Bioinspired El

Major Project: Phase II Report
on
“FEASIBILITY STUDIES ON CONCRETE BLOCK

MIXES USING SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS”
18MST41
Submitted
by
CHANDANA D
P 1RV21CSE04
Under the Guidance

of
Dr. M V RENUKA DEVI
Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering Dean Non – Circuit (P.G and
Research) RV College of Engineering
Bengaluru - 560059
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of degree

of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
2022 - 2023
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my profound gratitude and deep regards to our guide Dr. M V Renuka Devi Professor and
Dean Non-Circuit (P.G and Research), for her exemplary guidance, monitoring, and constant
encouragement throughout the course of the project. The help and guidance given by her from time to
time provided us with valuable information and assistance, which helped us in completing the task
through various stages.
I express my warm gratitude to Dr. Somanath M Basutkar, Assistant Professor, R V College of

Engineering, Bengaluru for his valuable guidance, support, and motivation in completing the second
phase of the project work.
I am obliged to thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff members of Department of Civil
Engineering, RVCE, for their co-operation and support.
I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to our Head of Department Dr. Radhakrishna without whom
planning and execution of the first phase of the project would not be possible.
I extend my sincere thanks to our Vice Principal Dr. K S Geetha and our Principal Dr. K N Subramanya
for their help and support extended by providing the required facilities.
I would like to thank my friends and juniors for helping me during my project
work. I extend my regards to my parents for their constant support and
encouragement.
Chandana D P
(1RV21CSE04) Structural
Engineering Department of
Civil Engineering RV College
of Engineering,
i
Bengaluru-59
ii
ABSTRACT
More production and construction generate more waste, creating environmental concerns of
toxicity in ecology. A feasible solution to this problem is to reuse these waste materials, which
reduces solid wastes which in turn minimizes the heavy burden on landfill spaces. The major
contribution of C & D waste is fromthe demolition of buildings, which is mostly of concrete or
brick masonry. This C&D waste can be crushedinto smaller sized particles and then used as
replacement to the natural coarse and fine aggregates. Here, anattempt is made to complete
replacement of the conventional materials with supplementarysustainable materials, which
safeguards the energy resources as well as provides an eco-friendly environment to the society.
In this study, optimum proportions of fine and coarse aggregate for achieving M10 grade concrete
is worked out with replacement of fine and coarse aggregate with C & D waste such as
demolished brick waste and recycled concrete aggregate. This will reduce the cost and also
provide an alternate way to deal with construction waste management. The concrete prisms of
size 10cm x 10cm x 20cm for different proportion of replacement to fine aggregates (passing
4.75mm sieve) and different cement content are made to study cost, density, embodied energy
and strength.
From this study, optimum proportions of fine and coarse aggregate for achieving M10 grade
concrete is worked out. Suitability of replacement of conventional fine aggregate with C&D
waste such as demolished brick waste and recycled concrete aggregate is reported. As the
replacement levels continued to increase, the compressive strength of concrete prepared from
different proportion of C&D waste declined linearly. Increase in cement content leads to an
improvement in compressive, flexural and tensile strength. the cost of prism sample is reducing
gradually at higher percentage replacement of the recycled aggregates when compared to the 0%
replacement level. The cost of complete natural aggregate block is around 26.57% and 21.05%
more expensive than that of sample made of 100% C&D replacement for 9% and 12% cement
content respectively. The embodied energy released by complete natural aggregate block is
around 46.15% and 36.55% more expensive than that of sample made up of 100% C&D
replacement for 9% and 12% cement content respectively. Therefore, the prism samples made up
of C&D waste are found to be economical and sustainable when compared to samples with
complete natural aggregates.
Keywords: Concrete prisms, Sustainable materials, C&D Waste, Brick waste, RC waste.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgment I
Abstract ii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
Glossary viii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.1.1 Sustainable construction materials 2
1.1.2 Advantages of sustainable materials 3
1.1.3 Mechanical properties of concrete mixes 3
1.2 Literature Review 4
1.2.1 Sustainable materials 4
1.2.2 Cement 4
1.2.3 Recycled fine aggregates 5
1.2.4 Recycled coarse aggregates 7
1.2.5 Mechanical properties of concrete block mixes 8
1.3 Literature Summary 10
1.4 Literature Gap 10
1.5 Motivation 10
1.6 Objectives 11
1.7 Organization of Thesis 11
Chapter 2
CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 12
2.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate 12
2.2 Demolished Brick Waste 13
2.3 Summary 13
iv
Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 14
3.1 Materials used 14
3.1.1 Cement 14
3.1.2 Fine aggregates 14
3.1.3 Coarse aggregates 15
3.2 Methodology 16
3.3 Work Plan Flowchart 16
3.4 Mix Proportion 17
3.5 Summary 18
Chapter-4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 19
4.1 Experimental Programme 19
4.2 Tests on Materials 19
4.2.1 Specific gravity 20
4.2.2 Water absorption 22
4.3 Selection of Material 22
4.4 Properties of Concrete 23
4.4.1 Workability 23
4.4.2 Aggregate crushing strength 25
4.4.3 Compressive strength 29
4.5 Making of Concrete Prism 30
4.5.1 Casting 30
4.5.2 Curing 32
4.5.3 Testing 33
4.5.3.1 Density 33
4.5.3.2 Compressive strength 33
4.5.3.3 Flexural strength test 33
4.5.3.4 Split tensile strength test 34
4.6 Summary 35
v
Chapter-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
5.1 Test Results on Concrete Prisms 36
5.2 Cost and Embodied Energy Calculation 43
5.3 Summary 45
Chapter-6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 46
6.1 Conclusions 46
6.2 Future Scope 47
REFERENCES 48
ANNEXURE 54
QUARTILE RANKING 59
PLAGIARISM REPORT 65
vi
LIST OF
FIGURES
Figure No. Particulars Page No.
1.1 Energy
consumption in 1
buildings by fuel,
2010-21(left), and
share ofbuildings
in total final
energy
consumptions in
2021 (right)
1.2 Carbon impact of 2
concrete in
construction
industry
3.1 Demolished Brick 15
Waste
3.2 Recycled Concrete 15
Waste
3.3 Work Plan 16
Flowchart
3.4 Mix proportion for 17
9 and 12% cement
content
4.1 Aggregate 19
Materials (FRCW,
FRBW, M-Sand,
NCA)
4.2 Specific gravity 20
testing instruments
4.3 Casting of 23
Cylindrical
samples for
different aggregate
size
4.4 Casting of 23
Concrete prisms
for different
combinations
4.5 Slump value of 24
concrete
4.6 Vee-Bee test setup 25
4.7 Aggregate 26
crushing strength
test
4.8 Percentage 28
replacement v/s
Percentage fines
4.9 Percentage 28
replacement v/s
load
vii
4.10 Compressive test 29
4.11 Aggregate size v/s 30
Compressive
strength Test
result
4.12 Mixing of 31
materials for
casting
4.13 Moulding and 31
demoulding of
casted prism
sample
4.14 Casted prism 32
samples
4.15 Curing of casted 32
prism samples
4.18 Flexural test on 34
concrete prism
4.19 Split tensile test on 36
concrete prism
result for Brick
waste replacement
result for RC
waste replacement
5.3 Compressive 41
strength for
different
combination of
Brick and RC
waste
5.4 Flexural test result 43
for BW
replacement
5.5 Flexural test result 43
for BW
replacement
5.6 Split tensile test 44
result for RCW
replacement
5.7 Split tensile test 44
result for RCW
replacement
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Particulars Page No.
3.1 Percentage of materials used for casting of prism 18

4.1 Specific gravity of fine and coarse aggregates 21
4.3 Water absorption of fine and coarse aggregates 22
viii
4.4 Test results of Vee Bee and slump test 25
4.5 Test results of crushing strength test 27
4.6 Test results of compressive strength of cylindrical samples 30
5.1 Density of concrete blocks 38
5.2 Compressive strength of concrete blocks 39
5.3 Flexural and Split tensile strength test results 42
5.5 Cost analysis of concrete prism 45
5.6 Embodied energy analysis of concrete prism 45
ix
GLOSSARY
Abbreviations
C&D : Construction and

Demolition RAC : Recycled
Aggregate Concrete NAC : Natural
Aggregate Concrete NA : Natural
Aggregate
RCA : Recycled Concrete
Aggregate RFA : Recycled Fine
Aggregate DBW: Demolished Brick
Waste RCW : Recycled Concrete
waste EE: Embodied Energy
x
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In developing and thickly populated countries, the need to reduce the consumption of
non- renewable natural resources and energy has encouraged the development of low-
cost, safe, and sustainable constructive solutions, such as in the case of affordable
houses.
1.1 Overview
Figure 1.1: Energy consumption in buildings by fuel, 2010-2021 (left),
and share of buildings in total final energy consumptions in 2021 (right)
[1]
Due to rapid urbanization, the need to reduce consumption of non-renewable natural

resources and energy has encouraged the development of low-cost, safe, and
sustainable constructive solutions, such as the case of affordable houses [2].
Minimizing the environmental impact and energy and CO2 intensity of concrete used
for construction is increasingly important as resources decline and the impact of
greenhouse emissions
Structural Engineering, 2022-2023

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FEASIBILITY STUDIES ON CONCRETE BLOCK MIXES USING SUSTAINABLE
MATERIALS
becomes more evident as shown in Figure 1.2. Therefore, adopting sustainable way of
construction can help in minimizing the use of high carbon-emitting materials such as
aggregates Concrete, cement, steel, bricks, aggregates, etc., and the use of alternative
sustainable materials which is left out as waste from the construction and demolition,
waste from the coal factories, from the agriculture industry like fly ash, silica fume,
GGBS, Recycled Aggregates, Bagasse, etc., can be adopted in the construction
sector[3].
The alternate materials should be such that they should satisfy the strength,
Figure 1.2: Carbon impact of concrete in construction industry.
1.1.1 Sustainable construction materials

Sustainable development refers to the whole life cycle of a structure with a lower
carbon footprint. The life cycle is referred to “Cradle to Grave method” i.e., from the
beginning of the material selection till its service period [2]. There are mainly five
stages in the life cycle of construction: feasibility, design, construction, operation, and
demolition [5]. All the stages contribute equally in selecting suitable construction
materials, The last
Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 2

