Field Attachment Report PDF Document

SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCE
ATTACHMENT REPORT
PRESENTED BY
OGUTA ONYANGO CAVINE
FIS/021/011
THIS REPORT IS SUMITTED IN PARTIAL FLFILMENT OF REQUIREMENT OF FIELD ATTACHMENT

(FHS 322) UNDERTAKEN AT DOMINION FARMS BETWEEN MAY 2014 AND AUGUST 2014.
Date of submission:
Tuesday, November 25, 2014
ACKNOWLEDGENT
I wish to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of my immediate supervisors from Dominion farms, Mr.
Maurice Mbori, who ensured efficient assignment of duties and coordinated my attachment exercise. Notable
remarks are conveyed to Dr. Manyala for sparing his time to come for my assessment on 2nd July. His presence
was indeed a great honor and encouragement to me. Moreover, I observe and honor the support from the
Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences in facilitating the attachment exercise and for ensuring that quality
academic standards are duly met in the whole experience. Finally, I honor the acceptance of the Management of
Dominion Farms to consider my request to serve my attachment with them.
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DEDICATION
This report is foremost dedicated to the Almighty God for His grace and care, to my loving mother, Mrs. Jane
Onyango and Bidii Fisheries Youth Group.
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGENT................................................................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................................ v
Resume ......................................................................................................................................................................vi
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO DOMINION COMPANY LIMITED, KENYA ........................................................ 1
i. History of Dominion Company in Kenya .........................................................................................................1
ii. Major programs in dominion farms...................................................................................................................3
iii. Administration and Management practices at the farm.....................................................................................6
iv. Summary of daily chores, practical exposures at the farm ..............................................................................10
2.0 ATTACHMENT PRACTICAL EXERCISE ................................................................................................ 16

2.1 Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................................16
2.2 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................17
2.3 THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE EXPERIMENT ..........................................................................................22
2.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................................23
2.5 HYPOTHESIS.................................................................................................................................................23
2.6 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................24
2.7 METHODOLOGY AND MEMTHODS ........................................................................................................28
2.8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................................................29
REFEREES .............................................................................................................................................................. 38
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List of Tables
Table 1: Feed formulation at the feed meal. ............................................................................................................. 13
Table 2: Summary of the food types composition in 250 kilograms ....................................................................... 14
Table 3. Weight of the experimental fish before acclimatization and after acclimatization .................................... 29
Table 4. Feed Conversion Ratio in fish fed control diet (C), 10 g/kg Aloe vera (1), 20 g/kg Aloe vera (2) or 40
g/kg Aloe vera (3) for week 1. .................................................................................................................................. 29
g/kg Aloe vera (3) for 6 weeks. ................................................................................................................................ 31
Table 11: Percentage weight gain for the experimental period ................................................................................ 31
Table 12. Specific Growth Rate in fish fed control diet (C), 10 g/kg Aloe vera (1), 20 g/kg Aloe vera (2) or 40
g/kg Aloe vera (3) for 6 weeks. ................................................................................................................................ 31
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List of Figures
Figure 1. FCR after 6 weeks ........................................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 2: FCR for the 6 weeks .................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3: FCR for the Control Group for the 6 weeks ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 4: FCR for Group 3 for the 6 weeks ................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 5. SGR after 6 weeks ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 6. Specific Growth Rate after 6 weeks. ............................................................................................................ 34
Figure 7. Percentage Weight Gain .............................................................................................................................. 35
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Abstract
Industrial attachment is one of the most crucial and imperative aspects of learning involved in the course of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. This section is undertaken after the completion of the third year program for
bachelor students and at the completion of the first year program for Diploma students. The whole exercise is
expected to mentor the students and prepare them adequately for the full realization of the field details and
requirements after the completion of the studies. The attachment is coordinated by the department and the
respective firm management where the learners are attached. The firms are expected to provide the relevant
exposure to the learners in good faith hence promote the learning progress. The duration for the field attachment
is 9 weeks or more. Before the completion of this period, a lecturer form the department is required to pay a visit
to the students in their place of attachment to help ascertain the progress of the student and to evaluate the general
performance during the period. Primarily, attachments expose the students to almost all the relevant areas of field
work in relation to the nature of the course and the student’s preference given that the course is wide and can
accommodate several disciplines. Normally, students have sought attachment opportunities with the help of the
Department. Before identifying a place for attachment, every student is required to identify a field practically
oriented area of interest or an undertaking that s/he will find time to underscore while at the attachment.
Selections for these topics and special areas may however change with the places one goes to. The course is not
only taught theoretically in class, the practical aspects involved should be accurately earnest in the field exposure.
I was attached at Dominion Farms for a period of 3 months. This was an inspiring experience and I learnt a lot in
the areas of involvement at the Farms.
The attachment presented an avenue from which I related the already learnt class work to the practical aspects at
the field and helped me to appreciate the benefit of class discussions. The platform of academic experience
presented by the attachment experience was so significant as a basis for real exposition to the expectations of the
course.
I have made a summary of some of the experiences I gained from the field in this report.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO DOMINION COMPANY LIMITED, KENYA
i. History of Dominion Company in Kenya

Dominion Farms Limited is an American-owned, Kenyan-registered company that operates a modern, irrigated
farm on more than 17,000-acre leasehold in western Kenya. The farm is situated in western Kenya in the delta of
the Yala River where the equator crosses Lake Victoria. It is in Siaya County – eighteen kilometers from Siaya
Township and forty miles northwest of Kisumu City. The river is fed by tropical highlands to the east – providing
high volumes of irrigation water throughout the year. The elevation of the farm is high at 3,800 feet above sea
level. As a result, daytime temperatures are mild and nights are cool – perfect for the cultivation of rice and for
pond temperatures for fish. As with all sites along the equator, each day begins and ends at precisely the same
time and temperatures range between 60°F at midnight and 90°F at noon on all but a few days of each year.
The area is densely populated with an estimated 700,000 persons within a ten-mile radius of the farm’s perimeter.
Most live in family enclaves of only a few acres, from which they subsist on vegetable gardening and livestock
tending. When Dominion arrived in 2002, a few hundred acres of the swamp were above the flood plain and were
used for cattle grazing and intermittent grain production. Otherwise, the Yala Swamp consisted of over 50,000
acres of papyrus with little contribution to the welfare of local residents.
The Farms is committed to producing the finest quality foods and agricultural by-products while enhancing the
lives of her employees and the social and physical environments in which she operates. This company is
dedicated to advancing the capacity of Kenyans to build better lives through technology, productive labor,
personal integrity and faith. The vision of the Farm is to BE A LEADING PRODUCER OF FINEST QUALITY
FOODS AND AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS.
The company’s products include long-grain rice, tilapia fish, rotation crops and a number of by-products related
to those crops. By virtue of its remote location, the farm is highly vertically integrated and relies upon crop by-
products for much of its fertilizer and animal feed. Dominion Farms Limited is a diversified farming operation in
western Kenya producing long grain rice, fish, and other agricultural products under the Prime Harvest brand. The
farm is blessed with perfect climate, plenty of surface water, fertile soils, the equatorial sun and a large,
enthusiastic labor pool.
Dominion’s Prime Harvest rice is grown in the fertile alluvial soil of the Yala River delta of the Lake Victoria
basin. It is a full-bodied, long grain, pearl white rice that is thoroughly cleaned and milled in our own state-of-the
art rice mill. The totally integrated cultivation, harvesting, drying, milling and packaging in a single location and
its speedy delivery to retail outlets ensure the highest quality and freshest ready-to-cook rice available in Kenya
today.
In Kenya, the Prime Harvest logo is the symbol of great taste, high quality and good value. Dominion rice is sold
in retail outlets throughout western and central Kenya and her market continues to expand geographically as her
acreage under production increases. With greater rice production comes more rice bran for the aquaculture
operation, more rice hulls for the generation of electricity, more rice straw for the construction of homes and more
employment for sustained human development.
Irrigated rice production commenced in 2006 and acreage under rice continues to increase as the balance of the
leasehold is reclaimed and developed. Dominion’s dam on the Yala River forms an 1,100-acre water storage
reservoir for commercial and local domestic uses and also serves as a source of energy for a hydro-electric plant
now under construction. Eight miles of reinforced dikes downstream of the dam protect the farm from seasonal
flooding and miles of main canals, secondary canals, check structures and gates provide irrigation water to the
rice fields. A major canal carries oxygen-rich water directly to Lake Kanyaboli in order to recharge this important
source of domestic water that was previously in decline due to stagnation.
Dominion’s Prime Harvest Rice and Tilapia are recognized for their high quality and freshness. As most of our
rice reaches the consumer in one and two-kilogram bags less than one month after it is harvested, it compares
favorably with imported rice shipped in bulk from Asia and handled by multiple parties before being packaged
and sold at retail. Prime Harvest Tilapia is currently sold as whole fish in northern Nyanza region. Commencing
in mid-2010, fresh tilapia filets (as well as whole fish) have been available in grocers’ coolers throughout the
region and has expanded to include most of Kenya. But with the high demand of whole fish, the farm has ceased
the selling of fresh fillets but concentrates on whole fish and seed fish. In Kisumu alone for instance, the farm
sells over 96, 000 kg of food fish per annum. The overall annual production of food fish is close to 150, 000 kg.
The farm produces seed fish with an annual production standing at 3 tones. Whole fish is currently sold at a price
of Kshs. 260 at the farm and Kshs. 270 outside. The outlet prices vary between Kshs. 350 and Kshs. 400
depending on the location of the outlet.
The business of Kenya is agriculture – the principal source of income for 75% of the nation’s population. Yet
agriculture accounts for only 25% of the Gross Domestic Product. As a result, 75% of Kenyans depend on a
technically inefficient industry whose average labor input is three times greater than its output. Due to its
dominance, any change in the agricultural sector translates to changes in the entire economy. Efforts to grow the
economy and reduce poverty must begin with agriculture.
For the majority of Kenyans, farming exists mainly for subsistence. The level and scale of crop production is
geared towards satisfying household requirements. This is the basis upon which the investor, Calvin Burges began
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is exploitation of the available opportunity.
When Calvin Burgess first visited the Yala Swamp in 2002, it was accessible only via all-terrain vehicle. As there
was no commerce in the area, neither were there jobs, currency in circulation nor hope for improvement. But the
residents were determined to break out of the cycle of poverty associated with their tiny acreages and limited
access to markets. Dominion’s local payroll has done wonders for the health, wealth and attitude of hundreds of
employees and thousands who benefit indirectly from the circulation of hard currency. And the farm has provided
an example for smaller farmers to emulate in order to render their operations more productive and profitable.
The area around the farm allows for an ideal farming environment. Water is plentiful, the climate is cool and the
fields produce at least two crops per annum. Add the components of cost-effective labor and regional food
deficiencies and the area offers an exceptional farming scenario. The impact of two crops per annum cannot be
overstated in a large-scale application. It is the financial equivalent of doubling the size of an efficient
commercial farm at zero added cost. For a nation that imports more than 200,000 tons of rice annually from India,
Pakistan and Southeast Asia, the continuous planting and harvesting of rice on a commercial scale is a welcome
activity.
Today Dominion Farms is a celebrated example of technology-based, irrigated agriculture in western Kenya. It is
a model for long-range planners who seek to develop the water resources and expand the land under cultivation
that is needed to sustain the fast-growing Kenyan population. It also illustrates the synergies of using agricultural
by-products to lower operating costs through reduced reliance on the use of chemicals and imported fuels.
A major goal of Dominion Farms is to positively impact the community surrounding the farm and enrich the lives
of rural Kenyans. Dominion is especially committed to supporting the youth and women of Kenya in their quest
for economic advancement. In a land where poverty and disease run rampant, the young people crave a better
future. Dominion recognizes this desire to break from the past and has created a variety of venues for individuals
to realize their potential - even in an impoverished environment.
ii. Major programs in dominion farms

