Steering and Engine Orders

A ship is manoeuvred by the combined use of her engines and rudder(s). During
manoeuvring a vessel, the operation of steering, the control of engine and monitoring the
ship’s movement and position using the electronic aids to navigation are often the
activities undertaken by the trained Bridge team. The Bridge team normally includes The
Master, Officer of the watch, The Helmsman and the Lookout man. The master or the
officer of the watch directs this team in the process that is called “conning the vessel”.
The master or the officer of the watch (in the absence of Master) cons the ship by giving
wheel or engine orders on the Bridge. The wheel orders are applied by the helmsman and
the engine orders are applied directly or passed to the engine rooms to be applied.
One of the most important duties of a seaman is to be able to steer well, either by sight on
the object ordered, or by compass. This ability can only be acquired by experience.
The consequences of misunderstanding an order from the person responsible for conning
the vessel could be dire, so a formal dialogue is used to limit such risks. The master
issues an order. The order is repeated by the crewman. If that reply does not concur, the
master corrects it. The crewman announces when the action is complete.
USE OF WHEEL:
Remember that the “Lubber’s line” is fixed and represents the ship’s head, and that the
compass card remains steady while the ship swings around it. The direction of the ship’s
head is read off the card against the lubber’s line.
The rate-of-turn indicator has the task of assisting radar navigation by measuring and
indicating the swing (rate of turn) of the ship to port and starboard. In conjunction with
course-keeping devices (autopilot) the rate gyro, as sensor system, provides the turning
rate reference.
On seagoing ships, the rate-of-turn indicator serves primarily as a navigating support for
sensing and indicating swing. For seagoing vessels of 50,000 grt and more, an ROT
indicator is required equipment.
The movement of the steering wheel sets in motion the steering mechanism which turns
the rudder(s). When the ship is moving ahead the rudder turns the ship by swinging her
stern away from, and her bows towards, the direction desired; it has the opposite effect
when the ship is moving astern.
Within the limits of the movement of the rudder, the greater the angle between the rudder
and the fore and aft line of the ship the quicker she will swing and the smaller will be her
turning circle.
Movement of the wheel is indicated by a pointer which moves over a scale graduated
either side of midships to the maximum rudder angle. The control should be moved
steadily until the required rudder angle has been reached.
Orders for alteration of course always start with the direction and are immediately
followed by the rudder angle.
Unless the wind and sea are right ahead, if the rudder of a ship is kept amidships she will
usually wander off her course owing to the pressure of the wind or the force of the
waves.
Engine controls
Master: “Slow ahead”.
Sailor: “Slow ahead, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Full ahead”.

Sailor: “Full ahead, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Stop engines”.

Sailor: “Stop engines, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Slow astern”.

Sailor: “Slow astern, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Ahead on both engines”.

Sailor: “Ahead on both Engines, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Slow astern, starboard”.

Sailor: “Slow astern, port, sir”.
Master: “Listen again, sailor, slow astern starboard”.
Sailor: “Slow astern, starboard, sir”.
The control setting should be left in this setting until further orders are received.
Helm controls
The directional orders for steering may be:
1. By rudder - to the displayed angle on the rudder indicator.
2. By compass - to the required course.
3. Visual - to steer for a distant feature or object.
Rudder indicator
Master: “Starboard 10º degrees”.
Sailor: “Going 10º to starboard, sir”. And when the rudder indicator shows 10º to
starboard.
Sailor: “10o of starboard helm ‘on’, sir”.
The wheel should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Hard to starboard”.

Sailor: “Going hard to starboard, sir”. And when the rudder indicator shows 35º to
starboard.
Sailor: “Wheel hard to starboard, sir”.
The wheel should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Ease to starboard 10o degrees”.

Sailor: “Easing to starboard 10o degrees, sir”. And when the rudder indicator shows 10º
to starboard.
Sailor: “Wheel eased to starboard 10o degrees, sir”.
The wheel should be left in this setting until further orders are received.

