Chuong 3 SIGNAL Chua Dich

3/17/2023
CHAPTER 3
SIGNAL CONDITIONING FOR
RESISTIVE SENSORS
GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY
INTRODUCTIONS
• This chapter presents several methods to obtain from resistive sensors output voltages in a
range suited to analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) or other electric measuring equipment. It
also presents several methods of interference compensation and sensor linearization in the
signal conditioner following the sensor.
• Some of these sensors and signal conditioners enable us to introduce error analysis methods
and circuit design aspects that are common to other more involved sensors.
• The chapter first reviews resistance measurement methods, then analyzes conditioners for
sensors with large magnitude resistive variations, then progresses to successively smaller
magnitude resistive variations.
GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 2
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MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
• The general equation for a sensor whose resistance changes by a
fraction x in response to a measurand is R = R0 f(0) assuming f(0) = 1.
For linear sensors we have
• The range of values for x depends strongly on the type of sensor and
on the measurand span.
• For linear sensors, x varies from 0 to -1 for linear potentiometers and
can be up to 10 for conductive polymers and as small as 10-5 to 10-2
for strain gages.
• RTDs and measuring thermistors have intermediate values for x.
• The ratio between sensor resistance for extreme measurand values
can be higher than 1000 in LDRs and humistors, and is less than 100
in magnetoresistors, gas sensors, and liquid conductivity sensors.
• Switching PTC thermistors increase their resistance by more than
10,000 for temperatures above the switching temperature.
 There are two requirements for all conditioners for resistive sensors.
• First, they must drive the sensor with an electric voltage or current in order to obtain an output
signal, because a change in resistance is not by itself a signal.
• Second, this supply, whose magnitude affects that of the output signal, is limited by sensor self-
heating, which must be avoided unless the sensing principle uses sensor self-heating, as in
some flowmeters and liquid level meters.
• Some sensors require particular circuits. Thermistors require linearization. Strain gages require
interference cancellation. Sensors that yield small outputs require large gains in order for the
dynamic range of the output signal to match the input range of the ADC.
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• Conditioners for remote sensors must be insensitive to
connecting lead resistance or compensate for it. The voltage
measured
• However, ambient temperature changes would induce wire

resistance variations that would not be cancelled. The voltage
measured in the four-wire circuit
• The simplest deflection method consists of supplying the
resistance with a constant voltage source and then
measuring the current through the circuit, or with a constant
current source and then measuring the voltage.
• Figure 3.3a shows a resistive sensor driven by a constant
current. The output voltage for a linear sensor is
which is linear too. If x <<1, vo will consist of small fluctuations

(due to x) superimposed on a very large offset voltage
corresponding to x = 0.
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• If we design Rr = R0, subtracting the drop in voltage across Rr
from vo yields
which is zero for x = 0. If the relative accepted error is , the input

offset voltage of the op amp must be Vio < Vr.
• Figure 3.3b shows a circuit to implement the same principle. Two
identical current sources drive the sensor and a series-
connected resistor, which furnishes a voltage to cancel the drop
in voltage across the sensor when x = 0.
• If Rz = R0, the output voltage is
Example: A temperature from 20oC to 100oC is to be measured with
0.1oC resolution using the circuit in Figure and a thin-film Pt100,
which has 100 and  = 0.00385 //K at 0oC, and  = 40 mW/K
in 0.4 m/s water. Calculate Rr if the reference voltage available is Vr
= 5 V.
• The temperature resolution is limited by self-heating because any
change in heat dissipation would induce a change in resistance.
We wish
• Because the sensor is driven at constant current, the maximal

dissipation will be at 100oC (maximal sensor resistance). Hence,
the condition to fulfill is
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• From
• Therefore
• One additional criterion to select Rr could be to have a sensitivity of, say, 1 mV/oC. The output
voltage would then be
• and the sensitivity would be
• Therefore,
• If we select Rr = 1.93 k, 0.1% tolerance, the actual sensitivity can be up to
0.36% smaller than 1 mV/oC, but this is a constant error that can be trimmed off.
Also, at 20oC, R20 = 107.7, leading to an offset voltage of about 279 mV. The
current through the sensor would be about 2.5 mA
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• Another deflection method for resistance measurement is the two-
reading method shown in Figure 3.4. It consists of placing a known
stable resistor in series with the unknown one.
• First a reading is taken across that resistor, which yields Vr = I.Rr, and
then another reading is taken across the unknown one, which yields
vo = IR. Afterwards the quotient between both readings is calculated
to obtain
• If Rr  R the voltmeter error in both readings will be similar and will be

