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74 Problems

reflective insulating material required to be economical. How much higher cost per
unit thickness or volume could be justified for the reflective material over that of
the nonreflective? Comment on uncertainties which may exist in your analysis.
2-138 A thin-wall stainless-steel tube is to be used as an electric heating element that
will deliver a convection coefficient of 5000 W/m2 · ◦ C to water at 100◦ C. Devise
several configurations to accomplish a total heat transfer of 10 kW. Specify the
length, outside diameter, wall thickness, maximum tube temperature, and necessary
voltage that must be imposed on the tube. Take the resistivity of stainless steel as
70 μ · cm.
2-139 Thin cylindrical or spherical shells may be treated as a plane wall for sufficiently large
diameters in relation to the thickness of the shell. Devise a scheme for quantifying
the error that would result from such a treatment.
2-140 A 2.5-cm-diameter steel pipe is maintained at 100◦ C by condensing steam on the
inside. The pipe is to be used for dissipating heat to a surrounding room at 20◦ C by
placing circular steel fins around the outside surface of the pipe. The convection loss
from the pipe and fins occurs by free convection, with h = 8.0 W/m2 · ◦ C. Examine
several cases of fin thickness, fin spacing, and fin outside diameters to determine the
overall heat loss per meter of pipe length. Take k = 43 W/m · ◦ C for the steel fins
and assume h is uniform over all surfaces. Make appropriate conclusions about the
results of your study.
2-141 A pipe having a diameter of 5.3 cm is maintained at 200◦ C by steam flowing inside.
The pipe passes through a large factory area and loses heat by free convection
from the outside with h = 7.2 W/m2 · ◦ C. Using information from Table 2-1 and/or
Table A-3, select two alternative insulating materials that could be installed to lower
the outside surface temperature of the insulation to 30◦ C when the pipe is exposed
to room air at 20◦ C. If the energy loss from the steam costs $8.00/109 J, what are
the allowable costs of the insulation materials per unit volume to achieve a payback
period of three years where
(energy cost saved per year) × 3
= (cost of installed insulation/unit volume) × volume
2-142 It is frequently represented that the energy savings resulting from installation of extra
ceiling insulation in a home will pay for the insulation cost within a three-year period.
You are asked to evaluate this claim. For the evaluation it may be assumed that 1 kW
of electrical input to an air-conditioning unit will produce about 1.26 × 104 kJ/h of
cooling and that electricity is priced at $0.085/kWh. Assume that an existing home
has ceiling insulation with an R value of 7.0◦ F · ft 2 · h/Btu and is to be upgraded
to an R value of either 15 or 30. Choose two alternative insulation materials from
Table 2-1 and/or Table A-3 and calculate the allowable costs per unit volume of
insulating material to accomplish the three-year payback with the two specified R
values. For this calculation, (energy cost saved/year) × 3 = (insulation cost per unit
volume) × volume. Make your own assumptions regarding (1) temperature differ-
ence between the interior of the house and the attic area and (2) the hours of operation
for the air-conditioning system during an annual period. Comment on the results and
assumptions.
2-143 A finned wall like that shown in Figure 2-10a is constructed of aluminum alloy with
k = 160 W/m · ◦ C. The wall thickness is 2.0 mm and the fins are straight with rectan-
gular profile. The inside of the wall is maintained at a constant temperature of 70◦ C
and the fins are exposed to a convection environment at 25◦ C with h = 8 W/m2 · ◦ C
(free convection). The assembly will be cast from the aluminum material and must

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CHAPTER2 Steady-State Conduction—One Dimension 75

dissipate 30 W of heat under the conditions noted. Assuming a square array, deter-
mine suitable combinations of numbers of fins, fin spacing, dimension of the square,
and fin thickness to accomplish this cooling objective. Assume a uniform value of
h for both the fin and wall surfaces.
2-144 Repeat Problem 2-143 for cooling with forced convection, which produces a con-
vection coefficient of h = 20 W/m2 · ◦ C.
2-145 Consider a pin fin as shown in Figure 2-10d. Assume that the fin is exposed to an
evacuated space such that convection is negligible and that the radiation loss per
unit surface area is given by
qrad /A = σ(T 4 − Ts4 )
where is a surface emissivity constant, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and
the temperatures are expressed in degrees Kelvin. Derive a differential equation for
the temperature in the pin fin as a function of x, the distance from the base. Let
T0 be the base temperature, and write the appropriate boundary conditions for the
differential equation.
2-146 Consider two special cases for the fin in Problem 2-145: (a) an insulated-tip fin
losing heat by radiation and (b) a very long fin losing heat by radiation. Write the
appropriate boundary conditions for these two cases.
2-147 Consider another special case for the fin of Problem 2-145; where the surrounding
radiation boundary temperature is negligible, that is,
Ts4 T 4
Write the resulting simplified differential equation under this condition.