Master: “Steady”.
Sailor: “Steady, sir”. And observes compass heading or land reference point, and
steadies the ship’s head in/ on that heading. Applies helm in order to maintain a steady
course.
Sailor: “Steady on course 320o, sir”.
Master: “Check her”.
Sailor: “Check her, sir”. And applies helm opposing to the swing and eases the wheel
back to amidships position once the vessel stops swinging.
Sailor: “Steady on course 320o, sir”.

Compass
Master: “Steer 220º”.
Sailor: “Going 220º, sir”. And when the compass shows 220º.
Sailor: “Steering 220º, sir”.
The vessel should be kept on this course until further orders are received.

Master: “Starboard 10o, steer 320o degrees”.

Sailor: “Starboard 10o, steer 320o degrees, sir”.
Sailor: “Ten of Starboard wheel on, sir”. When the ship is steady on new course, report.
Sailor: “Course 320 degree, sir”.

Visual
Sometimes the Helmsman may be required to steer on following the ship ahead or on a
distant object.
Master: “Steady on the light house”.
Sailor: “Steady on the light house, course 320o, sir”.
The vessel should be steered keeping the lighthouse right ahead.

Automatic Pilots
An automatic pilot - a device that will automatically steer the vessel on a pre-determined
compass course -is standard equipment in most ships today, and most fishing skippers
will readily admit that such an instrument is worth two extra men in the crew.
A good auto-pilot will steer a better course than any helmsman, provided the controls are
properly set, and this aid has been claimed to save as much as 20% in fuel on a long
passage -as well as improving the standard of navigation.
The auto-pilot consists of:
* A course sensor built into the compass, which can be set to any pre-determined course;
* A panel with up to four settings, depending on the sophistication of the equipment;
* A means of transmitting rudder instructions to the steering or, in a small vessel, a
special steering motor which is activated whenever the vessel deviates from that pre set
course;
* A wheelhouse rudder indicator (as distinct from a helm indicator) which shows the
position of the rudder at any given moment;
* A clutch/de-clutch device -either mechanical or electrical, to engage or release the pilot.
All autopilots will be different but they all have some or all of these features.
Method of operation
(a) Engaging
1. The ship is manually steered to the desired course.
2. The course selection is set to the required course and the unit engaged.
3. From this point on it is now steering automatically and you should check the actual
course being steered by compass and make any small correction necessary moving the
selector a small amount in the required direction.
(b) Altering Course
Small alterations of course can usually be made by moving the course selector to the new
course.
However, as the vessel will only swing on the amount rudder indicated by the auto
setting, it is nearly always better to disengage the pilot, bring the ship manual to her new
course and re-engage the pilot, unless the alteration is only a few degrees.
Settings
An auto pilot cannot think for itself but responds totally to a deviation of the ship's head
from the set compass course. Different sea conditions and changes in handling character
of the vessel, require differing steering responses -amount rudder used, delay in applying
the helm, bias in one direction or the other and, in large vessels, the tendency to continue
turning after the helm is centred in the midships position
Different makes of auto pilot give differing names for the settings and those lists are the
most common.
1. Ratio, Rudder or Response
This determines the amount of rudder (or helm) the autopilot will use to maintain course
and equates the number of turns of wheel a helmsman would use in the existing
conditions. For example, in a calm sea, very little rudder is needed hold the ship on a
straight course.
In a following or quartering sea, she may need as much 10 to 15 degrees of rudder to
bring her back each time she starts to pay off.
2. Sensitivity or Weather
This is a delay setting which allows the vessel to yaw up to 5° off course before the pilot
starts to apply compensating wheel. It is particularly useful in a beam sea where severe
rolling often gives a 'tilt error' to the compass. The vessel is probably holding a true
course but the pilot does not know this and immediately applies opposite wheel.
Unless this delay setting is used, the steering engine will be 'working overtime' and in
fact tend to steer a zig-zag course.
For normal sea conditions, a setting between 2° and 3° is fairly satisfactory; in a
following quartering sea when you need instant response - make sure it is set to zero.
3. Trim, Standing Helm, Bias or Weather Helm.
This setting applies a bias to compensate the type of continuous helm correction a
helmsman would have to make if steaming on one engine in a twin-screw vessel. If your
pilot does not have this adjustment you can achieve the same result by setting your course
indicator the appropriate amount to one side until the ship's head by compass is holding
steady on the required course.
4. Counter Rudder
This is a setting that only has any real application in a large vessel that requires opposite
helm to prevent her swinging past the course when the helm is centred.
It can be set to apply automatically the correct amount of counter helm as the ship comes
back on course.
It is essential to understand all these settings if best use is to be made of the equipment.