cancelled when taking the quotient. We would typically select Rr =
Rmax in the measurement span.
Figure 3.4
• Alternatively, a ratio ADC using Vr as reference directly provides the
quotient in digital format
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• Voltage dividers are commonly used to measure high-value
resistances. In Figure 3.5a, if we assume the input resistance of
the voltmeter is much higher than R, we have
• from which we can calculate the value for the unknown resistor
• Alternatively, if Rr and R switch their positions, we have
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• Voltage dividers suit sensors with large variation in resistance and also nonlinear sensors such
as NTC thermistors because the nonlinearity of the relationship between vo and R permits
thermistor linearization. If we interpret Rr and R as the two parts of a potentiometer, voltage
dividers can be applied to potentiometers
• Example: The MGS1100 CO gas sensor (Motorola) has 1000 k in air, from 30 k to 300 k
(150 k typical) for CO concentration of 60x10-6 (R60) and a ratio R60/R400 = 2.5 (typical). If the
allowable voltage across the sensing resistor and power dissipation in it are 5 V and 1 mW,
design a voltage divider according to Figure 3.5a for such a sensor if the expected CO
concentration range is from 0 to 400x10-6.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• To guarantee the voltage limit, we can select Vr = 5V. Power dissipation imposes the condition
• From
the maximal dissipation will happen when R = Rr, so that we must fulfill
• The sensor resistance range is from 1000 k to

typical, and 750 k maximum. Hence, the limit imposed by power dissipation will never be
reached. We can thus select Rr equal, for example, to the sensor resting resistance for the
atmosphere to monitor.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• The voltage–resistance relation in voltage dividers is not linear
because the current in the circuit depends on the unknown
resistance.
• If that current were constant, the drop in voltage across a
linear resistive sensor would be a linear function of the
measurand as in Figure 3.3a.
• For sensors whose resistance decreases with the applied
input, such as conductive polymer force sensors, the circuit in
Figure 3.5b injects a constant current into the sensor and
yields an output voltage vo which increases with the
measurand.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• Example: Design the circuit in Figure in order to obtain 0.5V to
5V output in response to a force of 0 kg to 45 kg when using a
FlexiforceTM SSB-T sensor that has 200 k when unloaded and
20 k when applying 45 kg.
• From
• Hence we need VrRr = -100 V x k. We can select Vr = -5V,

which leads to Rr =20 k, which is standard.
• Its tolerance should be equal to the uncertainty accepted for the
gain.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• The usual method to measure small changes in resistance consists of placing another voltage
divider in parallel with the one incorporating the sensor. If both dividers are designed so that
when there is no applied input both give the same voltage, the difference between their outputs
is a signal that depends only on the measured variable. This arrangement is known as a
Wheatstone bridge.
• In addition to this fundamental advantage, in some instances the Wheatstone bridge increases
the measurement sensitivity by using several sensors conveniently arranged in different arms.
Also, some external interference can be canceled.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
• Figure 3.6a shows the simplest signal conditioning for a potentiometer having a total resistance
RT. The linear or rotary movement from the device to be measured turns or slides the wiper.
Equivalent circuit
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
where k = Rm/RT.
• Therefore, the relationship between the measured voltage and wiper displacement is linear only
when k >> 1; that is, we need Rm >> RT.
• If the theoretical (ideal) response is vo = Vr, there is no error at the ends of the scale. At
intermediate points, the relative error  depends on k according to
• We can know the point where e is maximal by determining when d/d = 0.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
 = 0.5, namely the central point in the span. We evaluate (0.5) by solving at  = 0.5, which
yields
Because  and 1 -  can be interchanged with no effect, the relative error is symmetrical with
respect to the central position. Also, because the minimal error is  = 0, to know whether  = 0.5
is a maximum or a minimum it is not necessary to take the second derivative.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
A simple way to reduce the loading error without
increasing Rm is to place a resistor equal to Rm on
the top side of the potentiometer
The measured voltage is
The added resistor forces vm = Vr/2 at the central