REFERENCES
1. Schneider, P. J. Conduction Heat Transfer, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, 1955.
2. Harper, W. B., and D. R. Brown. “Mathematical Equations for Heat Conduction in the Fins of
Air-cooled Engines,” NACA Rep. 158, 1922.
3. Gardner, K. A. “Efficiency of Extended Surfaces,” Trans. ASME, vol. 67, pp. 621–31, 1945.
4. Moore, C. J. “Heat Transfer across Surfaces in Contact: Studies of Transients in One-dimensional
Composite Systems,” Southern Methodist Univ., Thermal/Fluid Sci. Ctr. Res. Rep. 67-2, Dallas,
Tex., March 1967.
5. Ybarrondo, L. J., and J. E. Sunderland. “Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces,” Bull. Mech.
Eng. Educ., vol. 5, pp. 229–34, 1966.
6. Moore, C. J., Jr., H. A. Blum, and H. Atkins. “Subject Classification Bibliography for Thermal
Contact Resistance Studies,” ASME Pap. 68-WA/HT-18, December 1968.
7. Clausing, A. M. “Transfer at the Interface of Dissimilar Metals: The Influence of Thermal Strain,”
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 9, p. 791, 1966.
8. Kern, D. Q., and A. D. Kraus. Extended Surface Heat Transfer. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972.
9. Siegel, R., and J. R. Howell. Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer. 2d ed., New York: McGraw-Hill,
1980.
10. Fried, E. “Thermal Conduction Contribution to Heat Transfer at Contacts,” Thermal Conductivity,
(R. P. Tye, Ed.) vol. 2, New York: Academic Press, 1969.
11. Fletcher, L. S. “Recent Developments in Contact Conductance Heat Transfer,” J. Heat Transfer,
vol. 110, no. 4(B), p. 1059, Nov. 1988.
12. James, T. B., and W. P. Goss. Heat Transmission Coefficients for Walls, Roofs, Ceilings, and
Floors. Altanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
1993.

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C H A P T E R

3 Steady-State Conduction—
Multiple Dimensions

3-1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2 steady-state heat transfer was calculated in systems in which the temperature
gradient and area could be expressed in terms of one space coordinate. We now wish to
analyze the more general case of two-dimensional heat flow. For steady state with no heat
generation, the Laplace equation applies.
∂2 T ∂2 T
+ 2 =0 [3-1]
∂x2 ∂y

assuming constant thermal conductivity. The solution to this equation may be obtained by
analytical, numerical, or graphical techniques.
The objective of any heat-transfer analysis is usually to predict heat flow or the tem-
perature that results from a certain heat flow. The solution to Equation (3-1) will give the
temperature in a two-dimensional body as a function of the two independent space coor-
dinates x and y. Then the heat flow in the x and y directions may be calculated from the
Fourier equations
∂T
qx = −kAx [3-2]
∂x
∂T
qy = −kAy [3-3]
∂y

These heat-flow quantities are directed either in the x direction or in the y direction. The
total heat flow at any point in the material is the resultant of the qx and qy at that point.
Thus the total heat-flow vector is directed so that it is perpendicular to the lines of constant
temperature in the material, as shown in Figure 3-1. So if the temperature distribution in
the material is known, we may easily establish the heat flow.

3-2 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF

TWO-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
We first consider an analytical approach to a two-dimensional problem and then indicate the
numerical and graphical methods that may be used to advantage in many other problems.