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phase i.e., the demolition phase helps to a larger extent in reducing the carbon footprint
of a building [6]. Therefore, a detailed study can be carried out to provide a sustainable
environment to the society with the use of some alternate materials to the conventional
concreting materials.
The construction and demolition waste as a landfill can be utilized as a replacement to

natural aggregates with different proportions of mixes. The waste from the brick
masonry in the powdered form can be used as a replacement to cement or the binder
along with certain admixtures [7]. The utilization of these kin ds of substitute
sustainable materials is more advantageous than conventional materials and is easily
available.
1.1.2 Advantages of sustainable materials

1) The carbon emission of a structure is reduced with the use of sustainable materials
rather than the use of natural resources.
2) There is a greater reduction in the usage of concrete, cement, and natural coarse and
fine aggregates which will further lead to a reduction in the cost of the materials.
3) Cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag, silica fume can be used as a substitute
to cement helps in minimizing the carbon footprint.
4) The recycling of C&D waste as a replacement to the conventional natural aggregates
helps in the conservation of the natural non-renewable resources such as river sand,
coarse aggregates, etc.,
5) By using sustainable materials mechanical properties are unaffected to a certain
extent, therefore the study related to the use of sustainable construction materials is
feasible.
1.1.3 Mechanical properties of concrete mixes

Concrete can be defined as composite material having binder, coarse and fine
aggregate, as well as fluid. The cement paste which is a glue material provides better
bonding with the coarser material. which is loses its plasticity and gets hardened. The
study aims at achieving low-strength sustainable concrete blocks made up of alternate
sustainable materials such as recycled aggregates at several percentage replacements to
the natural aggregates. For different proportions of the mixes, the concrete prisms are

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cast and tests are carried out for the strength and other mechanical properties.

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1.2 Literature Review
In this section the review of literature on sustainable materials such as cement,
recycled fine aggregates and coarse aggregates, and the mechanical properties of the
concrete block mixes are studied.
1.2.1 Sustainable materials

The sustainable materials are those materials which are recycled and reused so as to
reduce the carbon footprint of a building or any structure. The sustainable materials
such as use of C & D waste as a partial or full replacement of aggregates and provide
eco- friendly environment to the society.
1.2.2 Cement
When it comes to the use of sustainable materials it refers to the lesser carbon-emitting
construction materials i.e., the construction materials with a low carbon footprint such
as Cement, Concrete Steel, etc., which results in higher carbon emissions, therefore
alternate substitute materials such as Recycled aggregate concrete, use of fly ash, slag,
or silica fume as a substitute to cement can be utilized [8]. M L Berndt attempted to
replace the conventional mix with percentage substitution of fly ash or blast furnace
slag to the concrete mix, it was found that the 50% cement replacement with slag gives
better performance in terms of strength, elastic modulus, and other parameters. also, it
was seen that 50 percent substitute to cement such as using fly ash results in poor
performance of the concrete mix [9].
To enhance sustainable development, Madrid M et al. carried out several trials of

replacing wood ash or lime mud with percentage replacement as 5, 20, and 15% to
cement and sawdust of about 5, 10, and 20 % as a substitute to the sand in the concrete
mix. It was found that with the use of more wood ash the strength of the concrete gets
reduced and it results in higher water absorption [10]. Brick as waste material from
masonry demolition available all around, He, Ziming et al. made an attempt to study
clay brick waste as a substitute for cement., the recycled brick power (RBP) from the
crushing which is rich in silicious can be used as an alternate material to cement. It
was found that the RBP of about 10 – 15 % replacement improves the mechanical
properties of concrete [11].

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The cementitious materials have similar properties as that of OPC [12], Alizadeh V
and Corinaldesi et al. studied the use of cementing materials as an alternative to
Portland cement. Several studies were carried out with altering ratios of Portland
cement to the cementitious materials, it was seen that by increasing the ratio i.e., by
reducing the volume of Portland cement by fly ash the strength was improved.[12]
[13].
A. A. Bashandy et.al [14] the study based on the cement content, the findings
suggested that building debris may be used as concrete aggregates, but unless it is
graded and impurity free. When casting building concrete that will be subjected to
medium loads, it may be employed. Their durability and resistance to abrasion serve as
defining characteristics.
1.2.3 Recycled fine aggregates

Sustainability also refers to the minimum utility of conventional materials to protect
the depleting of non-renewable resources [5]. natural aggregates are one of the non-
renewable resources which must be conserved, therefore attempts are made in
replacing the natural conventional aggregates with recycled aggregates, obtained from
the demolition of old structures, or the waste left out on the construction site, et [15].
J.Pacheco et.a [16] made a study on inter variability of numerous recycled and natural
aggregate concrete mixes' compressive strength, Young's modulus, and splitting tensile
strength.
F. López-Gayarre et al., have made a factorial experimental study with a greater

number of factors with a smaller number of mixes, the substituting of recycled
aggregates with no change in water-cement ratio doesn’t alter in compressive strength
of the concrete, but at 50 % substitution of recycled aggregates lowers the young’s
modulus of elasticity of the concrete [17]. Similarly, Lovato et al. assessed the
evaluation of mechanical properties such as water absorption and carbonation depth at
different levels of the recycled aggregates, the response surface methodology was
used. it was found that 50% replacement of recycled aggregates with conventional
aggregates showed greater feasibility in its properties [18].

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O.Cakır [19] demonstrated that the strength reduces by roughly 24% at 100% of the
replacement level of RCA, and that the strength decline becomes more pronounced at
above 50% RCA content. According to the compressive strength, adding more RCA to
the concrete greatly increases its tensile splitting strength. In RCA concretes, an
inverse link between density and water absorption ratio is shown, and this relationship
is more important with greater RCA concentrations.
C.C. Fan et al. attempted to investigate the properties of RAC, two types of aggregates
wereinvestigated, one with both coarse and fine aggregates R1, and the other one was
only fine aggregates R2. The concrete of both types was subjected to various
mechanical properties, it was found that concrete containing only fine aggregates
showed superior quality as compared to concrete containing both coarse and fine
aggregates. The R1 showed the poor quality of concrete with low compressive
strength, density, and high- water absorption [20]. The recycled aggregates not only
have their uses in the concrete block making but also the making of the road subbase
material. Sung-Sik Park et al. assessed the crushing properties of the recycled
aggregates in which it was observed that the size of crushed aggregates below 20 mm
enhances the compaction and frictional behavior [21].
According to Kyuhun Kim et.al [22] the strength test results showed that the higher
ratio of recycled aggregates generally caused the lower compressive and tensile
strengths of concrete. However, the cases with 30% recycled aggregates showed only
slight compressive strength reductions. O. Çakır [23] made an attempt to investigate on
the recycled aggregate replacement at different percentage replacement. It was
observed that Experiments are done to find out the RCA of hardened concrete, such as
its compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, density, and water absorption. The
test results showed that the compressive strength drops by about 24% when RCA
makes up 100% of the replacement level, and the strength drop even more when RCA
makes up than 50% of the replacement level.The behavior of the fine recycled
aggregates adverse the effects of concrete properties, Miguel Bravo et al. attempted to
work on the effects of RA in the concrete industry [24]. It was seen that with a high
volume of fines, the strength, stiffness, and durability reduce. Up to 25% incorporation
of fines shows better performance when it exceeds 25% of fines, shows poor

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performance in the mechanical properties [25].

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Marija Nedeljkovic et al. also stated that 25% of fines in the RAC gives an optimum
mechanical property of the concrete. The major influencing properties were, an
increase in the water absorption, moisture content, accumulation of the particles,
etc[26].
1.2.4 Recycled coarse aggregates

Recycled coarse aggregates are comprised of independent natural coarse aggregate and
old cement mortar content in the aggregate,[27] therefore the influence of percentage
recycled coarse aggregate in the concrete plays an important role in its mechanical
properties. Yamini Jayantibhai Patel and the other author Ma Kang and Li Weibin
attempted to study the impact of coarse aggregate in concrete mixes, it was observed
that with 30 to 50% of RA, attains acceptable strength. And concrete mix with 70%
coarse and fine RA showed the decremental strength property which was about
29.11% and 26.84% as compared to the use of NA in concrete. also, with no
replacement and complete replacement of the recycled aggregates, the strength was
higher, and was observed that the size of the aggregates is co-related to the
compressive performance[27], [28].
Kyuhun Kim et.al [29] some of the observations like increased flowability of concrete
was a result of the higher recycled aggregate content. Additionally, the flowability of
RCA was enhanced by the application of fly ash. using30% recycled aggregates
exhibited just a little decline in compressive strength. The performance study was
made by Mohammed Seddik Meddah et al. suggests that the use of coarse recycled
aggregate greater than 30% shows relatively poor performance when compared with
natural coarse aggregate. Also, the compressive strength, carbonation, and sulphate
resistance can be enhanced with a reduction in the w/c ratio.
S.Manzi et.al observed the fact that, Good structural concrete may be produced by
properly combining fine and coarse concrete debris, as compared to just using solely
coarse recycled particles.[30]. Hisham Qasrawi & Iqbal Marie [31] study results
indicate that the workability and air content of new concrete are adversely affected by
the use of recycled aggregates. Concrete strength can be decreased by 5 to 25%, while
tensile strength can be decreased by 4 to 14%, based on the water/cement ratio as well
as the percentage of conventional aggregate substituted by RCA.