The following programs are already in place or set to take shape at the farm:
a) Community Based Rice and Aquaculture Farming

This program began in 2010. Even though partial implementation of the program has been accomplished, there
has been greater improvement in the livelihood of the communities engaged by the Farm. The Farms since then
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has converted a considerable portion of its leasehold development to community based rice and fish farms. These
programs were designed to place substantial assets into the hands of our impoverished neighbors, enabling them
to break the grasp of poverty and generate significant family income. The programs, to some extent, have
produced partnerships that has not only benefit the members, but function as a model for how agribusinesses in
Africa may serve as catalysts for entrepreneurial expansion for the mutual benefit of all. Dominion Farms has
provided the equipment and supervision to clear the land, level the fields as necessary, install irrigation canals
and control systems, and build roads to the newly developed fields. The community based rice farming groups, in
the program design, were to work in cooperation with and under the guidance of Dominion to grow rice and
rotational crops which conform to the quality standards of Dominion Farms Ltd. The only difference in
production is that community based farming will replace previously mechanized operations with their labor.
Where mechanization is cost- effective or is the only way to assure viable crops, it will be provided by
Dominion. In instances where uncontrollable problems occur, such as inclement weather, farm management will
be there to advice and assist community based farmers in their quest for the highest possible yields at the lowest
costs. It is expected that despite the current gains, Dominion will work alongside this program by providing
training facilities, materials and staff to prepare the selected members in the vocation of rice or fish farming
alongside the life skill courses that will be offered at Dominion Training Center. It is noted that the Training
Center is currently operational but with a low number of both trainees and trainers.
b) Dominion Training Center

In 2007 founder Calvin Burgess had an idea to create a residential vocational center to train the youth of Kenya in
modern agricultural practices. During an intensive training experience, young people are be taught a vocation
appropriate to their individual circumstances while receiving supplemental instruction on life skills needed to re-
enter their communities with confidence and vision. The Center uses the existing farm as a training venue but
operate from its own campus with vocational programming in such ‘majors” as rice farming, dairy farming,
poultry raising, small-scale aquaculture, construction trades, small engine/pump repair, retail operations and other
vocations that would be locally useful. The classes offer such vital subjects as sex education, nutrition, sanitation,
disease prevention/recognition, and rainwater harvesting/storage. The sessions are a minimum of three weeks and
progress is monitored throughout to ensure each trainee comprehends what has been taught. At full capacity,
Dominion plans to train 2,000 youth a year.
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Dominion Training Center has been designed to introduce young minds to a new perspective of life that includes
science, innovation and proven business practices. Although the initial plan for the Center is yet to be achieved, it
is expected to nurture the future economic base of Kenya, enabling young Kenyans to bring their communities out
of poverty through technology and the discipline associated with long-term goals.
c) Dominion Scholarship Program
Dominion Scholarship Program began in 2007 to enable a limited number of students in school districts near the
Dominion leasehold to attend school with their peers by paying all school related costs, to encourage academic
excellence and to provide a support system on which they can rely for responsible adult guidance and assistance.
However, this program has since collapsed. The program, when was began, provided funding for full or partial
orphans with little to no resources to help themselves. The students received full tuition support as well as school
uniforms, class materials and other specific needs that arise. Upon acceptance into the Dominion Scholarship
Program, students received continuous funding through completion of secondary school, assuming acceptable
marks are maintained.
While much of Dominion’s work is large-scale, the true value of change is measured by individuals. No matter
the growth of the farm and Training Center, Dominion Scholarship Program was aimed to remain selective to
guarantee close relationships between the students and Foundation staff so that each student would receive the
support necessary for their academic and personal growth. The collapse of this important program was a big set
back to the many young minds it had began offering hope of furthering their education. It is unclear whether
Dominion will revive this program owing to the increase in agricultural activities in program.
d) Dominion Sugar cane farm

Dominion is currently undertaking sugarcane farming in its farms. It is expected that the sugarcane industry will
provide employment to many people in the community, including the youths. The sugarcane farm is currently
under preparation with the seedlings awaiting plantation. The farm expects to construct its own sugarcane
company beginning August 2014. It is a great reflection to explore the work Dominion has done since it
commenced its activities in the area. In a nutshell, the farm has provided both economic and social benefits to
residents of the area. The employment rate has significantly risen with many youths and women employed at the
farm.
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e) Poultry Farming
About three years ago, the poultry farming had expanded to produce chicken feeds and chicken products. Eggs
and chicken meat were available for sale at affordable price. The company processes chicken feeds and had an
efficient laboratory for analysis of chicken diseases and treatment. However, the current poultry unit is smaller
compared to the initial. The growing of poultry is less expensive due to availability of feeds at the farm. The
integration system of farming practiced at the farm should be encouraged due to its benefits. There is little activity
ongoing in this sector but the management plans to revive the poultry farming.
f) Dairy Farming
Dairy farming is practiced though in a smaller scale than anticipated. Interbreeding of local cattle is practiced.
The current herd stands about 130 with daily production of milk fluctuating from time to time. There is no record
of dairy production as the current production is consumed by the operators and staffs at the farm.
iii. Administration and Management practices at the farm

Dominion is a multi-operation company. The various major operations undertaken at the farm require expertise of
its own kind and relevance. The human resource recruitment is elaborate and takes care of the personnel
requirement. The farm administrative hierarchy/structure showed in the table below is a summary of how
operations are handled at the farm from the top management to the least.
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COMPANY DIRECTOR
In-charge of all the company’s operations
DEPARTMENT MANAGERS
In-charge of all the company’s operations at the department level
FARM MANAGER HEAD OF TRAINING

In-charge of operations HUMAN CENTER
at the farm-rice and RESOURCE In-charge of the Couth Camp FINANCE AND
sugarcane MANAGER and Training activities ADMINISTRATION
Human resource MANAGER
personnel In-charge of Finances
SALES AND
MARKETING
MANAGER DEPARTMENT OF
In-charge of sales and AQUACULTURE
marketing Weir Farms, Airstrip, Hatchery
MACHINARY AND CONSTRUCTION