position ( = 0.5) thus achieving zero error at that
point.
By using two different resistors we can obtain zero
error at any desired point. This is useful for fine
tuning a voltage around a given value
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
Another method to reduce nonlinearity error due
to loading effects is to use a symmetrical power
supply connected. The output voltage is
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
For remote potentiometers, three-wire circuits yield zero and sensitivity (gain) errors. If in order to
reduce loading effects we make k >> 1, for  = 0 we have
This implies an offset error. For  = 1 we have
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
The actual voltage ratio has a smaller slope than
the ideal ratio and does not go through zero.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Potentiometers
The four-wire circuit avoids the offset error
because now vm(0) = 0V. However, the wiper at
 = 1 yields
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Application to Thermistors
Section 2.4 noted that in a reduced temperature range an NTC
thermistor can be modeled by two parameters and the equation
where temperatures are in kelvins. This nonlinear behavior can be

linearized to a certain extent by a voltage divider vo does not
change linearly with R.
The output for the voltage divider is
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
From
We have
where we have defined s = R0/R. vo can be thus expressed as
The shape of F(T) depends on each particular material and on s. If a linear behavior of vo with
respect to T is desired, F(T) should be a straight line. The appropriate value for s in order to have
such a shape depends on the range of temperatures for the thermistor.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
For the material whose curves are
shown in Figure
For example, in the range from 10oC
to 50oC the best linearity is obtained
for s = 1.5. But for the range from
90oC to 100oC a value of s = 20.0 is
best.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Amplifiers for Voltage Dividers
Voltage dividers need high-impedance voltage meters. The noninverting amplifier yields high
input impedance and gain (1 + R2/R1).
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
If we consider the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the voltage divider and op amp error
sources—input offset voltage and currents—the output voltage is
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VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Hence, there is an output zero error (OZE),
which, divided by the signal gain, yields the input zero error (IZE),
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

• It is based on a feedback system, either electric or manual, in order to adjust the value of a
standard resistor until the current through the galvanometer or other null indicator is zero
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Arrangement to cancel the effect of contact
resistance on the balance.
• For remote sensors we must consider long leads
whose resistance adds to the sensor resistance.
Conductors with low TCR such as constantan
and manganin have high resistivity (  44
.cm). Conversely, copper wires have lower
resistivity (  1.7 .cm); but because its TCR
is about 0.004 //K, temperature changes can
result in important errors.

• The Siemens or three-wire method solves this
problem. Wires 1 and 3 must be equal and
undergo the same temperature changes. The
characteristics of wire 2 are irrelevant
because in the balance condition there is no
current through the bridge central arm. The
relative error in the measurement of R3 is
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• An alternative circuit with the same objective. The error is similar. In both cases the error
decreases when R3 >> Rw

Figure shows how to apply this method to several sensors using a single set of three long wires.
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The application of the null method to dynamic measurements depends on the availability of a fast
enough automatic balancing system.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS

• Wheatstone bridges are often used in the deflection
mode. Instead of measuring the action needed to
restore balance on the bridge, this method measures
the voltage difference between both voltage dividers or
the current through a detector bridging them.
• If the bridge is balanced when x = 0, which is the usual
situation, we define a parameter k,
• The voltage difference between both branches is
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Thus the output voltage is proportional to the changes in R3 only when x << k + 1; that is, the
sensitivity depends on x (and k and Vr). For x = 0, the sensitivity is
If the bridge is supplied by a constant current Ir,

the output voltage is
The actual output departs from a straight line

through the origin for k = 1

• To have an approximately linear output we need x << 2(k+1), and x << 4 when k = 1. Linearity is
not necessary to achieve good accuracy. What matters is the repeatability of the results. But the
output is easily interpreted when it is proportional to the measurand.
• For metal strain gages, x seldom exceeds 0.02. Therefore, usually k = 1 to improve sensitivity
and, unless a very high linearity is desired, the presence of x in the denominator of is ignored.
Alternatively, the actual x can be calculated from the output voltage or current by solving for x in
those equations. For example, for a bridge supplied by constant voltage and k = 1, we obtain
• The second factor on the right-side member corrects the ‘‘uncorrected’’ output 4vo/Vr
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Forcing a constant current through a linear sensor and subtracting a constant voltage yields a
linear voltage
a resistance bridge with five terminals
a common bridge with four terminals

Sensor Bridge Calibration and Balance
Shunt calibration of a resistive sensor bridge
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Difference and Average Measurements and Compensation
Bridges have the additional advantage, as compared with voltage dividers, that permit the
measurement of the difference between quantities or its average. Furthermore, by using several
sensors they permit an increase in sensitivity and some interference compensation.
The circuit measures a difference by including two sensors in adjacent bridge arms in different
branches. The output voltage is