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1.2.5 Mechanical properties of concrete block mixes
The concrete blocks are subjected to several mechanical properties, such as shrinkage,
water absorption, compressive strength, specific gravity, flexural strength, etc. several
studies were carried out to study the properties affecting the concrete mix when there
is a substitution of sustainable materials. Elivone Lopes da Silva et al. examined the
different proportions of RCA, it was found that RA around 30% achieves appreciable
compressive strength. When the replacement rate is above 50% the compressive
strength declines [32]. Guoliang Bai et al. At 25, 50, & 100% replacements of recycled
aggregate, the flexural strength was found to be 6, 13, & 26% less as compared to
natural recycled aggregates and that to compressive strength even lesser as compared
to NAC by 6,13, & 40%. Also, recycled aggregates having complete coarser material
leads to the further reduction of the compressive strength [33].
M. Suren dar et al. made an observation that RAC has a lower strength compared to
NAC. It was seen that beyond 75% replacement the cube and cylinder strength
reduced to about 25%, as there is a rise in water absorption leading to sulphate attack
in the concrete [34]. Keila Robalo et al. explained that an increase in the
superplasticizer, as well as water requirement when recycled aggregates were
increased b/w 43 to 80 parentages, gives rise to a decline in the compressive strength
and young’s modulus[35],[36].
Jinxi Zhang et al. explained the impact of using various proportions of B/R and A/B,
which would further accelerate the flowable properties at higher proportions [37],[38].
The finer recycled aggregates show limited application in the industry, exposure in
various fields such as in making controlled low strength materials [39]. Etxeberria
Miren, et al. attempted to study the properties of CLSMs, with an increase in the
percentages of RFA the compressive strength also increases [40]. It was also observed
that the presence of more cementitious materials affects the strength of CLSMs[39].
The curing of concrete specimens was investigated by Ahmed Shaban Abdel Hay, the
concrete specimens were exposed to three different curing conditions i.e., to open-air,
painting, other one standard curing. It was found using paint gives the best results as
compared to other methods, excluding at 100% replacement of RA [40]. The quality

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and

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quantity of the adhering mortar has a significant impact on the physical characteristics
of recycled aggregates. The porosity of adhered mortar, which is a porous substance, is
influenced by the water-to-cement ratio (w/c) that was first used. In general, when the
size of the recycled aggregates is reduced, more adherent mortar is produced [41]–
[43].
The other properties such as shrinkage, the effect of water, and self-compacting
properties, were studied by Antonio Princigallo and R.V. Silva et al. It was seen that
carbonation of the RA helps in reducing the water absorption whereas the strength
property remains the same. And with a maximum volume of RA, the shrinkage
property gets affected, of around 80%, which can be controlled with variation in the
concrete mixing procedure [44]. Amardeep Singh et al. made a study regarding the use
of recycled aggregate that affects the self-compacting properties increase in the
RAcontent, the strength reduces, possesses better bond and self-cementing properties
[45].
Jose´ M.V. Go´mez-Sobero´n [46] findings indicated considerable variance between

the RC's characteristics and those of regular concrete. Tong T Kien [3] Replace NA
with RCA to noticeably enhance porosity. Additionally, when porosity rises, the RC's
mechanical qualities are reduced in comparison to plain concrete. In comparison to
CA's, RA's were shown to absorb water significantly more efficiently. As a result of
the hydration of RAC mixes, it is demonstrated that RA has a linked open pore system,
which may allow RA to self-cure.
1.3 Literature Summary

Several kinds of research have been carried out to expose the better utilization of
recycled materials and the properties have been studied in detail by altering the volume
of concrete components. It is observed that the use of cement substitutes lowers the
strength when exceeds a certain percentage of substitution [9]. Also, up to 50 percent
use of recycled material shows a feasible change in the properties [21].
Replacement of recycled coarse aggregates up to 70 percent experience better

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performance. As the coarser recycled materials in large quantity, the strength
parameter shows a moderate influence on the concrete mix [28].

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1.4 Literature Gap

Several studies have shown the influence of concrete mix with substitution of recycled
coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate individually, but the research has to be carried out
to study further ore improvements in concrete properties by altering the proportions of
the mixes. Also, it has been seen from several research, that contribution of both fine
and coarse particles with complete replacement needs an investigation.
1.5 Motivation
Since the world facing a high percentage of carbon emissions, there needs a solution to
overcome global warming and its causes. Therefore, it needs to be provided with the
use of a sustainable environment, by implementing the use of sustainable technology
such as the use of sustainable materials and to safeguard the natural non-renewable
resources. An attempt is made to complete replacement of the conventional materials
with supplementary sustainable materials, which safeguards the energy resources as
well as provides an eco-friendly environment to the society. The use of sustainable
materials such as demolished concrete and brick waste can be crushed and used as
replacement to coarse and fine aggregates.
1.6 Objectives
a. To assess the suitability of C&D waste for low strength concrete, through
laboratory investigations.
b. To investigate maximum utilization of C&D waste in concrete mix
proportioning to achieve target strength of 5-10MPa.
c. To evaluate the cost and embodied energy of low-strength concrete
with C&D waste.
1.7 Organization of Thesis

The report has been organized into following chapter:
Chapter 1: It gives an overview of availability of building materials, its scarcity and
environmental effects. It also gives an insight about use of alternative sources of
aggregates like recycled concrete aggregates and brick waste extracted from the

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construction and demolition waste as the replacement of aggregates in blocks
production.
Chapter 2: It gives a brief description about various concepts associated with
aggregates, more specifically those that have been sourced from construction &
demolition wastes.
Chapter 3: It deals with the various types of materials that are used in the present
study and the work plan of the current study.
Chapter 4: This chapter describes the various tests performed on the raw materials
used and results of the test conducted.
Chapter 5: The chapter will give an overview of the test results and also, cost and
embodied energy analysis of various materials used to prepare concrete prisms.
Chapter 6: The chapter discusses conclusions and also suggests the scope of future
work that can be done.

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Chapter 2
CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
The use of sustainable materials such as recycled concrete aggregates, and demolished
brick waste as a partial or full replacement to the natural aggregates may help in
sustainable development. Due to rapid growth in the population, the use of
construction and demolition waste becomes a huge aspect in the construction section
as well as in sustainable development. The sources of C & D waste are obtained from
several regions, they maybe waste obtained from excavation of roads, land, building
materials, waste from the construction site, or the waste may be from demolition of
structures or buildings. The major contribution of C & D waste is from the demolition
of buildings, which is mostly of concrete or brick masonry which can be further
crushed into smaller sized particles and then used as replacement to the natural coarse
and fine aggregates.
2.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate

In the past several decades, concrete has advanced civilizations because it is the most
widely used and practical material in the construction sector [9]. However, the
production of cement and aggregate necessitates a substantial amount of natural
resources. The substantial aspect that RA varies from natural aggregate (NA) is that it
is comprised of two distinct materials: NA and leftover cement mortar [47]-[49].
Numerous studies have been conducted on the advantages and disadvantages of using
recycled aggregate (RA) in concrete. It is generally observed that RA usage intensifies
the drying creep, shrinkage, and a reduction in compressive strength elasticity of
concrete's modulus in comparison to that of natural material [49].
Recently, there has been a lot of interest in study into the viability of using C&D waste
as aggregates for the manufacturing of concrete and concrete masonry blocks [50]. The
compressive strength of the blocks produced was found to be unaffected by small
percentages of replacement of natural coarse and fine aggregates with recycled
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2.2 Demolished Brick Waste

When the clay components (bricks) are segregated during the C&DW classifying
stage, a different type of aggregate (RBA) is obtained that can be utilized to create
concrete[52]. Authors have exposed that the use of coarse fraction of RBA produces a
linear loss in the resistance of the concrete that reaches 45% for a 100% of
substitution. The demolished brick waste includes the waste bricks that are crushed
and segregated in to coarse and fine aggregates and further utilized as a partial or full
replacement to natural aggregates.
Bricks being used as aggregate in concrete is not a new idea. Brick buildings damaged
or completely destroyed by bombs were crushed in rubble recycling facilities in
England and Germany after World War II to create crushed brick aggregate for new
concrete construction [53]. However, brick aggregate concrete has gained popularity in
areas where natural aggregate sources are limited and importing natural aggregate is
prohibitively expensive. Brick aggregate concrete is most frequently utilized in non-
structural or non-critical applications in these regions [54]. Compared to regular
weight aggregates, brick aggregates are lighter, therefore they reduce the expense of
the haul. Additionally, brick aggregate-infused concrete is lighter than the cost of
transporting normal-weight concrete would likewise be much lower the structure's own
weight[53],[55].
2.3 Summary
The sustainable materials such as waste that is obtained from the construction and
demolition in the site is recycled and reutilized as a replacement to the coarse and fine
aggregates. And also, it helps in reducing cost and energy wasted in commercially
available materials.
Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page

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Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Materials used in making of concrete mixes is explained along with their parameters
that influence the mix, as well as the methodology adopted to cast the prisms is
explained below.
3.1 Materials used

The materials used are cement, M-sand, Natural Concrete Aggregates (NCA),
Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) and Demolished Brick Waste (DBW). Figure
3.1 and Figure 3.2 shown are Demolished Brick waste and Construction & Demolition
waste Respectively. The key focus is on incorporating recycled C & D waste to replace
natural fine aggregates. Based on several literature studies, the replacement of M-sand
with RFA (Recycled Fine Aggregates) is set from 20% to 100% replacement.
Additionally, two different percentages of cement content i.e., 9% and 12% of cement
is used.
3.1.1 Cement
Cement is a crucial binder and building material that plays a vital role in construction.
Its primary function is to bond, harden, and connect various materials together.
Typically, cement is not used alone; instead, it serves to bind sand and gravel, creating
concrete, which is a widely used construction material. Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) of 53 grade is employed. To ensure the quality and adherence to standards, the
cement material is thoroughly tested according to the guidelines specified in IS codes.
3.1.2 Fine aggregates

As the scarcity on river sand aroused, the construction industry started using
Manufactured sand (M-Sand) from granite industry. The RFA is obtained from
demolished buildings by which land fill problems can be reduced and make concrete
sustainable to environment. In the present study Manufactured sand and RFA is used
as fine aggregate and the material is tested in accordance to IS: 2386 (Part 3) –
1963[56] and IS: 383 – 1970[57].
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3.1.3 Coarse aggregates
Coarse aggregates play a vital role in construction, compassing a wide variety of large
to medium-sized particles such as sand, gravel, broken stones, slag, recycled concrete,
and geosynthetic aggregates. Their shape and texture have significant implications for
both fresh and hardened concrete properties. A smooth surface promotes better
workability and flow of fresh concrete enhancing operational performance during
construction. Conversely, a rough surface facilitates stronger bonding with the cement
paste, resulting in higher strength and durability of the hardened concrete. To ensure
their suitability for construction purposes, the physical properties of these coarse
aggregates are rigorously tested in accordance with the standards outlined in IS: 2386
– 1963[58].
Figure 3.1: Demolished Brick Waste
Figure 3.2: Recycled Concrete Waste [source: Rock Crystals Devanahalli,

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Bangalore]

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3.2 Methodology
The procedure adopted in the present study is as follows:
a. As per Codal provision the M10 grade concrete was designed.