DEPARTMENT
Figure 1: Dominion Company Administrative Structure
Under each Manger are employees of different skills and duties. All the employees at the farm are well insured
and receive a handsome salary. The company has two categories of workers; the permanent employees and the
casual employees. The permanent employees enjoy job security and gratuity different from the casual employees.
The order of seniority and nature of duty influence the payment of workers. Casual employees are paid fortnightly
while the permanent employees are paid at the end of the month. This category is required to open a bank account
to receive their salary.
As part of employer-employee relationship, the management often provides token and small packages of gifts to
its employees occasionally at the end of the year. This is termed Christmas Gift and has kept the workers
motivated. Other incentives provided to the workers include medical cover, annual leave, provision of
duty/service outfits such as gumboots, raincoats, among others.
The diagram below shows workers at the various sections of Aquaculture Department.
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MANAGER - DEPARTMENT OF
AQUACULTURE
Weir Farms, Airstrip, Hatchery
Pond operators Transportation Hatchery operator

- feeding, Transportation services Duties at hatchery, preparation
-monitoring water quality parameters, of food fish for sale
-harvesting,
Figure 2: Management at Department of Aquaculture
a) Management practices at the Aquaculture Department
The practice of commercial aquaculture requires dynamic and well updated human personnel for greater
realization of benefits. Other than the obvious daily management practices of the culture facilities, an important
consideration are laid on the capacity of the workers at this section. This is to ensure that all the handlers of fish
are capable of performing any activity related to the field work as efficiently as possible. Training of the workers
at the department has been undertaken in the past and is expected to continue with the recruitment of new
employees from time to time. Developing a good employer-employee rapport is considered effective in
motivating the employee hence increases their productivity.
On daily basis, the facilities including ponds and tanks where the culture of fish is performed are intensively
monitored to ensure that no prejudice arises in the culture system. Water quality parameters are observed by
relevant equipment and records kept for comparison. This always informs the decision of the management on
water quality at the facilities.
Stocking density is relative to the pond size but must be kept within range to enhance high productivity. The farm
has a total of 52 ponds meant for the various fish culture operations. The ponds serve as breeding pons, hatching
ponds, grow out ponds, resuscitation/resting ponds, holding ponds, spawning ponds among other related pond
activities. The construction of ponds is normally done by the construction department and heavy machinery is
involved. Drainage fixation of the ponds is also done by the department. The farm has 7 concrete circular ponds
each of a holding capacity of 100, 000kg, 15 acre ponds of a similar holding capacity and several other sizes of
ponds for various purposes.
Feeding of fish is carried out as required by workers and the manual feeding program is used. Feed is
administered at intervals of time depending on the sizes of fish and their dietary requirements. Normally, feed is
administered three times a day for all fish with exception of fries, fingerlings and brood stock that are fed at least
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four times a day. Feeds are given in two forms-pelleted feeds and mash form. The selection of which type to use
depends on the fish size and requirements. Brood stocks are fed in food mash despite their size.
The ponds are kept constantly clear and hygienic to reduce unnecessary expense on feeds, water quality among
other vital factors. Weed removal is manually done by operators on duty by use of nets for frog eggs and larvae,
mechanical removal by hands, application of lime at the termination of culture period is used in ponds to help kill
unwanted frog larvae and fish other than improve pond productivity, chemical analysis of water, soil samples is
done to help make reasonable recommendations in each area.
Record keeping practices are intensive and inclusive. There are separate employees mandated to take fishing
records, stocking records, feeding records, sales records each time they are done. Record keeping is vital on the
overall operations in fish farming and is enhanced closely as a sole indicator of progress in the system. All the
records are kept centrally by the administrator.
Under other practices, predator control mechanism practiced at the farm involves the manual bird chasing or
scaring, use of catfish in a mixed sex culture, application of chemicals to sweep out frog populations and
provision of tight and constant security at the farm to reduce human poaching.
b) Sales and Marketing at the section
Dominion sales most of its products to the local market. There is currently a high demand for the farm produce
and fish. There is little advertisement of the products at the moment but this is set to improve as a result of
competition from new emergent investors in similar produce. However, fish has remained relatively on higher
demand that out-weighs the company’s production level. Production is often whole year round for a certain period
of years when the farm reduces harvesting of whole fish to allow for greater size recovery of the fish. For the last
three years, there has been a constant harvesting of fish until the month of August when this was ceased for a
period of three months. It is expected that the output thereafter will be more productive and suitable to the market.
Recruitment of fish is a recurrent activity since fish is harvested daily. Major customers of Dominion are traders
from the towns of Kakamega, Busia, Mumias, Vihiga, the cities of Nairobi, and Kisumu. On daily basis the
Company sales an average of 500kg of whole fish to the various market destinations including the local market.
The local market is huge but often gets the least share of the sales. This is due to the current low production with
the high demand for fish.
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Fish are sold wholly after a minimum preservation operation which encompasses gutting and washing. Fish is
then packed in 7×15 polythene bags. Preservation of fish is done by use of freezers in case they are not
immediately transported to the receiving market.
iv. Summary of daily chores, practical exposures at the farm