77

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78 3-2 Mathematical Analysis of Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction

It is worthwhile to mention here that analytical solutions are not always possible to obtain;
indeed, in many instances they are very cumbersome and difficult to use. In these cases
numerical techniques are frequently used to advantage. For a more extensive treatment of
the analytical methods used in conduction problems, the reader may consult References 1,
2, 10, and 11.
Consider the rectangular plate shown in Figure 3-2. Three sides of the plate are main-
tained at the constant temperature T1 , and the upper side has some temperature distribution
impressed upon it. This distribution could be simply a constant temperature or something
more complex, such as a sine-wave distribution. We shall consider both cases.
To solve Equation (3-1), the separation-of-variables method is used. The essential
point of this method is that the solution to the differential equation is assumed to take a
product form
T = XY where X = X(x)
[3-4]
Y = Y(y)

The boundary conditions are then applied to determine the form of the functions X and Y .
The basic assumption as given by Equation (3-4) can be justified only if it is possible to
find a solution of this form that satisfies the boundary conditions.

Figure 3-1 Sketch showing the heat flow in

two dimensions.
qy
+
qy = ⫺kA y ∂T qx
∂y q
=
Iso
the
rm

qx = ⫺kA x ∂T
∂x

Figure 3-2 Isotherms and heat flow lines in a

rectangular plate.

y
T=f(x)

T=T1 H

T=T1

T=T1 x
W

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CHAPTER 3 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions 79

First consider the boundary conditions with a sine-wave temperature distribution

impressed on the upper edge of the plate. Thus
T = T1 at y = 0
T = T1 at x = 0
T = T1 at x = W [3-5]
 πx 
T = Tm sin + T1 at y = H
W
where Tm is the amplitude of the sine function. Substituting Equation (3-4) in (3-1) gives

1 d2X 1 d2Y
− = [3-6]
X dx2 Y dy2
Observe that each side of Equation (3-6) is independent of the other because x and y are
independent variables. This requires that each side be equal to some constant. We may thus
obtain two ordinary differential equations in terms of this constant,
d2X
+ λ2 X = 0 [3-7]
dx2
d2Y
− λ2 Y = 0 [3-8]
dy2
where λ2 is called the separation constant. Its value must be determined from the boundary
conditions. Note that the form of the solution to Equations (3-7) and (3-8) will depend on
the sign of λ2 ; a different form would also result if λ2 were zero. The only way that the
correct form can be determined is through an application of the boundary conditions of
the problem. So we shall first write down all possible solutions and then see which one fits
the problem under consideration.
For λ2 = 0:
X = C1 + C2 x
Y = C3 + C4 y [3-9]
T = (C1 + C2 x)(C3 + C4 y)
This function cannot fit the sine-function boundary condition, so the λ2 = 0 solution may
be excluded.
For λ2 < 0:
X = C5 e−λx + C6 eλx
Y = C7 cos λy + C8 sin λy [3-10]
T = (C5 e−λx + C6 eλx )(C7 cos λy + C8 sin λy)
Again, the sine-function boundary condition cannot be satisfied, so this solution is excluded
also.
For λ2 > 0:
X = C9 cos λx + C10 sin λx
Y = C11 e−λy + C12 eλy [3-11]
T = (C9 cos λx + C10 sin λx)(C11 e−λy + C12 eλy )
Now, it is possible to satisfy the sine-function boundary condition; so we shall attempt to
satisfy the other conditions. The algebra is somewhat easier to handle when the substitution
θ = T − T1

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80 3-2 Mathematical Analysis of Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction

is made. The differential equation and the solution then retain the same form in the new
variable θ, and we need only transform the boundary conditions. Thus
θ=0 at y = 0
θ=0 at x = 0 [3-12]
θ=0 at x = W
πx
θ = Tm sin at y = H
W
Applying these conditions, we have
0 = (C9 cos λx + C10 sin λx)(C11 + C12 ) [a]

0 = C9 (C11 e−λy + C12 eλy ) [b]

0 = (C9 cos λW + C10 sin λW)(C11 e−λy + C12 eλy ) [c]

πx
Tm sin = (C9 cos λx + C10 sin λx)(C11 e−λH + C12 eλH ) [d]
W
Accordingly,
C11 = −C12
C9 = 0

and from (c),

0 = C10 C12 sin λW(eλy − e−λy )

This requires that

sin λW = 0 [3-13]