b. Physical and mechanical properties of the materials were determined for different
percent replacements.
c. Evaluation of compressive strength of concrete through experimental evaluation.
d. Casting of concrete prisms of size (100×100×200) mm for 7- and 28-days strength.
e. Obtaining the hardened properties of concrete specimens.
f. Cost and embodied energy analysis.
3.3 Work Plan Flowchart

After performing the study on literature, and defining the objectives of the research
study, workflow is shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Work plan flowchart

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The present study includes firstly procurement of materials, then segregation of

materials, basic tests such specific gravity, grain size distribution and water absorption.
Then mix design for M10 grade concrete as the target strength of 5-10 MPa as per the
assigned objective referring to the Indian standard codes. Preparing the trial mixes of
concrete prisms of (100×100×200) mm size for and cylinders of (200mm height and
100mm diameter) size for testing compressive strength of 7- and 28-days strength.
After several trials, for a certain value of water cement ratio the prisms are casted for
different percent replacements of coarse aggregate for 28 days strength and properties
such as density and compressive are determined. Later the cost and embodied energy is
analysis is carriedout.
3.4 Mix Proportion

Concrete prisms with target strength of 5-10MPa is produced using materials such as
Cement, sand and aggregates in different proportions with different percentage
replacement of recycled C & D waste and Brick Waste. Based on literature studies,
Natural coarse aggregate is kept constant of 20%, Whereas the Natural fine aggregate
is replaced with Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) and Demolished Brick Waste
(DBW) with 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% & 100% and the mechanical properties of concrete
mix is studied.
Mix proportion for 9% cement content Mix proportion for 12% cement content
9% 12%
18.2% 17.6%
72.8%
70.6%
cement FA cement FA
CA CA

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Figure 3.4: Mix proportion for 9 and 12 percent cement content

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The size of fine aggregate used is passing 4.75mm sieve and the coarse aggregates of
size passing 6.3mm sieve and retaining on 4.75mm sieve. A total of 20 mix
proportions was designed i.e., for five different percentage replacements of recycled
fine aggregates (RCA & DBW) with natural fine aggregate, with two different
combination of cement content i.e., 9% and 12% cement each as shown in Figure 3.4
and Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Percentage of materials used for casting of prism
Replacement of
NA with Materials used for casting of
Combinations BW/RCW prism samples (in
(in %) Percentage)
FA
Cement CA
NA BW/RCW
20 9 18.2 58.24 14.56
40 9 18.2 43.68 29.12
9% cement 60 9 18.2 29.12 43.68
40 9 18.2 14.56 58.24
100 9 18.2 0.00 72.80
20 12 17.6 56.32 14.08
40 12 17.6 42.24 28.16
12% cement 60 12 17.6 28.16 42.24
80 12 17.6 14.08 56.32
100 12 17.6 0.00 70.40
3.5 Summary
A brief study on the materials and their properties are provided, along with `variation
in the percentage replacement of both the coarse and fine aggregate with respect to the
conventional aggregates. And also, the workflow of the study is explained.

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Chapter-4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Highlights of the details of the experimental work carried out in order to achieve the
defined project objectives is explained below. Also, the detailed procedure is stated
which includes start from the procurement of materials mix design calculations till the
results of specimens tested.
4.1 Experimental Programme

The basic materials required in making of concrete mix included cement, sand (M-
sand, RBW and RCA) passing on 4.75mm sieve and coarse aggregate including
natural aggregate passing 6.3mm sieve and retaining on 4.75mm sieve. The basic
material tests were conducted such as specific gravity, sieve analysis, Water absorption
and aggregate crushing strength. Further the concrete prisms were casted for different
proportions and the mechanical properties of the prisms were determined.
4.2 Tests on Materials

In this section, the various tests on the basic materials as per the Indian Standard codes
are studied in detail. The brick waste was collected from demolished walls, and other
structure and were crushed into smaller pieces at the jaw crusher. And the recycled
concrete aggregate was directly obtained from the industry named Rock Crystals,
Devanahalli, Bangalore both coarse and finer sizes separately. The aggregate materials
used in the study are shown in the Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Aggregate Materials (FRCW, FRBW, M-Sand, NCA)

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4.2.1 Specific gravity

The weight of a material divided by the weight of an equivalent amount of water is known as
its specific gravity. The importance of specific gravity is due to the fact that materials contain
moisture content when exposed to various weather conditions, and that the water-cement ratio
is directly correlated to workability and bond strength. As a result, if a material contains a high
moisture content, the water-cement ratio will negatively affect bond strength and decrease
workability rather than increase it. As a result, it is crucial to determine the material's specific
gravity. Pycnometer is the instrument used for specific gravity; Instruments used for the
test is shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Specific gravity testing instruments.
The specific gravity of the materials as per IS 2386- 3(1963) [58] that were determined
for Cement, Sand, demolished brick powder, natural aggregate, recycled concrete
aggregate, and demolished brick aggregate.
(A) Cement
(𝑊2−𝑊1)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(𝑊2−𝑊1)−(𝑊3−𝑊4)×0.79 … … (4.1)
Where,
W1=Weight of empty gravity bottle (g)
W2= Weight of empty gravity bottle + cement (g)
W3= Weight of empty gravity bottle + cement + Kerosene (g)
W4=Weight of empty gravity bottle + Kerosene
(g) 0.79=Specific gravity of Kerosene.

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After substituting the values in the equation 4.1, the specific gravity of OPC 53 grade
cement is found to be 3.17
(B) Fine and Coarse aggregate:

Locally available M-sand is used as conventional fine aggregate and demolished brick
powder and recycled fine concrete as recycled FA, also Demolished brick and recycled
coarse concrete aggregate is used as a replacement to natural aggregate. The specific
gravity of the same is calculated as per equation 4.2.
(𝑊2−𝑊1)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 % =
(𝑊2−𝑊1)−(𝑊3−𝑊4) … … (4.2)
Where,
W1 = Weight of Empty pycnometer (grams)
W2 = Weight of Pycnometer + 1/3rd volume of sample (grams)
W3 = Weight of Pycnometer + 1/3rd volume of sample + 2/3rd volume of water
(grams) W4 = Weight of Empty pycnometer + water (grams).
After substituting the values in the equation 4.2, the specific gravity of coarse and
fine aggregates is depicted in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Specific gravity of Fine and coarse aggregates
DESCRIPTION Brick waste RCA M-Sand

Specific Gravity of fine aggregates 2.158 2.219 2.48
Specific Gravity of coarse aggregates 2.3 2.37 2.66
4.2.2 Water absorption

Water absorption test is carried out in order ascertain the amount of water absorbed by the
aggregates. It gives the additional amount of water that would be required to add during the
concrete mix so that there is no loss of moisture content in the fresh concrete.
Water absorption of aggregates is calculated as per Equation 4.3.
(𝑊2 − 𝑊1) ∗ 100

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % … … (4.3)
= 𝑤1

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From the experimental tests carried out for different materials such as Brick waste,
recycled concrete aggregate a well as conventional materials water absorption was
found, and the values are tabulated below in Table 4.2 for fine and coarse aggregates.
Table 4.2: Water absorption of fine and coarse aggregates
DESCRIPTION Brick waste RCA M-Sand
Water absorption of fine 15.7 25.5 18.3

aggregates
Water absorption of coarse 0.8 4.4 14

aggregates
4.3 Selection of Material

The casting of sample concrete cylinders was carried out in order to know few basic
properties of Concrete such Density, Workability, crushing strength and compressive
strength when the sustainable materials utilized in the concrete mix. Cylinders of
100mm diameter and 200 mm height are casted for 3 different combinations of
aggregate size i.e., 10 mm and down, 6.3 mm and down and 4.75 mm and down as
shown in Figure 4.3.Also, Prism samples of size 100x100x200 mm are casted for 6
different proportion of fine and coarse aggregate i.e., 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and
50% of course to study thephysical appearance. From Figure 4.4, it can be seen that
samples containing coarse aggregates more than 20% resulted in non-homogeneity of
mix when cast into a prism.

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Figure 4.3: Casting of cylindrical samples for different aggregate size.

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0% coarse aggregate 10% coarse aggregate 20% coarse aggregate
Figure 4.4: Casting of Concrete prisms for different combinations
4.4 Properties of Concrete
4.4.1 Workability
The term "workability of concrete" refers to how easily and uniformly newly mixed
concrete or mortar can be prepared, put, compacted, and finished. In a strict sense, it
the amount of worthwhile internal effort required to create complete compaction.
Workable concrete has very little internal friction between the particles and is able to
overcome this resistance with just the effort put into compacting it. The concrete's
ability to be performed depends on a variety of related aspects. The elements
impacting workability include cement fineness, water content, aggregate parameters,
and additive application.

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Slump Test: It is the approach used most frequently to evaluate how well newly mixed
concrete would function. It may be carried out both in a lab and in field. By examining
the manner with which the concrete slumps, it is possible to evaluate the consistency
of the concrete from batch to batch with reference to workability and quality
characteristics. With really wet or dry concrete, it is not particularly good. Figure 4.5
shows the slump value which was laid into 3 layers of concreting, each with 25
number of blows. Later the top Surface is levelled, and the cone is removed and the
slump value is measured using a measuring scale.
Figure 4.5: Slump value of concrete
Vee-Bee Test: A basic laboratory test for stiff concrete mixtures with low and
extremely poor workability is the Vee-Bee test. It is made up of a vibrating table, an
iron rod, a metal pot, and a cone-shaped sheet of metal which is shown in Figure 4.6.
The time on a stopwatch is then noted before the vibration is initiated. After the
conical shape vanishes, it is observed how long it takes for the concrete to assume a
cylindrical shape. Vee-Bee Degree or Vee-Bee seconds are the terms used to describe
this period. After several trial mixes, the optimum water content was identified and
also the properties of the concrete such as the workability was measured with two tests,
one with the slump value and the other was Vee-Bee consistometer. The slump
required for the concrete mix was zero slump, and the vee-Bee time was between 6-17
seconds which is within the range of low to very low workability and the test results

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are shown in Table 4.3.