Dominion farm is divided into the following major sections based on what activity is undertaken in the sections.
1. Aquaculture-sections (hatchery, weir farms, youth camp farms and Airstrip farm)
2. Rice farms
3. Sugarcane farm
4. Poultry farms
5. Food mill section
a) General experience
Dominion farm has expanded its opportunities to realize greater harvests of its produce. The use of modern
technology has boosted the output capacity of all the sectors of the farm from time to time with much production
expected as the expansion continues. The farm is known for prime harvest goods and has attracted wider market
opportunities even in the international platform. The farm produce continue to see diversification of production
system and improvements since the inception of the farm. Aquaculture section is one of the sections of the farm.
It is responsible for the production of fish. Fish production is carried out in large-sized ponds and proper pond
management principles are maintained. The overall production process is aimed at increasing the value chain of
fish at the end of production. The section operates in an interrelated system with the food mill section that is
responsible for the processing of fish feed used at the farm. Commercial fish production is carried at the farm
with food fish harvested upon attaining a relevant market size above 350g. Nile tilapia is the main fish produced
by the farm, while the production of catfish is limited to seedlings. On average, the farm produces 500kg of food
fish (whole fish) daily and over 100, 000 tilapia fries and 80, 000 tilapia fingerlings monthly. Catfish fingerlings
is the least with monthly production estimated at 10, 000. The aquaculture section has provided employment
opportunities to about 15 workers who man the various ponds. The farm in the recent past off laid a majority of
its staff in the section. There are 52 ponds in the farm with this number expected to rise to 60 in the next year.
Diversification of production is based on the availability of scientific implements and equipment used to monitor
the water quality parameters, which is a key area in fish culture, availability of high quality feeds from the food
mill and presence of aquaculture experts who undertake major decisions on fish production. The management
structure is efficient and highly consultative. The section undertakes training to its employees in the section for
greater realization of output. Dominion has significantly risen above its competitors due to its high quality fish.
The value addition mechanism takes place at every single step of the production chain. The farm does not
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advertise its fish as there is already a high market demand provided by small scale farmers facilitated by the farm
and bulk buyers in the market. The main customers of the farm fish are the small scale farmers from various part
of the region, bulk buyers from various market destinations, small scale traders, institutions and individuals in the
area. This means the farm has a huge demand that it is unable to meet with the current production level. . It is
hoped that with the increased number of small scale farmers empowered by Dominion, annual fish production in
the region would rise to over 1 ton.
Dominion has continued to expand its market in aquaculture related products. During the ESP launched by the
government in 2009, the farm was contacted to provide seed fish, fish feeds and relevant extension support to
prospective farmers in many parts of the country. At that time, the farm increased its production of the required
items to more than three times its normal production.
It has employed various mechanisms to remain in the market despite the stiff completion from new emerging
production farms. This is has been realized through its program to sustain a high fish value chain, pricing strategy,
support to small scale farmers and widening its outlets in the region it enjoys market demand.
b) Tilapia production and sex reversal practices
The farm produces high quality mono-sex fingerlings. The reversal results stand at 90% mono-sex and has seen
high acceptability in the market. The table below summarizes the process of feed formulation of sex reversal
feeds of Nile tilapia fries using artificial hormone 17-"-methyl testosterone” into the diet at 10–40 mg/kg. Methyl
testosterone (MT-17) has since become the most commonly used synthetic androgen to alter the sex ratio of fish.
General procedure
1. Eliminate all fish before breeding.
2. Take daily water temperature and D.O immediately after stocking of brooders.
3. Never keep harvested fry in the holding bucket for more than 10 minutes.
4. Transfer all harvested fry into grader.
5. Estimate numbers and stock into sex reversal tanks/hapas.
6. Begin feeding of the impregnated feed immediately.
Preparation of the impregnated feed
Always ware PVC hand gloves, respirator and dust coat.
1. Prepare the ground and sieved dry feed.
2. Mix stock solution with alcohol (10ml stock solution+ 500ml alcohol)
3. Add the above solution slowly and mix the dry ingredients.
4. Allow the alcohol to evaporate at room temperature with no direct sunlight by spreading out the mixture to
a maximum thickness of 3-5cm. mix lightly with hand 2-3 times.
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5. Seal in air tight container before all the odor of alcohol has disappeared (6-12 hours) and refrigerate or
freeze.
Preparing stock solution
Take 0.64g of the hormone and add to 1 liter of alcohol to form a solution. This is the stock solution.
c) Catfish propagation, fry maintenance and production
Production of catfish is practiced in the farm. This is not an intensive exercise as the farm does not major in
catfishes. The available production records indicate that catfish has been grown for the production of fries and
fingerlings rather than whole fish as it happens with tilapia. Catfish production requires a little intensification in
the overall culturing principles and this would mean an uncertain production a factor not welcomed in
commercial fish farming. The fact that catfish does not breed under captivity means that there is a lot of
involvement in recruiting it, and this entails the use of artificial propagation methods. Catfish tend to take longer
periods to grow to a meaningful size as compared to tilapia, with an increased food requirement, a factor that
limits interests in the venture. Then the survival of the seedlings are hardly predictable for growth to maturity as
there would be less than 30% survival for fries and fingerlings at mature stages. In order to obtain any meaningful
economic returns, the farmer has to adopt a more viable production unit, which is the production of fingerlings.
These are sold off faster and due the increasing demands, more production can be undertaken within a shorter
period of time as compared to the production of whole catfish. Catfish production begins with the selection of
good brooders. Not every fish grown to size is a good brood stock. For females, the general body morphology and
the physical status would dictate whether they could be used as brooders. They are to be selected and kept in
separate ponds where they can be monitored before they are used in propagation. Similarly, males should be of
good health and strong. Selection of weak males would lead to production of less viable fries which dies off soon
after hatching or never hatch at all. The females are injected with overprim; hormone that enhances release of
eggs. The injection is required to last 12 hours before the eggs are stripped out and artificially fertilized by the
male androgens which are extracted from the male testes. The fertilized eggs are incubated under the required
conditions of temperatures and water for two weeks before they are transferred to earthen ponds for further
growth. Within one to two months of growth, they should be ready for sale either as fries or fingerlings.
Dominion sells catfish fries at a cost of 7 shillings up from the initial 4.50 shillings.
d) Feed formulation techniques and practices at the farm
Unique aquaculture practice at the farm has kept the farm above other producers. The farm sells feeds across the
country and has captured attention in the neighboring countries of Uganda and Tanzania. The high quality feeds
produced by the farm are relatively cheaper at the market. The production of feed is a dynamic endeavor with
modern feed formulation techniques on play and highly mechanized processing system involved. After fish is
Page 12
harvested, sells and marketing is done by the sells department. The harvested fish however undergoes some post-
harvest activities aimed to preserve it for a longer time. The fish is gutted, washed in plenty water and packed in
polyethene bags in weights of 1kg-1.3kg. This is done at the hatchery section. A kilo goes at Kshs. 260 at the
farm and Kshs. 270 outside. Traders at the various outlets have separate price tags, for instance, in Kisumu
warehouse, a kilo of tilapia goes at Kshs. 350.
The table below summarizes the formulation of feeds at the feed meal.
Table 1: Feed formulation at the feed meal.
Type of food A B C D E F
Sunflower seed cake 10 10 10 10 10 10
Soy cake 75 75 70 70 75 80
Maize meal 40 50 40 13.8 23.8 33.5
Lake shrimp - 35 13.8 40 40 50
Rice bran 56.5 56.5 50 50 60 50
Cassava 25 20 25 25 - 25.3
Meat + bone meal 40 - 40 40 40 -
Salt 2.8 2.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minerals + vitamin. 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Totals (Kgs.) 250 250 250 250 250 250
The sources of the foods are maize grains, cassava, soy cake, sunflower seed cake, lake shrimp, rice bran, salt,
mineral +vitamins, cotton seed and bone and meat.
Grow out
Protein content=48.33%
Carbohydrates= 46.48%
Lipids= 4%
Vitamins and minerals=1.093%
Total =100%
A =without Lake Shrimp
B= without meat + bone meal
C =with lake shrimp and meat + bone meal.
D= starter (pellets)
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E= starter (mash)
A, B and C Grow-out pellets
D and E starter mash/pellets
Table 2: Summary of the food types composition in 250 kilograms
Type of food % composition in 250kgs

Grow out Starter pellets
Protein 48.6 60.0
Carbohydrates 46.48 35.52
Lipids 4% 4%
Minerals and vitamins 1.093 0.48
After palletizing the feeds, samples are taken for simple analysis. The analyses are performed in the laboratory to
check the following:
1. Aflatoxin levels
2. Floatability
3. Compactness
4. Moisture content
After about 20 minutes of production, at least 10 pallets are taken for analysis for each of the above
parameters. Aflatoxin levels are generally low. However, feeds found to have Aflatoxin level of 10 are
permissible for use. A level <10 was recommended. On floatability, the 10 pellets are put in a water bottle and
allowed to float. Testing floatability is done by observing the 10 pieces. If in 5 minutes any sank, then the
number that remained is to be multiplied by 10 to get the percentage floatability. The observation is done for
interval number of minutes in 1 hour. Normally, floatability is 90% in pallets of 4mm after 20 minutes and
70% in pallets of 2mm after 20 minutes. The moisture content is determined by weighing the ten pieces before
drying and after drying. Drying is done in an oven set at 2500C. The final weight is then subtracted from the
initial weight divided by initial weight multiplied by 100%. This is done in the laboratory.
 Wi  W f  
Moisture content=   100%
 Wi  
Where Wi is initial weight before drying in grams and W f is weight after drying in grams
10 pieces of the 4mm pellets weighed 0.94g before drying. After drying, the weight was found to be 0.87g
Page 14
Moisture content= (0.94-0.87)/0.94 ×100%
=7.44681%. A moisture content of between 0-10 percent is acceptable.