Limitations and precautions in use:

Limitations of autopilots
Auto-pilots should not be used in any situation where emergency course alterations may
be called for, such as navigating in fog or in close company with other vessels.
It is also unwise to use the auto-pilot in restricted channels and waters very close to
navigational dangers. Such situations often call for large amounts of wheel in a hurry, and
the pilot may not be programmed to cope with this. A good example is a channel subject
to strong tidal influence where overfalls and rips can swing a ship suddenly off course.
Excessive weather conditions are often the occasion when one should revert to hand
steering. Remember, the auto-pilot only reacts to the ship deviating from her course. The
equipment cannot anticipate that extra large and breaking sea on the bow that may
necessitate easing the ship's head up to take it right ahead. It cannot see the big sea
coming on the quarter which may mean you should square away and run directly with it
to avoid a broaching situation.
Precautions in use of autopilots
Theoretically, the auto-pilot allows the single bridge watch keeper in a small vessel to
give his full attention to lookout and navigation duties.
Too often, unfortunately, it allows the man on watch to get so totally absorbed in other
pursuits that he neglects to keep a proper lookout and, on many occasions, to fall asleep.
Apart from the obvious risk of collision, there is always the chance that the pilot will fail
mechanically. Some instruments have an alarm to call attention to this but, in most small
ship installations the only safeguard is a regular check on the compass course being
maintained.
Manoeuvring Difficulties of Large Vessels
Larger vessels due to their size, hull form and power are not as manoeuvrable as smaller
vessels. Fighting the wheel to keep a vessel dead on the lubber line in a following sea will
be less effective than allowing it to yaw (swing) within its natural motion. Stopping
distances are increased by the huge momentum of a large vessel. Turning circles are large
and response to the helm relatively slow, all these factors make it harder for a larger
vessel to make swift and nimble manoeuvres as can be made by most small vessels. In
light of the above the Master on a small vessel must bear in mind these constraints on a
larger vessel before impeding it’s path or passing so close so as to not allow any margin
for error or the manoeuvring characteristics of the larger vessel.
RADAR CONTROLS:
STAND-BY/ TRANSMIT: (The standby/transmit switch usually has three positions
labelled “off”, “standby”, and “transmit”. Turning the switch to standby will activate
the radar set, however it doesn’t come on immediately as the magnetron needs a few
minutes to warm up before it can transmit. The radar will have some form of visual
signal to indicate when this period is expired. The radar can then be switched to
“transmit” and on some sets a short or long pulse can be selected at this time, normally
long pulse would be selected. A long pulse will be more likely to show an echo from a
weak target or a target at a longer range. A short pulse will achieve better definition on
short ranges. As well as its main function of giving the magnetron time to warm up, in
„standby‟ mode the scanner is not rotating (on most sets) and is a way of conserving
power and prolonging the life of the magnetron while keeping the set ready for immediate
use. It is a good practice at sea to leave the radar on „standby‟ at all times as this will
prevent condensation forming inside the radar set.)
BRILLIANCE: (The brilliance control on an analogue radar controls the brightness of
the rotating trace and will also affects the brightness of the displayed echo so it needs to
be adjusted so that the trace itself is just visible, to give a good contrast between echo
and background. On a raster scan display the brilliance control regulates the brightness
of the picture, making it bright enough for daylight viewing or dim enough so as not to
impair the operator’s night vision.)
GAIN: (The gain control may appear to have a similar function as the brilliance control
in that operating it makes the picture brighter or darker. The gain control affects the
receiver and not the display as the brilliance does. Turning up the gain will increase the
amplification of the incoming signal, making weak echoes look stronger, but confusing
the display with background speckle or noise, similar to the background crackling of an