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Figure 4.6: Vee-Bee test setup
Table 4.3: Test results of Vee bee and slump test

Vee-Bee time Degree of Consistency of
Aggregate size (mm) (sec) workability concrete
10mm and down 17 very low very dry
6.3mm and down 14 very low very dry
4.75mm and down 6 Low Dry
4.4.2 Aggregate crushing strength

Aggregate crushing strength is a crucial factor that directly impacts the durability and
quality of concrete. Several factors influence aggregate crushing strength, including
the type and quality of the aggregate, particle shape and texture, particle size
distribution (gradation), and moisture content. The type and quality of the aggregate
significantly contribute to its crushing strength. Generally, aggregates with higher
strength, such as crushed stone, exhibit better resistance to crushing compared to
weaker aggregates like sand. The shape and texture of aggregate particles also play a
very important role in crushing strength,with well-rounded and smooth particles

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typically displaying higher

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strength. The gradation, or the distribution of particle sizes, influences the packing
density and interlocking of the aggregate, thereby affecting its overall strength.
Aggregate crushing strength was carried out for 2 different sieve size combinations
i.e., 6.3-4.75mm and 10-6.3mm by replacing recycled aggregates in varying proportion
such as 0%, 20%, 40% up to 100% and test was carried out as per the code IS: 2386
(Part IV)- 1963. The test setup is shown in Figure 4.7 and the formula for calculating
crushing value is given in equation 4.4 below.
W3∗100
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 % =
W2−W1
… … (4.4)
Where,
W1 = Total weight of empty mould
W2 = Total weight of mould with dry material.
W3= Weight of the portion of crushed material passing 2.36mm IS sieve.
Figure 4.7: Aggregate crushing strength test

The average value of the crushing value obtained in the 3 tests is reported as the
aggregate crushing value and the aggregate crushing strength test result for aggregate
size 6.3 mm down and 4.75 mm retaining is tabulated below in the Table 4.4.

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Table 4.4: Test results of crushing strength test
Aggregate W1 W2 W3 Crushing
Materials value (%)
combination (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
(in %)
100-0 4.22 7.055 0.67 23.63

80-20 4.22 6.992 0.69 24.89
NA-RC WASTE 60-40 4.22 6.929 0.73 26.95

40-60 4.22 6.866 0.715 27.02
20-80 4.22 6.803 0.7 27.10
0-100 4.22 6.74 0.75 29.76
100-0 4.22 6.935 0.68 25.05
80-20 4.22 6.788 0.61 23.75
NA-Brick waste 60-40 4.22 6.641 0.69 28.50

40-60 4.22 6.494 0.85 37.38
20-80 4.22 6.347 0.87 40.90
0-100 4.22 6.2 0.875 44.19
100-0 4.22 6.829 0.68 26.06
80-10-10 4.22 6.723 0.66 26.37
NA-RC – BRICK 60-20-20 4.22 6.617 0.735 30.66

40-30-30 4.22 6.511 0.785 34.26
20-40-40 4.22 6.631 0.775 32.14
0-50-50 4.22 6.405 0.75 34.32
100-0 4.22 6.61 0.655 27.41
80-20 4.22 6..528 0.65 28.16
RC - BRICK 60-40 4.22 6.446 0.765 34.37

40-60 4.22 6.364 0.785 36.61
20-80 4.22 6.282 0.88 42.68
0-100 4.22 6.2 0.875 44.19

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0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
fines (in
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Aggregate replacement (in Percentage)
NA-RC WASTE NA-Brick waste NA-RC - BRICK RC - BRICK
Figure 4.8: Percentage replacement v/s Percentage fines
400
350
300
Maximum load (in
250
200
150
100
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
Aggregate replacement (in Percentage)
NA-RC WASTE NA-Brick waste NA-RC - BRICK RC - BRICK
Figure 4.9: Percentage replacement v/s Maximum load
Figure 4.8 and 4.9 shows the percentage of fine and maximum load carrying capacity
respectively, and the result shows that Brick waste gives more fines than RC waste
replacement and RC waste carries more load than Brick waste replacement, also as the
fine percentage increases load carrying capacity decreases.

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4.4.3 Compressive strength

In this test, Compressive testing machine is used as per the IS codal specification IS
516 (1959) [59]. At the beginning the trial mix were carried out in order to assess the
fresh properties of concrete mix. Cylinders of diameter 100mm was prepared and
compressive strength was conducted for 7- and 28-days strength. Further Prisms of size
100×100×200 mm for each proportion 9 samples were casted in order to investigate
the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete. The compression test setup is
shown in Figure
4.10 and Equation 4.5 gives the general formula to calculate the compressive strength
of a specimen. The tested values are tabulated in Table 4.5.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑∗1000
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = … … (4.5)
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Load is in kN
Compressive Strength in N/mm2

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Figure 4.10: Compressive strength test

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Table 4.5: Test results of compressive strength of cylindrical samples

7 days testing 28 days testing
Aggregate C. C. C. C.
size wt. Density wt. Density
load Strength load Strength
(kg) (g/cc) (kg) (g/cc)
(kN) (N/mm2) (kN) (N/mm2)
4.75 mm 3.227 2.05 19 2.42 3.168 2.02 34.4 4.4
6.3 mm 3.55 2.26 35.6 4.53 3.234 2.06 45.53 5.8
10 mm 3.51 2.23 64.65 8.23 3.254 2.07 74.93 9.54
20 9.54
18
16
Compressive strength
14
12 5.8
10 8.23
4.4
8
6 4.53
4 2.42
2
0
4.75 mm and down 6.3 mm and down 10 mm and down
Aggregate size (in mm)
Figure 4. 11: Aggregate size v/s Compressive strength Test result From the Figure 4.11, compressive stre
workability is good for 4.75mm and
7 days down sizes28aggregate
strength but 6.3mm and down size aggregate shows av
days strength
aggregate is selected for making of concrete prisms.
4.5 Making of concrete prism
4.5.1 Casting
After the testing of materials, the mix combinations were decided and the casting was
done for 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% replacement of natural fine aggregates with
DBW and RCW for 9% and 12% of cement content. The casting moulds used are
prisms of size 100 x 100 x 200mm.

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Figure 4.12: Mixing of materials for casting
Firstly, the prism moulds were prepared for the size adopted, then the materials were
weighed and dry homogenous mixing was carried out, further for a density of 2.1
gr/cc,
4.12. Then the moulds were oiled properly, the concrete was poured in 3 layers
continued by heavy compaction using the rammer. Then moulds were removed
immediately after compaction as shown in Figure 4.13. The similar procedure was
adopted for each proportion of concrete mix i.e., for different percentage replacements
20%,40%, 60% 80% & 100%. And allowed for curing for a period of 28days. Figure
4.14 shows the casted concrete prism samples.

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Figure 4.13: Moulding and demoulding of casted prism sample

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Figure 4.14: Casted prism samples
4.5.2 Curing
Curing is required to maintain the temperature and moisture levels of the mortar for
the hydration reaction, which causes the samples to harden over time, which leads to
the strengthening, thus the required compressive strength of the solid concrete samples
can be achieved. Samples were completely immersed in the water tank until they are
ready to be tested and Figure 4.15 shows the curing of concrete prism samples.
Figure 4.15: Curing of casted prism sample

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4.5.3 Testing
4.5.3.1 Density
After allowing the block to cool to normal temperature, prisms weight and the
dimensions of the prisms are measured for each sample as shown in Figure 4.17 and
then density which is a ratio of weight to volume is calculated. The density is
calculated as per the Equation 4.6 as shown below,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = … … (4.6)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
4.5.3.2 Compressive strength

The concrete prisms are positioned in the Compression Testing Machine (CTM) such
that the centroid of their bearing surfaces is parallel to the centre of thrust of the testing
machine's spherically seated sample. The compressive strength of a concrete prism is
equal to the maximum load (in kN) divided by the gross cross-sectional area of prism
(in mm2). The gross cross-sectional area of a prisms is the area of a section
that is perpendicular to the load direction. To the nearest 0.1N/mm 2, the average
compressive strength of three prisms for a particular replacement is carried out for 7
days and 28 days.
4.5.3.3 Flexural strength Test

The flexural strength of concrete prisms refers to their ability to resist bending or
flexural stresses. It is an important property to consider when evaluating the structural
performance and load-bearing capacity of concrete samples, particularly in
applications where they are subjected to bending forces, such as beams or lintels.
The flexural strength of concrete samples can vary depending on factors such as the
sample dimensions, concrete mix design, and curing conditions. It is typically
determined using fractures. The maximum load applied at the point of failure is then
used to calculate the a test called the modulus of rupture or third-point loading test. In
this test, a concrete block is supported at two points, and a load is applied at the
midpoint until the block flexural strength.

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The flexural strength is calculated as per the equation 4.7 as shown below,
3𝑝𝑙
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
… … (4.7)
𝑏𝑑3
Sample is taken and the markings are done at the bottom from both the edges for about
1 inch gap marking is done and at the top face markings are done at the centre of
sample. At the place of marking the steel rods of 10mm are placed that is 2 at the
bottom and other at the top of the block to carry out single point loading for the
flexural test of sample. The test setup done for the flexural test is shown in Figure
4.16.
Figure 4.16: Flexural strength test on concrete prism
4.5.1.1 Split tensile strength test
Split tensile strength plays a significant role in evaluating a material's ability to withstand
cracking and failure when subjected to tensile loading, particularly in the case of concrete. It
is a valuable parameter for designing and assessing structural components that experience
bending or tensile forces. Furthermore, it aids in the characterization of concrete quality an
durability. Split tensile strength is calculated using Equation 4.8.
𝑆𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ=

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2𝑝
𝜋𝑑𝑙 … … (4.8)

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The broken piece of block obtained from flexural test is taken and the centre of the
both side and bottom face are marked. Before placing the block, steel rods of 10mm
is placed at the top and below at the place of marking later the load is applied
gradually till the specimen fails. The test setup is shown in Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17: Split tensile strength test on concrete prism
4.6 Summary
The experimental investigation of the materials used in making of concrete prisms and
their various physical and mechanical properties are carried out. The concrete prisms
of size 100 × 100 × 200mm for different proportion of replacement to fine aggregate
are made and the detailed procedure is explained in the above chapter.