Whereas the daily operational activities at the farm are organized and manned by the workers at the farms, there
is a close correlation of chores and often the workers share the duties and responsibilities at the farm. The major
duties include harvesting of fresh fish, transfer of sorted fish, propagation and seedling handlings, monitoring
water quality parameters, hand sexing, sex reversal, post-harvest activities such as gutting, washing, fish
packaging and storage. Other activities are pond construction and stocking, pond management practices and
training services to small scale farmers-performed by experts in the department.
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2.0 ATTACHMENT PRACTICAL EXERCISE
TITLE: Effects of dietary Aloe vera on Growth Performance- Specific Growth Rate and Food
Conversion Ration in Oreochromis niloticus (L)
2.1 Abstract
The use of immunostumulants as an alternative to the drugs, chemicals and antibiotics currently being used to
control fish diseases and as growth promoters in fish culture is attracting the attention of many researchers. In this
context, many have focused on the use of medicinal plant and animal originated products as potential
therapuetical measures for modulating the immune response to prevent and control fish diseases and as factors of
growth influence. The possible use of naturally available herb extract such as Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi),
Phyllanthus emblica (Amla), Azadirachta indica (neem), Solanun trilobatum (Purple Fruited Pea Eggplant),
Eclipta alba (Bhringraj), Zingeiber officinale (Ginger), Echinacea (Purple coneflowers), Allium sativum (Garlic),
Camellia sinensis (Green tea), Aloe vera, Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda Grass), Achyranthes aspera (Prickly Chaff
Flower), Nyctanthes arbortristis (Night-flowering Jasmine), Tinospora cordifolia( Guduchi) and Picrorhiza
kurooa ( Kutki) and animal originated product like Chitin, chitosan and Fermented products of chicken egg
(EF203) etc. has been undertaken in the recent past and even currently. The aim of this study was therefore to
review studies currently being carried out or already undertaken on the use and effects of Aloe vera extracts as a
dietary supplement in fish food. The hypotheses for the study were: (1) There is significant difference in growth
performance of fish fed with different inclusions of Aloe vera, (2) there is no significant difference in growth rates
of fish fed with different inclusions of Aloe vera and (3) Aloe vera is linked to the better performance of fish
growth in the fish used in the experiment. 3 different inclusions of Aloe vera (C=0%, Group 1=1%, Group 2=2%
and Group 3= 4%) were incorporated into the feeds. Results showed that the use of Aloe vera had significant
influence on the growth performance of O. niloticus used in the study. There was 0ver 300% weight increase in
six weeks and a high SGR (89.45), higher FCR (0.75) in fish fed with the inclusions at 4%. The study did not
determine survival rate of the experimental fish, but it is believed that the diets with Aloe vera had significant
survival impact on the fish.
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2.2 INTRODUCTION
Tilapia species constitute a major and important item in the Kenyan fish farming. It displays many favourable
attributes as culture species, on the basis of its general hardness, resistance to diseases, high yield potential and
ability to grow on a wide range of natural and cheap artificial foods. Additionally, it also can withstand low
oxygen concentrations, overcrowding, tolerate difficult ecological conditions and a wide range of salinities and
still produce a highly acceptable flesh (El-Sayed, 2006). Therefore, tilapias are the second only to carps as the
most widely farmed freshwater fish in the world (FAO, 2010).
Generally there are large numbers of feed additives available to improve fish growth performance. Some of these
additives, are chemical products (hormones and antibiotics) which may cause unfavorable side effects (Baruah et
al., 2008).World Health Organization encourage using of medicinal herbs and plants to substitute or minimize the
use of chemicals through the global trend to go back to the nature. Attempts to use the natural materials such as
medicinal plants could be widely accepted as feed additives to enhance efficiency of feed utilization and animal
productive performance (Levic et al., 2008). The herbs/herbal drugs are used not only against diseases but also as
growth promoters, stress resistance boosters and preventatives of infections. Herbs can also act as
immunostimulants, conferring the non-specific defense mechanisms of fish and elevating the specific immune
response (Pandey et al., 2012). Recently, research has been initiated to evaluate the feasibility of herbal drugs in
fish diseases, where the herbal drugs provide a cheaper source for treatment and greater accuracy than
chemotherapeutic agents without causing toxicity (Madhuri et al., 2012).
Aquaculture is playing an increasingly important role in world fish production. According to FAO estimation, an
additional 37 million tons of fish per year will be needed by 2030 to maintain current levels of fish consumption
for an expanded world population. By 2030, the addition of 2 billion more people to the world population will
mean that aquaculture will need to produce nearly double that, 85 million tons of fish per year, just to maintain
current per capita consumption levels (FAO 2007). For the producers to increase their production, they will not
only need to practice responsible aquaculture, but will need to make a profit to maintain sustainable operations.
In Kenya, resources have been put in place to promote aquaculture development through various aquaculture
projects over the past few decades. The promotion started in the early 1920s as a means of supplementing protein
sources in rural areas. This was a non-commercial approach and it was promoted only as a family subsistence
activity (Gitonga et al. 2004). It has now been established that this approach does not have sufficient incentives
for fish farmers to commercialize their activities (Achieng 1994). For this reason among others, aquaculture as an
economic enterprise in Kenya has remained in its infancy since inception. Presently, there are just a handful of
Page 17
succeeding entrepreneurs. The majority of aquaculture activities involve the production of various species of
tilapia (mainly Oreochromis niloticus) and the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) under semi intensive systems
using earthen ponds. There are, however, a few investors producing rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) under
intensive systems using raceways and tanks. The tilapine species constitute about 90% of aquaculture production
in Kenya. Polyculture of the tilapines with the African catfish is sometimes done to control the prolific breeding
of the former under mixed sex culture systems. The production of the tilapines and the African catfish is
characterized by low pond productivity mainly due to the use of low pond management practices (Mbugua 2002).
The result has been the stagnation of national aquaculture production over the past few decades.
Commercial aquaculture in Kenya involves mainly production of tilapines, African catfish, and rainbow trout.
The tilapine and catfish production is mainly done as mono- or polyculture of the two under semi intensive
systems while the rainbow trout production is done in intensive raceways and tank systems (Mbugua 2002).
While all the species are produced for the food fish market, there has been increasing demand for baitfish for the
Nile perch capture of Lake Victoria. Several entrepreneurs have started producing catfish juveniles for this
market.
Aquaculture production in Kenya has shown minimal growth since the early 1920s when it started. Production
has for example risen from below 200 metric tons per year during the 1950s to an average of 1,000 metric tons
per year in the 2000s. This gives an average growth of less than 20 metric tons per year. It is important to note
here that information on aquaculture development in Kenya is very scanty and sometimes even conflicting. This
is clear from what the Department of Fisheries (DoF) of Kenya and FAO report as aquaculture production figures
for Kenya as shown in Figure 3. The Department of Fisheries indicates scanty or no information at all before the
late 1970s while FAO reported aquaculture production going up to 400 metric tons during the same period.
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Figure 3: Aquaculture growth trends in Kenya from to two sources showing different growth patterns over the
same period of time (FAO 2007 and DoF 2006)
Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. Aloe vera has also been one of the most widely used
healing plants used throughout history and is used for medicinal purposes in several cultures. The species is
popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and for its interesting flowers, form, and
succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for
rockeries and other low water-use gardens. Revelations that natural herb are economical, cheap to use, time
saving and compound positive benefits when correctly applied gives warrant for researches in their uses,
applications and acceptance (Lawless, J.; Allan, J. 2000). Stressful rearing conditions render the cultured fish
highly sensitive to different diseases. Many studies have looked into the modulation of the immune system in fish
to prevent disease outbreaks and enhance fish health and growth (Magnadóttir, 2006; Bowden, 2008). The
optimal dose and duration of immunostimulants have promising roles in aquaculture by enhancing the resistance
of cultured fish against diseases (Bricknell and Dalmo, 2005; Magnadóttir et al., 2006). Some information
suggests the effects of some herbs as natural immunostimulants with direct or indirect effects on fish skin and
intestinal microflora and histology (Galina et al., 2009; Merrifield et al., 2011; Heidarieh et al., 2012; Xueqin et
al., 2012).With view of the existing evidence on the success of Aloe vera in human and other vertebrate animals,
expectations are raised in similar results in fish. As already cited, attempts made by various researchers on the use
of this herb in fish have gathered significant trust that make the usage of the herb more realistic and much needed
in the ongoing pursuits to arrest the problem of infections in aquaculture. The several scientifically proved results
of Aloe vera in human if could be translated to aquaculture, would see most of the disease and nutrition
Page 19
deficiencies adequately handled. The species is hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost
or snow. The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though spider mites, mealy bugs, scale insects,
and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health. In pots, the species requires well-drained, sandy potting
soil and bright, sunny conditions; however, Aloe plants can burn under too much sun or shrivel when the pot does
not drain the rain. The use of a good-quality commercial propagation mix or packaged "cacti and succulent mix"
is recommended, as they allow good drainage. Terra cotta pots are preferable as they are porous. Potted plants
should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. When potted, aloes become crowded with "pups"
growing from the sides of the "mother plant", they should be divided and repotted to allow room for further
growth and help prevent pest infestations. During winter, Aloe vera may become dormant, during which little
moisture is required. In areas that receive frost or snow, the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.
Large-scale agricultural production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia, Bangladesh, Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, China, Mexico, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa, along with the USA to supply the
cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.
Preparations made from Aloe vera are often referred to as "Aloe vera ". Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and
therapeutic effectiveness of Aloe vera is limited and when present is frequently contradictory. Despite this, the
cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturizing, and
healing properties of Aloe vera commercially advertised mainly for skin conditions such as sunburns, cold sores
and frostbite. Any Aloe vera liquid product, whether called gel, juice or whole leaf extract, comprises the fluid
obtained by breaking up the structure of the Aloe vera and separating off the solid residues to leave a more or less
clear solution (Plaskett, 1998). Beneficial effects of Aloe vera in human and laboratory animals are contributed to
the promotion of immune system, anti-inflammatory, pro-healing, gastrointestinal, antidiabetic and anti-arthritic
effects (Plaskett, 1998). There is limited information available on the immunostimulatory, anti-toxicity and
growth effects of Aloe in some fish species (Kim et al., 1999; Alishahi et al., 2010; Zodape, 2010; Wang et al.,
2011).
Aloe vera gel is also used commercially as an ingredient in yoghurts, beverages, and some desserts; although at
certain doses, its toxic properties could be severe whether ingested or topically applied. The same is true for aloe
latex, which was taken orally for conditions ranging from glaucoma to multiple sclerosis until the FDA required
manufacturers to discontinue its use. Other uses for extracts of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the
artificial fertilization of sheep, as a fresh food preservative, or for water conservation in small farms. It has also
been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds. Aloe is also used as a food substance,
possibly for its gelling properties.
Page 20
Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from the 16th century BC, in both Dioscorides' De
Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century AD along with the Juliana
Alicia Codex produced in 512 AD. The species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of many
countries. Aloe vera, called kathalai in Ayurvedic medicine, is used as a multipurpose skin treatment. This may be
partly due to the presence of saponin, a chemical compound that acts as an antimicrobial agent. In this connection,
Ouf et al. (1994) studied the antifungal activity of different extracts of Zygophyllum species. They found that the
methanol extracts possessed a high inhibitory effect for the tested fungi and this was due to the solubility of active
agent (s) in methanol than in other solvents. Herger and Klingauf (1990) used aqueous and ethanol extracts of
fresh or dried leaf material of the Sakhalin knotweed, Reynoutria sachalinensis against the powdery mildew of
apple, begonia and cucumber, as well as against downy mildew of grapevine and rust of beans and carnations in
greenhouse experiments using potted plants.
Aloin, a compound found in the exudate of some Aloe species, was the common ingredient in over-the-counter
(OTC) laxative products in the United States until 2002 when the Food and Drug Administration banned it
because the companies which manufactured it failed to provide the necessary safety data. Aloe vera has potential
toxicity, with side effects occurring at some dose levels either when ingested or applied topically. Although
toxicity may be less when aloin is removed by processing, Aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts may
induce side effects. A two-year National Toxicology Program (NTP) study on oral consumption of
nondecolorized whole leaf extract of Aloe vera found evidence of carcinogenic activity in male and female rats.
The NTP says more information is needed to determine the potential risks to humans.
Aloe vera is known as the ‘healing plant’ (Tyler et al., 1976). It has been used in traditional medicine in several
countries for many medical and cosmetic purposes and is said to be beneficial in the treatment of disorders such
as arthritis, gout, acne, dermatitis and wounds such as peptic ulcers and thermal injuries and a broad range of
illnesses. The fresh gel, juice or formulated products have been used (Chithra P. et al). Aloe vera is also used to
treat several health problems in the modern world (Vogler B.K and Ernst E, 1999). Popular interest and use of the
Aloe vera gel have increased dramatically.
Aloe vera is used on facial tissues where it is promoted as a moisturiser and/or anti-irritant to reduce chafing of
the nose. Cosmetic companies commonly add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as
makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, shaving cream, or shampoos. A review of academic
literature notes that its inclusion in many hygiene products is due to its "moisturizing emollient effect".
Page 21
Aloe vera juice is marketed to support the health of the digestive system, but there is neither scientific evidence
nor regulatory approval to support this claim. The extracts and quantities typically used for such purposes appear
to be dose-dependent for toxic effects.
2.3 THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE EXPERIMENT