ordinary radio. Turning down the gain will reduce the sensitivity of the receiver and
reduce the speckle but care must be exercised that this is not overdone as weak or distant
echoes may be lost.)
TUNING: (The tuning control can be compared to the tuning control of an ordinary
radio, in that it tunes the receiver to the frequency of the transmitter. Poor tuning
adjustment may not be easily recognised on the screen. Tuning slightly out will eliminate
some very weak echoes, but still produce a clear picture of the stronger ones. Hence the
importance of frequent fine tuning of the set.)
RANGE SELECTOR: (The range control regulates the range at which the set operates.
It simply changes the size of the area on the display and hence the scale. You would
change the range of the radar just as you would change charts for passage planning or
close-in piloting. The choice of range would depend on what you are using the radar for,
and your locality. For coastal navigation you might select a range of 6 or 12 miles so
that appropriate coastal features will be displayed, for collision avoidance a range of 12
miles or 24 miles may be appropriate, for pilotage into a confined anchorage a range of
even ½ a mile may be needed. Changing the range also affects the radar’s pulse length,
PRF (pulse repetition frequency), and video presentation.)
SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL (STC) – Anti-clutter Sea (The radar beam will
bounce echoes off the sea around the ship, particularly if the weather is a little rough.
This result will be a bright sunburst pattern in the middle of the screen which will be
more pronounced in the upwind direction. You could reduce this by turning down the
gain, the down side to that solution however, is that the echoes of more distant targets
will be lost as well. The solution is the sea clutter control. It works by reducing the
receiver gain for a few microseconds after each pulse is transmitted, then gradually
restores it to its former level. It works very well, but its use requires care. Too much sea
clutter control will result in the loss of close range targets. At sea the sea clutter control
must be continually monitored and adjusted.)
FAST TIME CONSTANT (FTC) – Anti-clutter Rain (The rain clutter control will
reduce the interference on the screen due to the rain and increase the chance of seeing
targets within rain showers. The effect on returning echoes from rain on the screen is
usually no more than a transparent smear, looking a little like cotton wool, but it can be
dense enough to conceal other echoes within the shower. In a tropical downpour
however, the rain can completely block out all echoes, at times requiring the operator to
stop the vessel.
The rain clutter control works by making use of the fact that the returning echo from rain
is different from the returning echo of a solid object. The returning echo from rain is
much longer and very much less dense than the echo from a solid object. The rain clutter
circuitry works by passing on to the receiver only the leading edge of a returning echo.
This does not affect the returning echo from a solid object like a ship, but drawn out,
weak returning echoes from the rain however, will be weakened considerably. In practice
however all returning echoes will be affected, resulting in a reduction in strength all
returning echoes and a reduction in picture quality. Sometimes the sea clutter control
may be used to better effect, to see through the rain. However, if you adopt this approach
remember that close-in targets will also be lost, which may defeat the purpose.)
PULSE LENGTH SELECTOR (short pulse/medium pulse/long pulse)
ORIENTATION: (unstabilized – head-up/stabilized – north-up/ stabilized –course-
up)
PICTURE PRESENTATION: (relative motion/ true motion)
HEADING MARKER (Off)

POSITION FIXING:
1. SELECTION OF TARGETS (Target Identification; Angle of cut)
2. TYPES OF POSITION LINES (Radar Range circles; Radar bearings; Combination
of Radar ranges and Bearings; Single Position lines; Combination of Radar
Position lines with those from other sources)
TARGET DETECTION:
1. RADAR CHARACTERISTICS (Transmitter Characteristics; Antenna
Characteristics; Receiver characteristics; Minimum Detection Range)
2. TARGET CHARACTERISTICS (Aspect; Surface Texture; Material; Shape; Size)
Setting-Up the Display

The following instructions apply to all radar sets; however the procedure may differ on
some sets that have additional controls.