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Chapter-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter, the results obtained from the experimental investigation on the physical
and mechanical properties of the concrete block mixes as well as study related to
concrete prisms and their results are discussed.
5.1 Test Results on Concrete Prisms

The concrete prisms of size 100 × 100 × 200mm of density 2.1 gr/cc are subjected to
the density and compression test, Flexural strength test and Split tensile test and the
results are tabulated below. As mention in the earlier chapters of the study, Concrete
prisms with target strength of 5-10MPa is produced using materials such as Cement,
sand and aggregates in different proportions with different percentage replacement of
recycled C&D waste i.e., Demolished Brick Waste (DBW) and RC waste (RCW). The
size of fine aggregate used is passing 4.75mm sieve and the coarse aggregates of size
passing 6.3mm sieve and retaining on 4.75mm sieve. A total of 20 mix proportions
was designedi.e., for five different percentage replacements of recycled fine aggregates
(RCW & DBW) with natural fine aggregate, with two different combination of cement
content i.e., 9 % and 12% cement each.
From Table 5.1, the density of prism samples are in the range between 2.10-2.28 g/cc
in the incremental order as the percentage of replacement increases. During the curing
process, excess water is slowly released from the concrete mixture through
evaporation. This results in a gradual reduction in the water content and creates voids
within the concrete matrix. Some of the void spaces created within the concrete
structure are filled by the hydration products. This further contributes to the overall
increase in density. The increase in density of concrete after curing is a sign of its
improved quality and structural integrity. This densification leads to enhanced
strength, durability, and resistance to various environmental factors.
From Table 5.2, The compressive strength of the prisms are in the decreasing order as
the percentage replacement is increased because of decrease in percentage of natural

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aggregate (M sand). Percentage of increase in compressive strength for 28 days is
almost 1.2-1.8 times greater than the 7 days strength which indicates good bonding
between the materials. The increase in compressive strength of concrete after curing is
a result of the ongoing hydration process, which leads to the formation of strong
cementitious bonds, pore filling, densification, and improved microstructural
development.
Table 5.1: Density of concrete prisms
Materials 7 days test 28 days test

used and Sample Percentage
cement No. replacement weight Density weight Density
percentage (kgs) (g/cc) (kgs) (g/cc)
1 100% 4.22 2.11 4.26 2.13

2 80% 4.23 2.12 4.28 2.14
Brick waste 3 60% 4.28 2.14 4.31 2.16
9% cement
4 40% 4.32 2.16 4.39 2.2
5 20% 4.38 2.19 4.44 2.22
6 100% 4.22 2.11 4.28 2.14
7 80% 4.29 2.15 4.3 2.15
Brick waste 8 60% 4.31 2.16 4.36 2.18
12% cement
9 40% 4.37 2.19 4.46 2.23
10 20% 4.43 2.22 4.55 2.28
11 100% 4.14 2.07 4.2 2.1
12 80% 4.21 2.11 4.25 2.13
RC waste 13 60% 4.26 2.13 4.29 2.15
9% cement
14 40% 4.3 2.15 4.37 2.19
15 20% 4.39 2.2 4.4 2.2
16 100% 4.16 2.08 4.22 2.11
17 80% 4.21 2.11 4.27 2.14
RC waste 18 60% 4.32 2.16 4.36 2.18
12% cement
19 40% 4.39 2.2 4.41 2.21
20 20% 4.43 2.22 4.52 2.26

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Table 5.2: Compressive strength of concrete prisms
7 days test 28 days test

Materials
used and
Sample Percentage Comp. Comp.
cement comp. comp.
No. replacement strength strength
percentage load load
(kN) (N/mm2) (kN) (N/mm2)
1 100% 16.1 1.61 26.9 2.69

2 80% 19.3 1.93 31.2 3.12
Brick waste 3 60% 29.2 2.92 37.4 3.74
9% cement
4 40% 33.2 3.32 41.5 4.15
5 20% 36.1 3.61 46.7 4.67
6 100% 21.9 2.19 31.3 3.13
7 80% 25.1 2.51 36.6 3.66
Brick waste 8 60% 28.9 2.89 46.9 4.69
12% cement
9 40% 34.3 3.43 55.8 5.58
10 20% 38.8 3.88 59.2 5.92
11 100% 16.5 1.65 18.5 1.85
12 80% 18.7 1.87 22.4 2.24
RC waste 13 60% 21.9 2.19 36.1 3.61
9% cement
14 40% 25.3 2.53 39.3 3.93
15 20% 29.4 2.94 48.4 4.84
16 100% 20.9 2.09 29.1 2.91
17 80% 27.5 2.75 37.3 3.73
RC waste 18 60% 32.7 3.27 48.7 4.87
12% cement
19 40% 38.9 3.89 54.8 5.48
20 20% 40.6 4.06 64.2 6.42
It is also observed that 40percentage and 20percentage of C&D replacement (both

DBW and RCW) gives desirable compressive strength for 9% cement content and
60%, 40% and 20% of C&D replacement (both DBW and RCW) gives desirable
compressive strength for 12% cement content as per the test results.

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6 5.92
4.67
4.15 3.88
43.663.74 3.61
3.13 3.12 3.32 3.43

2.69 2.922.89
2.51
2.19
1.93
1.61
2
0
100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
Aggregate replacement (in percentage)
7 days strength for 9% cement28 days strength for 9% cement
7 days strength for 12% cement28 days strength for 12% cement
Figure 5.1: Compressive test result for Brick waste replacement
7 6.42
6
5
4 4.84
4.06
3 3.933.89
3.733.61
2 3.27
1 2.91 2.75 2.94

2.53
0 2.09
2.24 2.19
1.87
1.651.85
100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

7 days strength for 9% cement 28 days strength for 9% cement

7 days strength for 12% cement 28 days strength for 12% cement
Figure 5.2: Compressive test result for RC waste replacement

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From Figure 5.1 and 5.2, it is observed that as the percentage replacement increases
compressive strength goes on decreasing, also strength increases as the cement content
increases for both cases of Brick waste and RC waste.
7 6.42
5.92
6 5.585.48
4.87 4.84
5 4.69 4.67
4.15
3.93
4 3.663.73 3.74
3.61
3.13 3.12
2.91
3 2.69
2.24
1.85
2
1
0
100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
BW @9% Cement RCW @9% Cement

BW @12% Cement RCW @12% Cement
Figure 5.3: Compressive test result for BW v/s RCW replacement
From Figure 5.3, it is observed that RCW replacement gives better strength when
compared to the BW replacement. Recycled concrete waste (RCW) is derived from
crushed concrete, which retains some of the properties of the original concrete. This
can include residual cementitious material on the aggregate surfaces. This residual
cementitious material can contribute to additional cement hydration when mixed with
fresh cement paste, leading to improved strength development compared to brick
waste. Alao, Brick waste might contain a higher percentage of voids or pores
compared to recycled concrete waste. The presence of voids can create weak points in
the concrete matrix, leading to reduced overall strength.

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Table 5.3: Flexural and Split tensile strength of concrete prisms
R
Flexural load @ 28 Days 𝜎f Tensile Load @ 28 days
𝜎st
% 1 2 3 Avg. (N/mm2) 1 2 3 Avg. (N/mm2)
1 100 11.9 11.3 12.2 11.8 6.903 12.7 9.6 15.4 12.57 0.8
Bric
k 2 80 9.5 6.7 7.9 8.03 4.700 9.9 9.9 16.1 11.97 0.76
waste 3 60 9.2 13.4 10.9 11.17 6.533 24.0 26 12.5 20.83 1.33
9%
cement
4 40 12.1 12.4 8.6 11.03 6.455 25.9 19.4 13.6 19.63 1.25
5 20 16.1 10.1 10.2 12.13 7.098 35.5 33.4 16.1 28.33 1.80
6 100 9.0 7.2 11 9.07 5.304 11.8 15.8 7.8 11.8 0.75
Bric
k 7 80 8.9 11.1 9.4 9.8 5.733 9.8 14.4 27 17.07 1.09
waste 8 60 14.1 12.6 14.5 13.73 8.034 29.1 13.3 16.3 19.57 1.25
12%
cement 9 40 4.9 12.2 10.9 9.33 5.460 12.5 16.9 9.8 13.07 0.83
10 20 14.2 20.9 19.3 18.13 10.608 22.4 21.3 36 26.57 1.69
11 100 6.6 6.1 6.5 6.4 3.744 9.1 14.1 12.9 12.03 0.77
RC
waste 12 80 9.2 6.7 6.4 7.43 4.349 10.2 10.1 6.7 9.0 0.57
9% 13 60 6.8 8.1 9.3 8.07 4.719 9.5 12.1 10.3 10.63 0.68
cement
14 40 13.4 9.1 9.9 10.8 6.318 8.3 11.6 8.4 9.43 0.60
15 20 12.1 12.2 14.1 12.8 7.488 12.1 12.7 8.4 11.07 0.70
16 100 10.2 11.3 9.9 10.47 6.123 13.6 14.7 12.6 13.63 0.87
RC
waste 17 80 12.7 13.4 15.4 13.83 8.093 19.2 13.4 14.8 15.8 1.01
12% 18 60 15.6 8.6 11.6 11.93 6.981 16.8 10.6 15.7 14.37 0.92
cement
19 40 11.8 8.1 7.8 9.23 5.402 19.3 14 14.1 15.8 1.01
20 20 12.6 14.4 9.3 12.1 7.079 17.9 13.4 17.1 16.13 1.03
Note: R% means Replacement percentage, 𝜎f means Flexural strength of samples and 𝜎st
means Split tensile strength of samples.
From Table 5.3, The Flexural and Split tensile strength of the prisms are in the
decreasing order as the percentage replacement is increased because of decrease in
percentage of natural aggregate (M sand). It's worth considering that the decrease in
strength might be accompanied by other benefits, such as improved workability,
reduced heat of hydration, enhanced durability, and potential environmental
advantages due to the utilization of waste materials. Concrete mix designs need to
balance these factors based on the intended application and performance requirements

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20.00 10.88
18.00
16.00 8.24
14.00 5.44 5.60
12.00 5.88
Flexural strength
10.00
8.00 7.08 6.70 6.62 7.28
6.00
4.00 4.82
2.00
0.00
100%80%60%40%20%
9 percent cement 12 percent cement
Figure 5.4: Flexural strength test result for BW replacement
16.00 7.26
14.00 8.30
7.16 5.54
12.00 6.28
10.00
Flexural strength
8.00 7.68
6.48
6.00 4.46 4.84
3.84
4.00
2.00
0.00
100%80%60%40%20%
Figure 5.5: Flexural strength test result for RCW replacement
From Figure 5.4 and 5.5, it was observed that increasing the cement content leads to an
improvement in flexural strength. Cement paste is the binder that coats and fills the
spaces between aggregates. An increase in cement content results in a higher ratio of
cement paste to aggregates. With more cement paste available, there are more
opportunities for interlocking between aggregates and the paste, leading to improved
flexural strength. Additionally, as the replacement percentage increases flexural
strength goes on decreasing in both cases of DWB and RCW.