Whenever x1, x2 << k + 1, we can approximate
For temperature sensors, this method yields temperature differences—useful, for example, to
calculate thermal gradients or heat loss in pipes or to warn about freezing risks in agriculture: A
fast, large temperature gradient indicates too large a heat loss from the soil to sky, ending in
frozen soil.
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• Several strain gages arranged in the same bridge also offer many advantages. Two strain
gages bonded to an element and connected in a bridge yield an output voltage:
• Using two active strain gages, one longitudinal and the other one transverse, in a measurement
bridge increases the sensitivity by the Poisson ratio 

• Difference and Average Measurements and Compensation
Two gages undergoing strains of the same magnitude but opposite in sign and connected yield an
output voltage:
Using two active strain gages undergoing opposite variations doubles the sensitivity and yields a
linear output. Thus not just the sensitivity increases, but the output is linear
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The bridge in combines two equal dual rosettes bonded on each side of the cantilever beam. The
output voltage is
Two dual rosettes connected as shown yield a linear voltage.

These different measurement connections are respectively called quarter bridge (one sensor),
half bridge (two sensors), and full bridge (four sensors).
Table 3.2 lists the corresponding output voltages for constant voltage or constant current supplies.
Bridges with constant current excitation are more linear than bridges with constant voltage
excitation. Full bridge connections are common in load cells and piezoresistive pressure sensors.
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• Power Supply of Wheatstone Bridges
To obtain an output signal from a Wheatstone bridge that includes one or more sensors we
must supply the bridge with a voltage or current, dc or ac. This supply must be stable with time
and temperature because otherwise its drift would propagate to the output. In a resistive bridge
supplied by a dc voltage,
• For example, the output voltage is given by.
• If x remains constant but the supply voltage drifts, we have
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Figure 3.28 shows a circuit for ratiometric measurement applied to a sensor bridge.
Figure 3.28 Ratiometric measurements based on an analog‐to‐digital converter

eliminate the need for high stability of the bridge supply.

Figure 3.29 shows a method to supply a large,
stable current. Most of the current comes from the
power supply through R, but the drop in voltage
across the bridge is controlled by the voltage
reference IC.
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• Detection Methods for Wheatstone Bridges
 The type of detecting device for the output signal of a sensor bridge depends on the intended
application. Most situations call for an analog-to-digital conversion.
 Therefore, the detector must amplify the bridge output voltage or current to match its dynamic
range and level to those of the ADC and must have an adequate input impedance: high to
sense voltage, low to sense current.
 Furthermore, its input configuration must be compatible with the signal type (differential or
single ended, grounded or floating) provided by the bridge output.

Alternative methods to detect the output voltage of a sensor bridge depending on power supply
grounding.
A differential amplifier
A single‐ended amplifier with floating
power supply
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A floating excitation permits us to use

a single‐ended, grounded amplifier. A floating capacitor permits the connection of a
bridge with grounded excitation to a single‐
ended, grounded amplifier.
28

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3/17/2023

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 2

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 4

• However, ambient temperature changes would induce wire

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 5

which is linear too. If x <<1, vo will consist of small fluctuations

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 6

which is zero for x = 0. If the relative accepted error is , the input

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 7

• Because the sensor is driven at constant current, the maximal

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 8

• and the sensitivity would be

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 9

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 10

• If Rr  R the voltmeter error in both readings will be similar and will be

• Alternatively, if Rr and R switch their positions, we have

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 12

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 13

• The sensor resistance range is from 1000 k to

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 15

• Hence we need VrRr = -100 V x k. We can select Vr = -5V,

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 16

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GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 18

• We can know the point where e is maximal by determining when d/d = 0.

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 19

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 20

The added resistor forces vm = Vr/2 at the central

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 21

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 22

This implies an offset error. For  = 1 we have

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 23

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where temperatures are in kelvins. This nonlinear behavior can be

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 26

where we have defined s = R0/R. vo can be thus expressed as

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: BALANCE MEASUREMENTS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS

• The voltage difference between both branches is

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 38

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS

If the bridge is supplied by a constant current Ir,

The actual output departs from a straight line

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS

GV: NGUYEN TRUONG DUY 3/17/2023 Page 40