Check that the scanner is free to rotate so as not to foul rigging and that no crew members
are working in the vicinity of the scanner.
With a raster scan display setting up is a relatively simple matter. Turn it on to “standby”
wait for the set to warm up, and then switch to transmit. Most modern raster scan radars
will automatically tune the radar for optimum performance. However, many operators
still prefer to tune the set manually to get that little bit of extra performance from the
radar, so all radars have provision for manual tuning.

If you have an older radar set with a analogue display, before switching the radar set ON,
you should first turn the brilliance and gain controls right down to zero. Analogue
displays produce the picture by directing a stream of electrons onto a delicate florescent
coating inside the screen. When the set is first turned on, this beam of electrons is
directed at the very centre of the screen, over time this would result in burning out the
centre portion of the display. Turning down the brilliance and gain first will reduce the
intensity of the beam and prevent damage to the screen. For the same reason it’s a good
practice at sea, to always have some sea clutter employed so as not to burn out the centre
of the screen.
After switching to “standby” you will then have to wait until the set warms up, this is
usually 3 minutes. With a raster scan display you can set the brilliance to suit the
conditions at this stage. While you are waiting most sets will give a count-down, or an
indicator light will come on after the warm up period is completed. Once warm up is
completed the set will be in “standby” mode, the transmitter can now be turned on.
As soon as the set is transmitting in a raster scan radar you will get a picture of some sort.
Adjust the brilliance again at this point if necessary. With a analogue display the
brilliance and gain should have been set to zero, so you will need to turn the brilliance up
first so that the time-base trace is just visible.
Next, with an analogue display adjust the gain up to about 70% or until a light
background speckle can just be seen, this will ensure that weak echoes will be seen. With
a raster scan display adjust the gain up to about 70% or until a light background speckle
can just be seen, then turn it down until the speckle just disappears.
Next select a suitable range for tuning, usually this will be one of the radars middle
ranges, for a 48 nm radar the 12 mile range would be selected and at the same time check
that other radar controls such as, rain clutter and interference rejection (IR) are turned off.
The last step is to tune the radar. To do this you have to be receiving something, even if
it’s only sea clutter. Preferably choose a distant weak target, as the effect of tuning will
be more obvious. Then adjust the tuning knob for the clearest and brightest picture. If you
are at sea, with no targets visible, adjust the set for maximum sea clutter.
Tuning the set for optimum performance will take a few minutes. Adjust the tuning
control slightly then wait for a few sweeps to see the result. Continue this process until
you find that particular setting that results in the clearest, brightest picture with the most
targets displayed.
All modern radars will have some form of tuning indicator to assist you with the process.
Tune for the maximum number of tuning lights or highest deflection of a meter or some
other indicator, but don’t totally rely on the tuning meter however, as your eye is the
superior indicator. After tuning readjust the gain for a lightly speckled background.
Next, switch to the desired range scale and adjust the anti-clutter controls. Then check the
VRM against the range rings and the alignment of the heading marker against the ship’s
head. If a performance monitor is fitted, check that performance is satisfactory. The radar
is now ready for operation.

After 10 minutes or so recheck the gain control and retune the set, because as the set
warms up the transmitter frequency is likely to have changed slightly. Check gain, clutter
controls and tuning again after every hour or so of operation as the set may gradually drift
out of tune.
To assist you to remember the start up sequence, after you have switched on, adjust the
Brilliance, Gain, Range and Tuning in alphabetical order.

Switching Off
Before shutting down the radar set turn the brilliance and gain, to the minimum and turn
off the anti-clutter controls. This will extend the life of the display and allow the next
operator to set up the radar using standard procedure in the minimum time.