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4.00 1.69
3.50
3.00 1.25
Split tensile
strength
2.500.83
1.09 1.80
2.00 0.75
1.33 1.25
1.50
1.00 0.80 0.76
0.50
0.00
100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

Figure 5.6: Split tensile strength test result for BW replacement

2.00 1.03
0.87 1.01 0.92 1.01
1.50
1.00 0.77
Split tensile
0.68 0.70
0.60
strength
0.57
0.50
0.00
100% 80% 60% 40% 20%

Figure 5.7: Split tensile strength test result for RCW replacement
From Figure 5.6 and 5.7, it was observed that increasing the cement content leads to
improvement in tensile strength. Additionally, as the replacement percentage increases
tensile strength goes on decreasing in both cases of DWB and RCW.
Split tensile strength is a measure of the tensile resistance of concrete perpendicular to

the direction of applied load. Increase in the cement content, increases the amount of
cementitious matrix that binds the aggregates together. This enhanced bonding between
aggregates and the cement paste improves the load transfer across the fracture plane
during the tensile test, resulting in higher split tensile strength.

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5.4 Cost and Embodied Energy Calculation

The cost and embodied energy analysis of solid concrete samples is carried out in order
to compare with the complete natural aggregate sample which helps in the sustainable
development with use of recycled C & D waste materials. The cost analysis is one of the
major aspects which is considered in any construction activity. In this section, cost of
various materials is taken from the schedule of rates available from the Karnataka
Public works Department’s schedule of rates 2022 [60-62]. The total quantity of
materials for each proportion is calculated thus obtaining the cost of each block of 8
inches (40cm × 20cm × 20cm) is calculated as shown in Table 5.4
Table 5.4: Cost analysis per concrete block
Aggregate Total cost per block (in Rupees)

replacement
(in %) 9% cement 12% cement
0% 45.95/- 54.66/-
20% 44.21/- 52.98/-
40% 42.50/- 51.32/-
60% 40.80/- 49.67/-
80% 39.09/- 48.02/-
100% 37.35/- 46.34/-
From Table 5.4, the cost of prism sample is reducing gradually at higher percentage
replacement of the recycled aggregates when compared to the 0% replacement level.
The cost of complete natural aggregate prism sample is around 26.57% and 21.05%
more expensive than that of sample made of 100% C&D replacement for 9% and 12%
cement content respectively.
The total energy consumption from cradle to grave i.e., starting from the extraction of
raw materials, the manufacture and transportation to the site is termed Embodied
energy. It indicates the overall impact on the surrounding environment due to the
building materials. The embodied energy values are taken from the literature sources
are correlated with the estimated quantity of materials [63], [64].

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The total quantity of materials for each proportion is calculated thus obtaining the
Embodied energy of each block of 8 inches (40cm × 20cm × 20cm) is calculated as
shown in Table 5.5
Table 5.5: Embodied energy analysis per concrete block

Aggregate Total energy per block (in MJ)
replacement
(in %) 9% cement 12% cement
0% 24.44 27.72
20% 22.91 26.33
40% 21.39 24.77
60% 19.88 23.31
80% 18.37 21.84
100% 16.83 20.35
From the Table 5.5, the Embodied energy of the sample is reducing gradually from
higher percentage replacement of the recycled aggregates to the lower percentage
replacement level. The embodied energy released by complete natural aggregate prism
sample is around 46.15% and 36.55% more expensive than that of sample made up of
100% C&D replacement for 9% and 12% cement content respectively.
5.1 Summary
The results obtained from the experimental analysis such as strength and density of the
concrete prisms are mentioned. It is observed that the cost and energy of concrete
sample made of sustainable materials are found to be lower than that of complete
natural aggregate sample.

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Chapter-6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
Optimum proportions of fine and coarse aggregate for achieving M10 grade concrete
is worked out. Suitability of replacement of conventional fine and coarse aggregate
with C & D waste such as demolished brick waste and recycled concrete aggregate is
reported.
6.1 Conclusions
Based on the experimental investigation following conclusions have been drawn:
1)
The relationship between cement content and strength was evident, with higher
cement content consistently yielding greater compressive strength. Notably,
increasing cement content from 9 to 12% resulted in substantial strength
improvements. 40 and 20% of C&D replacement (for both DBW and RCW) gives
desirable compressive strength for 9% cement content and 60, 40 and 20% of
C&D replacement (for both DBW and RCW) gives desirable compressive strength
for 12% cement content
2)
Density is another influential factor affecting strength. The correlation between
density and strength revealed that sample with higher density exhibits higher
compressive strength and vice versa.
3)
Increase in the cement content leads to more cement paste availability, which
creates more opportunities for interlocking between aggregates and the paste,
leading to improved flexural strength. Additionally, as the replacement percentage
increases, flexural strength goes on decreasing in both cases of DWB and RCW.
4)
Increase in the cement content, increases the amount of cementitious matrix that
binds the aggregates together. This enhanced bonding between aggregates and the
cement paste improves the load transfer across the fracture plane during the tensile
test, resulting in higher split tensile strength. Additionally, as the replacement
percentage increases, tensile strength goes on decreasing in both cases of DWB
and RCW.

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5)
Cost of prism sample is reducing gradually as the replacement percentage is
increasing. The cost of complete natural aggregate prism sample is
around26.57% and 21.05% more expensive than that of sample made of 100%
replacement of C&D waste for 9% and 12% cement content respectively,
6)
Embodied energy of sample is reducing gradually as the replacement percentage
is increases. The embodied energy released by complete natural aggregate prism
sample is around 46.15% and 36.55% more expensive than that of sample made
up of 100% C&D replacement for 9% and 12% cement content respectively,
which leads to less carbon emission and makes the sample sustainable.
6.2 Future Scope

a) To explore the different mechanical properties such as durability studies on
concrete blocks.
b) To evaluate properties of C&D based hollow cellular concrete samples
c) To evaluate compressive strength of prisms cast with C&D-based concrete samples.
d) Incorporation of granite fines as a replacement to natural fine aggregates.

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[35] T. Raghavendra and B. C. Udayashankar, “Flow and Strength Characteristics of CLSM Using
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 26,
no. 9, p. 04014050, Sep. 2014, doi: 10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000927.
[36] M. Etxeberria, J. Ainchil, M. E. Pérez, and A. González, “Use of recycled fine aggregates for
Control Low Strength Materials (CLSMs) production,” Construction and Building Materials,
vol. 44, pp. 142–148, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.02.059.
[37] M. S. Meddah, A. Al-Harthy, and M. A. Ismail, “Recycled concrete aggregates and their
influences on performances of low and normal strength concretes”, Buildings, vol. 10, no. 9,
Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3390/BUILDINGS10090167.
[38] J. Zhang, J. Wang, X. Li, T. Zhou, and Y. Guo, “Rapid-hardening controlled low strength
materials made of recycled fine aggregate from construction and demolition waste,”
Construction and Building Materials, vol. 173, pp. 81–89, Jun. 2018, doi:
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.023.
[39] S. Abdel-Hay, “Properties of recycled concrete aggregate under different curing conditions,”
HBRC Journal, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 271–276, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.hbrcj.2015.07.001.
[40] M. Etxeberria, E. Vázquez, A. Marí, and M. Barra, “Influence of amount of recycled coarse
aggregates and production process on properties of recycled aggregate concrete,” Cement and
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10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.02.002.
[41] K. K. Sagoe-Crentsil, T. Brown, and A. H. Taylor, “Performance of concrete made with
commercially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate.” Cement and Concrete Research,
Volume 31, Issue 5, May 2001, Pages 707-712, doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2001.02.002.
[42] M. S. de Juan and P. A. Gutiérrez, “Study on the influence of attached mortar content on the
properties of recycled concrete aggregate,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 23, no.

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MATERIALS
2, pp. 872–877, Feb. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.04.012.

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MATERIALS
[43] “Antonio Princigallo “Effective Water in Concrete with Recycled Aggregate”, ACI Materials,
vol. 115, no. 6, pp. 845-854, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.14359/51706842.”.
[44] R. v. Silva, J. de Brito, and R. K. Dhir, “Prediction of the shrinkage behavior of recycled
aggregate concrete: A review,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 77. Elsevier Ltd, pp.
327–339, Feb. 15, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.102.
[45] Singh, Z. Duan, J. Xiao, and Q. Liu, “Incorporating recycled aggregates in self- compacting
concrete: a review,” Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, vol. 9, no. 3. Taylor and
Francis Ltd., pp. 165–189, May 03, 2020. doi: 10.1080/21650373.2019.1706205.
[46] J. M. V. Gómez-Soberón, “Porosity of recycled concrete with substitution of recycled
concrete aggregate: An experimental study,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 32, no. 8,
pp. 1301– 1311, Aug. 2002, doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00795-0.
[47] M. S. de Juan and P. A. Gutiérrez, “Study on the influence of attached mortar content on the
properties of recycled concrete aggregate,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 23, no.
2, pp. 872–877, Feb. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.04.012.
[48] Y. Karim, Z. Khan, M. S. Alsoufi, M. Yunus, and, “A Review on Recycled Aggregates for the
Construction Industry,” American Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, vol. 4, no. 1,
pp. 32–38, 2016, doi: 10.12691/ajcea-4-1-5.
[49] C. S. Poon and D. Chan, “Paving blocks made with recycled concrete aggregate and crushed
clay brick,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 20, no. 8, pp.569–577, Oct. 2006, doi:
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.044.
[50] C.S. Poon, S.C. Kou, L. Lam, “Use of recycled aggregates in moulded concrete bricks and
blocks”, Construction and Building Materials, vol. 16, no. 7, pp. 281-289, Oct. 2002, doi:
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2002.01.044.
[51] F. López Gayarre, J. Suárez González, R. Blanco Vińuela, C. López-Colina Pérez, and
M. A. Serrano López, “Use of recycled mixed aggregates in floor blocks manufacturing,”
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 167. Elsevier Ltd, pp. 713–722, Nov. 20, 2017. doi:
10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.193.
[52] T. L. Cavalline, “Recycled Brick Masonry Aggregate Concrete: Use Of Recycled Aggregates
From Demolished Brick Masonry Construction In Structural And Pavement Grade Portland
Cement Concrete.”, vol 24, 2012, doi: libres.uncg.edu/17010.
[53] C. S. Vieira and P. M. Pereira, “Use of Mixed Construction and Demolition Recycled
Materials in Geosynthetic Reinforced Embankments,” Indian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 48,
no. 2, pp. 279–292, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s40098-017-0254-6.