Recall that λ was an undetermined separation constant. Several values will satisfy Equation
(3-13), and these may be written
nπ
λ= [3-14]
W
where n is an integer. The solution to the differential equation may thus be written as a sum
of the solutions for each value of n. This is an infinite sum, so that the final solution is the
infinite series
∞
nπx nπy
θ = T − T1 = Cn sin sinh [3-15]
W W
n=1

where the constants have been combined and the exponential terms converted to the hyper-
bolic function. The final boundary condition may now be applied:
∞
πx  nπx nπH
Tm sin = Cn sin sinh
W W W
n=1

which requires that Cn = 0 for n > 1. The final solution is therefore

sinh(πy/W)  πx 
T = Tm sin + T1 [3-16]
sinh(πH/W) W

The temperature field for this problem is shown in Figure 3-2. Note that the heat-flow lines
are perpendicular to the isotherms.

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CHAPTER 3 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions 81

We now consider the set of boundary conditions

T = T1 at y = 0
T = T1 at x = 0
T = T1 at x = W
T = T2 at y = H

Using the first three boundary conditions, we obtain the solution in the form of Equation
(3-15):
∞
nπx nπy
T − T1 = Cn sin sinh [3-17]
W W
n=1

Applying the fourth boundary condition gives

∞
 nπx nπH
T2 − T1 = Cn sin sinh [3-18]
W W
n=1

This is a Fourier sine series, and the values of the Cn may be determined by expanding
the constant temperature difference T2 − T1 in a Fourier series over the interval 0 < x < W.
This series is
∞
2  (−1)n+1 + 1 nπx
T2 − T1 = (T2 − T1 ) sin [3-19]
π n W
n=1

Upon comparison of Equation (3-18) with Equation (3-19), we find that

2 1 (−1)n+1 + 1
Cn = (T2 − T1 )
π sinh(nπH/W) n

and the final solution is expressed as

∞
T − T1 2  (−1)n+1 + 1 nπx sinh(nπy/W)
= sin [3-20]
T2 − T1 π n W sinh(nπH/W)
n=1

An extensive study of analytical techniques used in conduction heat transfer requires

a background in the theory of orthogonal functions. Fourier series are one example of
orthogonal functions, as are Bessel functions and other special functions applicable to
different geometries and boundary conditions. The interested reader may consult one or
more of the conduction heat-transfer texts listed in the references for further information
on the subject.

3-3 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

Consider the two-dimensional system shown in Figure 3-3. The inside surface is maintained
at some temperature T1 , and the outer surface is maintained at T2 . We wish to calculate the
heat transfer. Isotherms and heat-flow lanes have been sketched to aid in this calculation.
The isotherms and heat-flow lanes form groupings of curvilinear figures like that shown in
Figure 3-3b. The heat flow across this curvilinear section is given by Fourier’s law, assuming
unit depth of material:
T
q = −k x(1) [3-21]
y

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82 3-3 Graphical Analysis

Figure 3-3 Sketch showing element used for curvilinear-square

analysis of two-dimensional heat flow.

(a)

q
Δy

q
Δx
ΔT

(b)

This heat flow will be the same through each section within this heat-flow lane, and the total
heat flow will be the sum of the heat flows through all the lanes. If the sketch is drawn so
that x ∼
= y, the heat flow is proportional to the T across the element and, since this heat
flow is constant, the T across each element must be the same within the same heat-flow
lane. Thus the T across an element is given by
Toverall
T =
N

where N is the number of temperature increments between the inner and outer surfaces.
Furthermore, the heat flow through each lane is the same since it is independent of the
dimensions x and y when they are constructed equal. Thus we write for the total heat
transfer
M M
q= k Toverall = k(T2 − T1 ) [3-22]
N N
where M is the number of heat-flow lanes. So, to calculate the heat transfer, we need only
construct these curvilinear-square plots and count the number of temperature increments
and heat-flow lanes. Care must be taken to construct the plot so that x ≈ y and the lines
are perpendicular. For the corner section shown in Figure 3-3a the number of temperature
increments between the inner and outer surfaces is about N = 4, while the number of heat-
flow lanes for the corner section may be estimated as M = 8.2. The total number of heat-flow
lanes is four times this value, or 4 × 8.2 = 32.8. The ratio M/N is thus 32.8/4 = 8.2 for the
whole wall section. This ratio will be called the conduction shape factor in subsequent
discussions.

