CHAPTER 6 : LEARNING (12.09.

23)
*definitions are important for exam

Reflex :
• innate, motor or neutral automatic (non-learned) response to a stimulus in the environment (blinking, knee-jerk, pupil
dilation…)
• Involves more primitive centres of the central nervous system

Instinct :
• innate behaviours that are triggered by a broader range of events such as aging and change of seasons
• More complex patterns of behaviours—movement of the organism as a whole (sexual behaviours, migration)
• Involves higher brain centers

Learning : some experiences that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner that can be attributed to
experience. Can be conscious and deliberate or unconscious

Habituation: a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in
responding. The simplest form of learning

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH PAVLOV: S-R
Ivan Pavlov’s research on digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to discovery of learning process known as classical
conditioning
Classical conditioning: a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli

Food is the unconditioned stimulus

The bell is the neutral stimulus

The neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response, becomes a

conditioned stimulus

THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (S-R)

• Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest (e.g., bell
sound).
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
(e.g., smell of food).
• Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a
response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., sound of bell + smell of food = at some point only sound
of bell…).
• Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the
sound of a bell only).

HIGHER-ORDER / SECOND-ORDER CONDITIONING

In higher-order conditioning, an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new

neutral stimulus (the second-order stimulus), so that eventually the new stimulus also
elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being
presented.

ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

This is the curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. The

rising curve shows the conditioned response quickly getting stronger
through the repeated pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus (acquisition). Then the curve decreases, which
shows how the conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned
stimulus is presented (extinction). After a break or pause from conditioning,
the conditioned response reappears (spontaneous recovery).

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION & GENERALIZATION

Generalization: a process in which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used
during acquisition (scared of dogs bc a “poodle” bit you, alarms on someone else’s phone…)

Discrimination: the capacity to distinguish between similar bit distinct stimuli (react differently from bell recess and bell for fire
alarm, green light go, red light stop)

BEHAVIOURISM — CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH WATSON (S-R) *unconscious

• John B. Watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion
• Influenced by Pavlov’s work

Through stimulus generalization, Litte Albert starts fearing fuzzy things (including Watson in a
white mask) -1920
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES : THE CASE OF LITTLE ALBERT
• little Albert associated a frighting loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) with a white rat (conditioned stimulus) to elicit fear
(conditioned stimulus)
• The rat used to be neutral stimulus but after conditioning, it’s a conditioned stimulus for fear response
◦Also showed stimulus generalization in fear responses to similar stimuli (everything similar in texture and all)
• Fear can be learned just as other behaviour
• Conditioning can be applied to humans just as any other animal
• Not ethical : induce fear in a baby, didn’t stop when baby showed distress

CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION

• a learned aversive response to a specific food
• Developed (usually) when a novel or unfamiliar food is associated with an unpleasant reaction (ex. nausea or vomiting)

THE NEUTRAL ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• The amygdala (central nucleus) is critical for emotional conditioning
• gateway/entrance to emotional center of brain
• When fear conditioning takes place, a behavioural and physiological (automatic nervous system) response are elicited by the
conditioned stimulus
◦Path from amygdala to midbrain control the behaviour response
◦Path from the amygdala to hypothalamus controls the physiological response

THE COGNITIVE ELEMENTS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Classical conditioning only occurs when a human or animal has learned to set up an expectation
• Conditioning is easier when the CS is an unfamiliar event than a familiar one (no pre-existing expectations).

physiological
response

behaviour
BEHAVIOURISM—OPERANT CONDITIONING WITH SKINNER (S-R-C) *conscious

a) skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of hoe behaviours are strengthened or
weakened according to their consequences (1938)

b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food
reward.

Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their
consequences. Response can be followed by reinforcer, punishment, or nothing.
•Reinforcer: any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.
•Punisher: any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.

• when reinforcement + or - (added or removed) behaviour is more likely to occur

• When punishment is + or - that behaviour is less likely to occur

!! If you remove pain, there will be more chances of you to remove pain again to feel better
Pain killer - swallowing that pill is suppressing pain
But if you’re giving food for a positive behaviour, it’s positive reinforcement

Note: time out is always a negative punishment

THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT
• states that responses that lead to satisfying consequences (results) are more likely to be repeated and responses followed
by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated

◦Thorndike believed that this law of effect would operate automatically, where over time and through experience the
organism would make a direct connection between stimulus and response without any awareness that the connection
existed
◦His early research served as the foundation for B.F. Skinner’s work

OPERANT CONDITIONING — SUPERSTITION

Superstition behaviours
• behaviour that is repeated to produce reinforcement or avoided to avoid punishment
ex. “knock on wood”

MORE ON PUNISHERS…
Punisher:
• any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behaviour
• Key factors: timing, consistency, intensity

Severe punishment:
• intense punishment, capable of suppressing a response for a long period

Mild punishment:
• weak punishment, usually slows responses temporarily

SIDE EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT

Aversive stimulus:
• stimulus that is painful/uncomfortable (ex.shock)
Escape learning:
◦learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus
Avoidance learning:
◦learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (ex. not going to a doctor/dentist)

*punishment may also increase aggression

SHAPING

The end goal is to get the dog to jump to the lines

Reinforcing closer and closer to the goal

THE NEURAL ELEMENT OF “OPERANT CONDITIONING”

• pleasure centers in the limbic system are involved in conditioning
• Dopamine is secreted (positive emotions) throughout these pathways (linked to hunger, sexual interest and activity)

PLEASURE CENTERS IN THE BRAIN

*only need to remember the amygdala

TYPES OF REINFORCERS
Primary reinforcer
• nonlearned and natural, satisfies physiological needs (ex. food, water, sex)
• Intracranial stimulation - natural primary reinforcer, involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure center”

Secondary reinforcers
• Learned and associated with primary through classical conditioning (ex. money, grades, approval)
• Token reinforcer - tangible secondary reinforcer (money, gold stars, poker chips)
• Social reinforcer - provided by other people (ex. attention, approval)

BEHAVIOURISM: OPERANT CONDITIONING: S-R-C

• A response is associated with a consequence
• ex: a dog has learned that certain behaviours result in receiving a treat (positive reinforcement)

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (MODELING)

BANDURA’S OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Observational learning takes place by watching the actions of others
• Also occurs in animals
• Mirror neurons fire when one watches another perform the same action
• In imitation, subject only copies the model. In observational learning, the subject learn by observing consequences in
others

a) yoga students learn by observation as the instructor demonstrates the

stance and movement for students (live model)

b) through symbolic modeling, a child can learn a behaviour by watching

someone demonstrate it (through a medium)

VIOLENCE IN TELEVISION AND VIDEO GAMES: DOES THE MEDIA’S MESSAGE MATTER?
• There is high level of agreement among experts that experiencing high levels of media violence makes viewers more
susceptible to acting aggressively
• Experiencing violent media content seems to lower inhibitions against carrying out aggression.
• Exposure to media violence also may distort our understanding of the meaning of others’ behaviour, predisposing us to view
even nonaggressive acts by others as aggressive.
• A continuous diet of aggression may leave us desensitized to violence, and what previously would have repelled us now
produces little emotional response.