The use of medicinal plants in aquaculture has been attempted for a long time. Studies have soon that certain
herbs are effective in treatment of fish diseases and improving immunostimulatory effects in fish and especially
tilapia. Providing feeds that would meet the dietary requirements of fish has faced several innovations and with
the increasing scientific research and inventions, attempts to exploit the available natural resources are attracting
attention. The inclusions available in these plants have been suggested to contain nutritious value and could aid in
fish development by promoting growth performance. The fact that these herbs are natural presents a considerable
belief of the safety of feeds formulated using them and also add an important value in the fish immune system of
the fish.( Lawless, J.; Allan, J. 2000). Studies have revealed the efficacy of plants as medicinal and growth
promoters in different species including tilapia, trout, and catfish among other species considered good for
aquaculture. In Kenya, little information on the current development is available, despite the widely known us of
medicinal herbs by human. Yet again, the use of antibiotics and other chemicals in the treatment of fish and as
growth promoters is currently under great criticism from the consumers due the revelations that some chemicals
are never synthesized and often, due to bioaccumulation, are retained by the fish hence present health risks to the
consumers. The outcry for safe foods is attracting much attention and in order to remain relevant in light of the
continuous developments, one has to align to the new face of technology. The existing health information and
awareness created in the society is making the trend more obvious especially for producers. Market strategies and
consumer preferences should therefore be key factors to guide production and maintenance of the produce.
Likewise, the cost of production is a key interest to producers and this will ensure that new, cheap and affordable
production mechanisms are developed and effectively utilized. The end benefits are not only to the consumers,
the farmers are also on the list as the use of naturally available resources is inexpensive and demands less skill.
Active compounds in A. vera include polysaccharides, mannans, anthraquinones, lectins, salicylic acid, urea,
nitrogen, cinnamic acid, phenol and sulphur has also been reported. It also contains amino acids, lipids, sterols
tannin and enzymes most of which are vital for proper development of fish.
Page 22
2.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT
2.4.1 GENERAL
To explore the available knowledge on the use of plant products in aquaculture
2.4.2 SPECIFIC
1. To determine the effects of dietary Aloe vera on growth performance in O. niloticus.
2. To determine the effects of dietary Aloe vera on FCR in O. niloticus.
2.5 HYPOTHESIS
The main hypotheses for this study were that:
 There is significant difference in growth performance of fish fed with different inclusions of Aloe vera.
 There is no significant difference in growth rates of fish fed with different inclusions of Aloe vera.
 Aloe vera is linked to the better performance of fish growth in the fish used in the experiment.
Figure 4: Oguta Onyango preparing Aloe vera sample.
Page 23
2.6 LITERATURE REVIEW
Over the years, the total world fishery production decreased slightly and the human consumption for aquatic
product increased (FAO, 2010). The reduction in capture fisheries was partly compensated for the fast growth of
aquaculture industry. The need for enhanced disease resistance, feed efficiency and growth performance of
cultured organisms is substantial for various sectors of this industry (EL-Haroun et al., 2006). There is an upsurge
in the clinical usage of indigenous drugs as they are free from serious side effects. Dua et al., reported a large
number of plants having a known immunomodulatory activity. If growth performance and feed efficiency are
increased in commercial aquaculture, the costs of productions are likely to be reduced. There is large number of
feed additives available to improve fish growth performance in the Kenyan markets and some of these additives
used in feed mill are chemical products especially hormones and antibiotics which may cause unfavourable side
effects. World Health Organization encourages using of medicinal herbs and plants to substitute or minimize the
use of chemicals through the global trend to go back to nature. Attempts to use the natural materials such as
medicinal plants could be widely accepted as feed additives to enhance efficiency of feed utilization and
aquaculture productive performance. Recently, medicinal plants and probiotics have been reported as potential
alternatives, among other feed additives, to antibiotics in aquaculture diets. Much of this interest arises from
increased public awareness and banned to the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in aquaculture diets. In the
last decade, some studies show the positive effects of dietary medicinal plants and feed additives on growth and
feed utilization in fish (Turan and Akyurt, 2005; Turan, 2006; Soosean et al., 2010; Deng et al., 2011; Farahi et
al., 2011; Dada and Oviawe, 2011; Prasad and Mukthiraj, 2011; Cho and Lee, 2012). Aquaculture requires high
quality feeds which should contain not only necessary nutrients but also complementary feed additives to keep
organism’s healthy, faster growth and environmental friendly.
Worldwide fish and shellfish (Divyagnaneswari, M.; Christybapita, D.R. (2007) culture are subjected to many
diseases that lead to great losses and decrease in fish production. The lack of effective disease control has the
potential of being the chief limiting factor of the realization of highly stable fish production. Recently the
application of medicinal plants from different families in the management of aquaculture ponds is gaining
momentum because they are safe, effective, widely available and inexpensive (Mamdouh A. A. Mousa et al.,
2008). Also, to produce fish free from any chemicals of public health hazards. Both fish parasites and fish
predators which cause great economic losses in productivity are mainly controlled with toxic chemicals, mostly
applied indiscriminately and without adequate training (Senhorini, 1991; Rodrigues et al., 1997). Thus the use of
pesticides in aquaculture systems to control fish diseases, parasites and other pests not only leads to high levels of
residues in the animals but also may interfere with the maintenance of their homeostasis and thus affect their
performance (Barton and Iwama, 1991; Wendelaar Bonga, 1997). In view of the environmental problems caused
Page 24
by the use of synthetic chemicals and the growing need for alternative methods of pest control that minimize this
damage, there has been extensive research on pest control by substances from plants (Wan et al., 1996). One of
the most promising natural compounds is aloin, an active compound extracted from the Aloe vera whose antiviral,
antibacterial and antifungal properties have been known for several years. The use of immunostimulants in
aquaculture for prevention of diseases is a promising new development.
The immunostimulants enhance the level of duration of specific immune response, both cell-mediated and
humoral, following vaccination (Raa et al., 1992). Immunostimulant supports to overcome of immunosuppressive
effects of stress and of those infectious agents that damage or interface with the functioning of cells of immune
system. A variety of substance have been shown to have the immunostimulatory effects which are microbial
derivatives, plants or animal extracts, vitamins, hormones and synthetic chemical but herb extracts and animal
originated product have a potential application as an immunostimulant in fish culture, primarily because they can
be easily obtained, are not expensive and act against a broad spectrum of pathogens. Most of the herbs and herb
extracts can be given orally, which is the most convenient method of immunostimulation. A lot of publication has
been done on the use of herbs in fish, which are highly susceptible to of toxicity in their environment. Promising
results from studies on the use of herbal medicines in fish is available but these are neither utilized by farmers nor
explored by many researchers for the benefits known for them. Similarly, Reports on the beneficial effects of Aloe
vera for a variety of conditions are available. These reports deal with radiation dermatitis, chronic leg ulcers,
burns, frostbite, wounds and other skin lesions, soft tissue injuries, antiseptic effects, antimicrobial, antiviral,
antifungal, and antiparasite actions, immunostimulatory, anticarcinogenic and antileukaemic activity, peptic ulcer,
other gastrointestinal disorders, antidiabetic and hypoglycaemic effects, cardiac stimulatory effects, cholesterol-
lowering effects, laxative effects, anti-inflammatory activity, arthritis, antioxidative, oedema, analgesic activity,
gout, asthma, cosmetic purposes, general health, and effects on liver function (A Inan et al.,2006).
However, due to the emphasize currently laid on similar experiments and the use of naturally available resources
to cure fish diseases, improve growth and productivity in aquaculture and the attempt to produce safer foods, it is
hoped that the use of natural herbs will see an improvement with time. World over, aquaculture-based researches
are currently based on production of safe foods cheap means of aquaculture productivity and improvement of the
fish health up to harvest time. Aloe vera is a known medicinal plant and used in several ways to manufacture
medicinal products used by human. A lot of information on the uses of this plant as a medicinal plant is available
and cannot be overlooked. It is with this similar expectation that this plant has been tested by animal scientists in
the production of useful medicinal products for animals.
Aloe vera may have some beneficial effects on the progression of chronic nephropathy and may be useful in the
prevention of thrombus formation (Ikeno et al., 2002). According to a study done by A. Inan et al., 2006 on the
Page 25
effects of Aloe vera on colonic anastomoses of rats, Aloe vera extracts was found to have a positive impact for
anastomotic healing of the colon. They further asserted that Aloe vera has multiple pharmacologically active
compounds. It stimulates phagocyte formation and its activity induces nitric oxide production, it has angiogenic
activity, increases synthesis, maturation and cross-linking of collagen, stimulates cell proliferation, stimulates
fibroblast functions and proliferation, inhibits arachidonic acid oxidation, has anti-inflammatory effects, reduces
tumour necrosis factor-a levels, and has antioxidant activity (Hu Yet al., 2003; ). It enhances glycosaminoglycan
in the wound matrix
Aloe vera stimulates phagocyte formation and activity. Activation of macrophages enhances wound healing.
Macrophages function as phagocytes and debridement agents. They produce growth factors that influence stages
of wound repair. Aloe components activate macrophages and stimulate T cells and induce nitric oxide production.
Nitric oxide has been shown to play an important role in the optimal healing of colonic anastomoses by several
mechanisms.
Angiogenesis is required during wound healing. Angiogenesis supplies oxygen and metabolites to new tissues,
and disposes the waste products of metabolism during the wound repair. Angiogenesis might even be a key
regulating process in order to heal wounds, because if angiogenesis is impaired, wound healing is retarded or
unsuccessful. Angiogenesis is also necessary in the healing process of the colorectal anastomosis because
adequate tissue vascularization, perfusion and oxygen delivery are important factors for anastomotic healing.
Some angiogenic activators have been shown to promote wound healing. Aloe vera gel actively induces the
formation of new blood vessels. β-Sitosterol is the major active component of Aloe vera gel that has the
angiogenic activity. β-Sitosterol also has hypocholesterolaemic and hypotriglyceridaemic effects in experimental
animals (Smitha D. et al., 2000). Aloe vera also reduces oedema formation and increases oxygen access as a
result of increased blood supply.
Aloe vera inhibits arachidonic acid oxidation, has antiprostaglandin activity against thromboxane A2 and reduces
thromboxane B2 levels. Aloe vera also decreases prostaglandin (PG) F2 alpha. One of the active compounds in
the Aloe vera plant is salicylic acid, which can be converted into a salicylate and thereby inhibit PG synthesis.
Another active substance, magnesium lactate, can inhibit histadine decarboxylase and thus acts as an
antihistamine. The anti-inflammatory effect of Aloe vera is related to cyclooxygenase inhibition, rather than an
effect on lypooxygenase activity. The inhibition of PGE2 formation by the extract may account for the anti-
inflammatory effects, as PGE2 is the main prostaglandin in the inflammatory exudate. Aloe vera controls and
heals acute inflammation, as distinct from chronic inflammation, which was observed following gel treatment of
excision and incision wounds in rats. Daily treatment of Aloe vera can reduce both tumour necrosis factor (TNF) -
α and interleukin (IL)-6 levels, which might play an important role in anti-inflammation and growth promotion.
Page 26
TNF- α inhibits collagen gene expression and increases collagenase activity, both of which decrease anastomotic
strength. Decreased TNF- α levels increases anastomotic bursting strength in a rat model of peritonitis.
Aloe vera has antioxidant activity and protects prooxidant- induced membrane and cellular damage by a
significant reduction in the levels of cytochrome P and cytochrome b5 (Manthle D. et al., 2001and Rajasekaran S.
et al.) Aloe vera has beneficial effects on the cutaneous microcirculation. Aloe vera also has vasodilator function.
But there is no data showing whether Aloe vera has any effect on mesenteric microcirculation, based on a
Medline search. Aloe vera has antibacterial and antifungal properties. Aloe vera gel eliminates common wound
pathogenic bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibacterial properties of Aloe vera include
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Salmonella
paratyphi, Streptococcus agalactiae, Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter species, Serratia marcescens, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis and Candida albicans in a dose- and concentration-
dependent manner in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Therefore the use of Aloe vera has several other related
benefits to the fish health hence capable to promote the productivity of fish.
Figure 5: Processed fish food at the Fish meal. Sample containing Aloe vera
Page 27
2.7 METHODOLOGY AND MEMTHODS
Materials and Methods
a) Diets
Four diets based on a formulation of 38 % protein, 18% lipid, 3% fiber, 0.7% phosphorous was prepared to
contain different levels of Aloe vera gel. Aloe vera is to be incorporated into the diets as follows: 0% Aloe vera
(control), 0.1% Aloe vera (group 1), 2% Aloe vera (group 2) and 4% Aloe vera (group 3). Aloe vera at different
incorporation was added to feeds and then feed separately dried in the oven at 30°C. Feeds were not pelletized but
administered as mash in the processed form.
b) Fish and Experimental Conditions
60 fresh Nile tilapia (mean body weight: 68 ± 0.42 g) were obtained from Dominion Farms Limited. The fish
were put in a holding concrete tank for 7 days where they were observed and acclimatized to the experimental
conditions. During this period they were fed on commercial feed from the Farms. After acclimatization, fish were
randomly allocated between 4 tanks in triplicate at a density of 5 fish per tank and maintained in continuously
aerated free-flowing fresh water for 6 weeks.
c) Water Physiochemical Parameters:
During the experiment, the following conditions were maintained: water temperature 25.0 ± 1.5˚C, dissolved
oxygen concentration 7.3 ± 0.5 mg/l, pH 6.9 ± 0.4 and total hardness 164 ± 10 mg/l as CaCO 3, NH –N 0.13±0.05
mg/l, the photoperiod used was a 12 h light/12 h dark cycle. After 4 days adaptation, fish in each group were fed
one of the four different diets at a total daily rate of 4% body weight for six weeks.
d) Growth Performance
At the end of every week, the fish in each tank were individually weighed 24 h after the last feeding. The mean
body weights and mean total lengths of fish were measured. Based on recording the weight of each fish, Weight
Gain (WG), Specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and Food Conversion Efficiency (FCE)
were calculated as indicators for growth performance using the following equations (Heidarieh et al., 2012).
Weight Gain% = 100 × (final body weight-initial body weight) ÷ initial body weight
FCR = total feed given/total weight gain
SGR= 100× (ln final weight-ln initial weight) ÷ total duration of the experiment.
e) Statistical Analysis
All the measurements were made in triplicate. The results were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA)
followed by least significant differences (Tukey) test. Correlation coefficient was significant with P< 0.05.
Page 28
2.8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
2.8.1 Results
It was observed that after the acclimatization period, the fish gained a relative mean weight of
1.23g. Physical activity of the fish was observed as normal to the fish in pond situation. After the
first week of feeding with the experimental diets, there was a significantly high increase in fish
weight in all the groups with the control group exhibiting a lower weight gain of 2.73g and group 3
saw 19.27g weight gain. Groups 1 and 2 had 6.62g and 10.91g respectively. FCR in all the groups
were significantly different. Group 3 had the highest FCR (0.771) and control had least FCR
(1.365). A different trend was observed in the following weeks. Control groups had a decrease in
FCR of 1.105 while group 3 had a decrease of 0.086. At the third week, there was an increment in
all the groups relative to the second week. The control FRC was 0.35 while group 1, 2 and 3 were
0.38, 0.53 and 0.73 respectively. FCR in week four had no scientific significance compared to the
third week as presented in figure 1 FCR in week 6 reduced in all the groups (figure1). There was a
significantly high FCR in group 3 at week 6 of feeding (0.87). During the same week, control group
had 0.39 and groups 1 and 2 had 0.43 and 0.47 respectively. Throughout the experiment, the FCR
was found to have increased for all the groups. However, there was no statistical difference in the
control and group 1 fish. Group 2 had an FCR of 0.50 while group 3 had an FCR of 0.75. This
means there was a significant weight gain in all the groups. Group 3 had the highest average
percentage weight gain of 309.26 while control group had only 74.25%. Groups 1 and 2 had closer
percentage weight gains (101.69 and 104.67). The SGR was significantly enhanced when Aloe vera
at 4% was included in fish diet and low in the control group.
Table 3. Weight of the experimental fish before acclimatization and after acclimatization
Initial mean weight(g) Mean Weight after acc(g) Mean Weight gained(g)
68.43 69.25±0.82 1.23
Table 4. Feed Conversion Ratio in fish fed control diet (C), 10 g/kg Aloe vera (1), 20 g/kg Aloe
vera (2) or 40 g/kg Aloe vera (3) for week 1.
Groups Final weight(g) Weight gained(g) Feed Conversion Ratio
C 71.98 2.73 0.1365
1 75.87 6.62 0.301
Page 29
2 80.16 10.91 0.474
3 88.52 19.27 0.771
C 77.98 5.67 0.26
1 84.8 8.93 0.37
2 90.40 10.24 0.394
3 109.28 20.76 0.67
C 86.65 8.67 0.35
1 95.03 10.23 0.38
2 106.26 15.86 0.53
3 137.85 28.57 0.73
C 97.21 10.56 0.38
1 109.29 14.26 0.46
2 127.11 20.85 0.58
3 174.72 36.87 0.75
C 107.44 10.23 0.34
Page 30
1 122.75 13.46 0.38
2 148.07 20.96 0.50
3 213.58 38.86 0.65
C 120.67 13.23 0.39
1 139.84 17.09 0.43
2 170.83 22.76 0.47
3 283.41 69.83 0.87
vera (2) or 40 g/kg Aloe vera (3) for 6 weeks.
Groups Initial weight Final weight(g) Weight gained(g) Feed Conversion Ratio
C 69.25±1.23 120.67 51.42 0.323
1 69.25±2.45 139.84 70.59 0.394
2 69.25±2.14 170.83 101.58 0.50
3 69.25±3.27 283.41 214.16 0.75
Table 11: Percentage weight gain for the experimental period
Groups Initial weight Final weight(g) Weight gained(g) % Weight gained
C 69.25±1.23 120.67 51.42 74.25
1 69.25±2.45 139.84 70.59 101.69
2 69.25±2.14 170.83 101.58 104.67
3 69.25±3.27 283.41 214.16 309.26
Table 12. Specific Growth Rate in fish fed control diet (C), 10 g/kg Aloe vera (1), 20 g/kg Aloe vera
(2) or 40 g/kg Aloe vera (3) for 6 weeks.
Initial weight(g) ln weight gained SGR
69.25±1.23 1.53058 25.5096
69.25±2.45 4.25689 70.9481
69.25±2.14 4.62085 77.0141
Page 31
69.25±3.27 5.36672 89.4454
Figure 6. FCR after 6 weeks
Figure 7: FCR for the 6 weeks
Page 32
Figure 8: FCR for the Control Group for the 6 weeks
Figure 9: FCR for Group 3 for the 6 weeks
Page 33
Figure 10. SGR after 6 weeks
Figure 11. Specific Growth Rate after 6 weeks.