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CHAPTER 3 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions 83

The accuracy of this method is dependent entirely on the skill of the person sketching
the curvilinear squares. Even a crude sketch, however, can frequently help to give fairly
good estimates of the temperatures that will occur in a body. An electrical analogy may be
employed to sketch the curvilinear squares, as discussed in Section 3-9.
The graphical method presented here is mainly of historical interest to show the relation
of heat-flow lanes and isotherms. It may not be expected to be used for the solution of many
practical problems.

3-4 THE CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR

In a two-dimensional system where only two temperature limits are involved, we may define
a conduction shape factor S such that
q = kS Toverall [3-23]

The values of S have been worked out for several geometries and are summarized in
Table 3-1. A very comprehensive summary of shape factors for a large variety of geometries
is given by Rohsenow [15] and Hahne and Grigull [17]. Note that the inverse hyperbolic
cosine can be calculated from

cosh−1 x = ln(x ± x2 − 1)

For a three-dimensional wall, as in a furnace, separate shape factors are used to calculate
the heat flow through the edge and corner sections, with the dimensions shown in Figure 3-4.
When all the interior dimensions are greater than one-fifth of the wall thickness,
A
Swall = Sedge = 0.54D Scorner = 0.15L
L
where
A = area of wall
L = wall thickness
D = length of edge
Note that the shape factor per unit depth is given by the ratio M/N when the curvilinear-
squares method is used for calculations.

Figure 3-4 Sketch illustrating dimensions for use in calculating

three-dimensional shape factors.

L
D L

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84 3-4 The Conduction Shape Factor

Table 3-1 Conduction shape factors, summarized from References 6 and 7.

Note: For buried objects the temperature difference is T = Tobject − Tfar field . The far-field
temperature is taken the same as the isothermal surface temperature for semi-infinite media.

Physical system Schematic Shape factor Restrictions

Isothermal cylinder of radius r 2πL Lr

Isothermal
buried in semi-infinite medium cosh−1 (D/r)
having isothermal surface
2πL Lr
D
ln(D/r) D > 3r
r

Isothermal sphere of radius r 4πr

buried in infinite medium
r

Isothermal sphere of radius r Isothermal 4πr

buried in semi-infinite medium 1 − r/2D
having isothermal surface
T = Tsurf − Tfar field D
r

Conduction between two r1 r2 2πL Lr

 2 
isothermal cylinders of length L D −r12 −r22 LD
cosh−1 2r1 r2
buried in infinite medium
D

Row of horizontal cylinders Isothermal 2πL D > 2r

S=   
of length L in semi-infinite ln 1 sinh(2πD/l)
πr
medium with isothermal
surface
D

Buried cube in infinite 8.24L

medium, L on a side

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CHAPTER 3 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions 85

Table 3-1 (Continued).

Physical system Schematic Shape factor Restrictions

Isothermal cylinder Isothermal

2πL L  2r
of radius r placed in ln(2L/r)
semi-infinite medium
as shown L

2r

Isothermal   −0.59  −0.078

1.685L log 1 + ba b
Isothermal rectangular See Reference 7
parallelepiped buried in c
semi-infinite medium having b
isothermal surface

c
L
a

Plane wall A One-dimensional heat flow

L
A

Hollow cylinder, length L ri

2πL Lr
+ ro ln(ro /ri )

Hollow sphere 4πro ri

ri
ro − ri
+ ro

Thin horizontal disk buried Isothermal 4r D=0

in semi-infinite medium 2r D 8r D  2r
with isothermal surface 4πr D/2r > 1
π/2 − tan−1 (r/2D) tan−1 (r/2D) in radians
Hemisphere buried in Isothermal 2πr
semi-infinite medium +
T = Tsphere − Tfar field r

Isothermal sphere buried in Insulated 4πr

semi-infinite medium with 1 + r/2D
D
insulated surface +
T∞ r

Two isothermal spheres r1 

4πr2 D > 5rmax
r2
buried in infinite medium r2 (r1 /D)4 2r
+ + r1 1− − D2
1−(r2 /D)2
D

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