlaying. 3.
Reconstruction when the pavement structure is severely compromised.

VIII. Subgrade Reaction A. Subgrade reaction refers to the response of the subgrade to the loads placed
upon it. B. Proper subgrade preparation and compaction are critical to achieve the desired reaction.

IX. Modulus of Rupture A. Modulus of rupture measures the concrete's ability to resist bending or
flexural stresses. B. It's an important parameter in designing concrete mixes for rigid pavements
DRAINAGE OF ROADS

Effective road drainage is important for preserving road infrastructure and ensuring safe driving
conditions. Channels, kerbs, gulleys, and drain pipes all play specific roles in managing surface water
runoff. Regular maintenance is key to keeping these drainage components functioning and safeguarding
road users and the road.

Efficient road drainage is crucial for ensuring the longevity and safety of road infrastructure. Proper
drainage helps manage surface water, prevent erosion, and reduce the risk of accidents.

Aspects of road drainage:

Channels: Channels, also known as open ditches or swales, are an integral part of road drainage. They
are shallow, open pathways designed to collect and channel rainwater away from the road surface.
Channels are typically found along road edges, and their slopes direct water to suitable outlets like
creeks or stormwater systems. Regular maintenance, including clearing debris and vegetation, is
essential to keep channels functioning optimally.

Kerbs: Kerbs, also spelled curbs in the United States, are raised structures at the edges of roadways. They
serve several drainage-related purposes. Firstly, they provide a physical barrier to prevent vehicles from
leaving the road, especially in urban areas. Secondly, they help guide surface water into gulleys and
stormwater drains. Additionally, kerbs can create a clear separation between pedestrian areas and
roadways, enhancing safety.

Gulleys: Gulleys, also known as road gullies or catch basins, are essential components of road drainage
systems. They are typically positioned at low points in the road or along kerbs to collect rainwater runoff.
Gulleys feature a grate or cover to prevent debris from entering the drainage system while allowing
water to flow in. Underneath, they connect to drain pipes or channels, which carry collected water to
suitable discharge points. Regular cleaning and maintenance are necessary to prevent blockages and
ensure gulleys function effectively.

Drain Pipes: Drain pipes are a vital part of subsurface drainage systems. They collect water from gulleys,
channels, or surface inlets and transport it away from the road's foundation to prevent saturation and
erosion. These pipes are typically made of durable materials like PVC, concrete, or metal. Proper sizing
and installation of drain pipes are crucial to ensure they can handle the expected water volume and
prevent overflow onto the road surface.

Maintenance: Regular maintenance is essential to keep road drainage systems in good working
condition. This includes clearing debris and sediment from channels, cleaning gulleys and drain pipes,
inspecting and repairing damaged kerbs, and ensuring proper slope and flow capacity. Neglected
drainage can lead to standing water, erosion, road damage, and safety hazards.

Next lesson sketches and drawing to scale