Percentage weight gain.
Page 34
Figure 12. Percentage Weight Gain
2.8.2 Discussions
According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the aquaculture
production has raised from about 28.3 million tons to 40 mt in 2009 (FAO, 2009). Aquaculture is
one of the rapidest growing food producing sectors around the world. The genus Aloe contains over
400 different species with Aloe barbadensis Miller (Aloe vera), Aloe aborescens and, Aloe
chinensis being the most popular. Aloe barbadensis Miller is considered to be the most biologically
active. In fish, essential nutrients such as proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamins C and E,
polysaccharides and some minerals have a pivotal importance to reinforce normal immune
functions (M. Mahdavi, A.et al., 2013).
The present study demonstrated that high levels of Aloe vera (2% and 4%) had a positive effect on
O. niliticus growth performance. Conversely, Aloe vera in different inclusion rates had no effect on
Acipenser baerii (Wang et al., 2011). Aloe vera is composed of 75 potentially active compounds:
vitamins, enzymes, minerals, sugars, lignin, saponins, salicylic acids and amino acids (Surjushe et
al., 2008). Improvement in growth performance by Aloe vera could be related to better nutrient
digestibility and absorption, improved digestive enzymes and maintaining the function and structure
of the small intestine, leading to an increased digestive capacity of the gut.
Page 35
Other studies have also observed increased resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus and Aeromonas
hydrophila in rockfish (Sebastes schlegeli) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed diets
supplemented with Aloe vera (Kim et al., 1999; Alishahi et al., 2010). Even though the increased
resistance following the administration of Aloe vera might be due to the enhanced function of some
non-specific immune parameters, different antiseptic agents namely lupeol, salicylic acid, urea
nitrogen, cinnamonic acid, phenols and sulfur have also been shown in Aloe vera (Surjushe et al.,
2008). These components have inhibitory action on fungi, bacteria and viruses (Surjushe et al.,
2008). The finding in this study are supported by a number of similar studies and researches on this
plant and other medicinal plants used in aquaculture, conducted in other fish species in various parts
of the world. Recently due to intensive cultivation applications, infectious diseases display a main
problem in aquaculture industry, causing heavy loss to farmers. The usage of antibiotics and
chemicals in cultivation is often costly and unacceptable since it leads to antibiotic and chemical
resistance and customer unwillingness. Hence, immunostimulants like some medical plant extracts
or products have been used to restrain fish and shellfish diseases and significantly increase the
phagocytic activity in different fish (Kim et al., 1999).
2.8.3 Conclusion
This study showed a stronger hope in the use of medicinal plants as it confirms the alternative
hypotheses developed for the study. Therefore, it is apparent that feeding with the Aloe vera for six
or more weeks is effective in better growth performance in O. niloticus. In conclusion, O. niloticus
fed Aloe vera at 2% and 4% for more than four weeks demonstrated greater effectiveness for
growth performance than lower dose of 0.1% and the control diet. Earlier studies however reveal
that inclusions at 1% or 0.1% have produced similar results (M. Heidarieh et al., 2012.). Farrag, F.
H. et., al 2014) got similar results using ground pawpaw seed meal at different concentrations for
different feeding periods. The use of natural herbs as direct dietary inclusions and
immunostumulants should therefore be supported in aquaculture.
2.8.4 Recommendations
In light of these findings, I make the following recommendations:
 More research should be conducted to present more information on the efficacy of medicinal
plants in aquaculture.
Page 36
 Farmers should be encouraged to embrace the use of certain medicinal plants tested to be
effective in the practice of aquaculture.
 Feeding technology should appraise the new revelations in feed formulations, especially the
inclusion of dietary natural substances in the feeds fed to fish to enhance utilization of the
benefits involved.
 Feeding strategies should be developed for each fish species with respect to
immunostimulant dose and duration in order to acquire enhanced immune system.
Figure 13: Treatments tanks and tilapia after the experiment.
Page 37
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Figure 14: Working at the fish pond- harvesting and sorting of fish
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SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCE

OGUTA ONYANGO CAVINE

THIS REPORT IS SUMITTED IN PARTIAL FLFILMENT OF REQUIREMENT OF FIELD ATTACHMENT

ii. Major programs in dominion farms...................................................................................................................3

iii. Administration and Management practices at the farm.....................................................................................6

iv. Summary of daily chores, practical exposures at the farm ..............................................................................10

2.0 ATTACHMENT PRACTICAL EXERCISE ................................................................................................ 16

2.2 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................17

2.3 THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE EXPERIMENT ..........................................................................................22

2.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................................23

2.6 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................24

2.7 METHODOLOGY AND MEMTHODS ........................................................................................................28

2.8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................................................29

i. History of Dominion Company in Kenya

ii. Major programs in dominion farms

a) Community Based Rice and Aquaculture Farming

b) Dominion Training Center

c) Dominion Scholarship Program

d) Dominion Sugar cane farm

iii. Administration and Management practices at the farm

FARM MANAGER HEAD OF TRAINING

MACHINARY AND CONSTRUCTION

Figure 1: Dominion Company Administrative Structure

Pond operators Transportation Hatchery operator

a) Management practices at the Aquaculture Department

b) Sales and Marketing at the section

iv. Summary of daily chores, practical exposures at the farm

Type of food % composition in 250kgs

=7.44681%. A moisture content of between 0-10 percent is acceptable.

2.3 THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE EXPERIMENT

Figure 4: Oguta Onyango preparing Aloe vera sample.

Figure 6. FCR after 6 weeks

Figure 7: FCR for the 6 weeks

Figure 9: FCR for Group 3 for the 6 weeks

Figure 11. Specific Growth Rate after 6 weeks.

In light of these findings, I make the following recommendations:

Figure 13: Treatments tanks and tilapia after the experiment.

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