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[54] D. v. Bompa and A. Y. Elghazouli, “Compressive behavior of fired-clay brick and lime mortar
masonry components in dry and wet conditions,” Materials and Structures Constructions, vol.
53, no. 3, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1617/s11527-020- 01493-w.
[55] S. Yehia, K. Helal, A. Abusharkh, A. Zaher, and H. Istaitiyeh, “Strength and Durability
Evaluation of Recycled Aggregate Concrete,” International Journal of Concrete Structures and
Materials, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 219–239, Jun. 2015, doi:10.1007/s40069-015-0100-0.
[56] IS 2386- Part III, “Method of Test for aggregate for concrete. Part III- Specific gravity,
density, voids, absorption and bulking,” Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi, (Reaffirmed 2002),
New Delhi, India, 1963.
[57] B. of I. S. (BIS), “IS 383: 1970 Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural
Sources for Concrete,” Indian Stand., pp. 1–24, New Delhi, India,1970.
[58] IS 2386- Part I, “IS : 2386 (Part I)-1963- Indian Method of test for aggregate for concrete. Part
I - Particle size and shape.,” Indian Stand., pp. 1-25, (Reaffirmed2002), New Delhi, India,
1963.
[59] IS 516:2014, “Method of Tests for Strength of Concrete,” IS 516 - 1959 ( Reaffirmed 2004 ),
pp. 1-21, New Delhi, India, 2004.
[60] Common Schedule of Rates for Engineering Departments 2021-2022 Public Works
Department Government of Karnataka Volume-1, 2021-22.
[61] Common Schedule of Rates for Engineering Departments 2021-2022 Public Works”
[62] Common Schedule of Rates for Road and Bridge WORKS 2021-2022 Public Works
[63] B. V. Venkatarama Reddy, K. S.Jagadish, “Embodied energy of common and alternative
building materials and technologies” Energy and Buildings, volume.35, Issue 2, pp. 129-137,
2014,ISSN 0378-7788, doi: 10.1016/S0378- 7788(01)00141-4.
[64] M. Keshava, “A study on Embodied energy of recycled aggregates obtained from processed
demolition waste.” Energy and Building., vol. 68, no. PARTA, pp. 541–546,2014, doi:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.09.051.

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MATERIALS
ANNEXURE I
MATERIAL CALCULATION
Density = 2.1
gr/cc
Volume of mould = 10*10*20cm = 2000cm

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 2.1*2000 = 4200 grs = 4.2 Kgs
Material calculation for Brick waste replacement.
CA CA
Replacement cement FA (80%) Cement FA (80%)
(20%) (20%)
percentage
NA-Brick 9% NCA M sand BW 9% NCA M sand BW
Waste 1 20% 0.378 0.765 2.45 0.62 3.402 6.885 22.05 5.58
9% 2 40% 0.378 0.765 1.84 1.23 3.402 6.885 16.56 11.07
CEMENT 3 60% 0.378 0.765 1.23 1.84 3.402 6.885 11.07 16.56
4 80% 0.378 0.765 0.62 2.45 3.402 6.885 5.58 22.05
5 100% 0.378 0.765 0.00 3.06 3.402 6.885 0.00 27.54
CA CA
(20%) (20%)
percentage
NA-Brick 9% NA NA BW 9% NA NA BW
Waste 6 20% 0.504 0.74 2.37 0.6 4.536 6.66 21.33 5.4
12% 7 40% 0.504 0.74 1.78 1.19 4.536 6.66 16.02 10.71
CEMENT 8 60% 0.504 0.74 1.19 1.78 4.536 6.66 10.71 16.02
9 80% 0.504 0.74 0.60 2.37 4.536 6.66 5.40 21.33
10 100% 0.504 0.74 0.00 2.96 4.536 6.66 0.00 26.64
Material calculation for RC waste replacement.
CA CA
cement FA (80%) Cement FA (80%)
Replacement (20%) (20%)
percentage M M
NA-RC 9% NCA sand RCW 9% NCA sand RCW
Waste 11 20% 0.378 0.765 2.45 0.62 3.402 6.885 22.05 5.58
9% 12 40% 0.378 0.765 1.84 1.23 3.402 6.885 16.56 11.07
CEMEN 13 60% 0.378 0.765 1.23 1.84 3.402 6.885 11.07 16.56
T 14 80% 0.378 0.765 0.62 2.45 3.402 6.885 5.58 22.05
15 100% 0.378 0.765 0.00 3.06 3.402 6.885 0.00 27.54
CA CA
(20%) (20%)
percentage
NA-RC 9% NA NA RCW 9% NA NA RCW
Waste 16 20% 0.504 0.74 2.37 0.6 4.536 6.66 21.33 5.4
12% 17 40% 0.504 0.74 1.78 1.19 4.536 6.66 16.02 10.71
CEMEN 18 60% 0.504 0.74 1.19 1.78 4.536 6.66 10.71 16.02
T 19 80% 0.504 0.74 0.60 2.37 4.536 6.66 5.40 21.33
20 100% 0.504 0.74 0.00 2.96 4.536 6.66 0.00 26.64

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MATERIALS
ANNEXURE II
COST ANALYSIS CALCULATION
The cost analysis is influenced by a number of variables, such as the price of materials, the
cost of transportation, the cost of labour (skilled and unskilled), the use of machines etc. On
the other hand, the price of labour, transportation, and formwork are all variable expenses.
Because of this, an effort is made in this study to calculate the cost of materials per concrete
block is analyzed.
A. CEMENT:
Cost of 1 bag of cement (50kg) = Rs
450 Cost of cement per kg = Rs 9
B. COARSE AGGREGATE:
Cost of quarry dust per ton at crushing plant =
100 Transportation cost = 450
Cost per kg = Rs 0.55
C. FINE AGGREGATE:
Cost of running jaw crusher:
Calculation = 0.00173 x volts x amps = 0.00173 x 240 x 10 = 4.152 kVA
Power consumed = kVA x Power Factor x 0.01 = 4.152 x 76 x 0.01= 3.15 Kw for
6hrs Total power consumed = 3.15 x 6 = 18.9 kWh
Cost of one unit of electricity = 805p,
Cost of running jaw crusher for 6h = 152.14 Jaw crusher crush 500 kg in
6h, Thus, Cost of C&D as fine aggregate per kg is Rs 0.3
Cost of M-Sand per kg = Rs 0.65
Schedule of Cost
a. Cost of cement – Rs. 9/kg
b. Cost of M-sand – Rs. 0.65/kg
c. Cost of coarse aggregate - Rs. 0.55/kg
d. Cost of C&D waste fines - Rs. 0.3/kg

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MATERIALS
Quantity of material per Block.
cement CA (20%) FA (80%)

% Replacement
9% NA M sand C&D waste
0% 2.96 6.08 24.56 0.00
9% Cement
20% 2.96 6.08 19.6 4.96

40% 2.96 6.08 14.72 9.84
60% 2.96 6.08 9.84 14.72
80% 2.96 6.08 4.96 19.6
100% 2.96 6.08 0.00 24.56
0% 4.00 5.84 23.76 0.00
12% Cement
20% 4.00 5.84 18.96 4.80

40% 4.00 5.84 14.24 9.52
60% 4.00 5.84 9.52 14.24
80% 4.00 5.84 4.8 18.96
100% 4.00 5.84 0.00 23.76
Cost of material per Block.

C&D total material
% Replacement Cement CA M Sand
waste cost (in Rs)
0% 26.64 3.34 15.96 0.00 45.95
9% Cement
20% 26.64 3.34 12.74 1.49 44.21

40% 26.64 3.34 9.57 2.95 42.50
60% 26.64 3.34 6.40 4.42 40.80
80% 26.64 3.34 3.22 5.88 39.09
100% 26.64 3.34 0.00 7.37 37.35
0% 36.00 3.21 15.44 0.00 54.66
12% Cement
20% 36.00 3.21 12.32 1.44 52.98

40% 36.00 3.21 9.26 2.86 51.32
60% 36.00 3.21 6.19 4.27 49.67
80% 36.00 3.21 3.12 5.69 48.02
100% 36.00 3.21 0.00 7.13 46.34

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MATERIALS
ANNEXURE III
EMBODIED ENERGY ANALYSIS
The energy required to retrieve raw materials, produce them, and then transport them to
its job site is known as embodied energy. It serves as a gauge for how damaging impact
construction materials have on the environment. In this study, the embodied energy per
Kg of concrete is estimated.
A1. Manufactured Sand (M sand)

Capacity of 7.5 Hp jaw crusher = 500 kg per
hour Working hour per day = 8 hrs
Electricity consumption per day: 8*0.746*100 = 596.8 kW per day
Note: (1Hp = 0.746 kWh)
 Embodied energy
1) Energy consumed to produce electricity:
One unit of electricity needs 0.7 kg of coal
Energy due to electricity = (Consumption per day *Coal required* Energy per unit)
= 596.8*0.7*19.98 = 8346.85 MJ per day
Energy consumed to transport the material:
Diesel consumption for 1 trip of tipper of 14 m3 capacity for 100 Km
distance Diesel = Unloaded vehicle + Loaded vehicle
= 20 + 25 = 45 liters
Energy due to diesel = (Diesel required per trip * Energy per unit)
= 45 * 38.7 = 1741.5 MJ per trip
Embodied energy per kg = Total energy consumed

Capacity of vehicle * Material density
= (8346.85+1741.5) / (14* 1602)
= 0.4498 MJ per kg

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MATERIALS
A2. C&D Waste (DBW and RCA)

2 no. of Jaw crusher of 10Hp capacity (output aggregate size is 0-
10mm) Capacity of 10 Hp jaw crusher = 1500 kg per hour
Working hour per day = 8 hrs
Electricity consumption per day : 8*0.746*10 = 59.68 kW per
day Note : (1Hp = 0.746 kWh)
 Embodied energy
1) Energy consumed to produce

electricity One unit of electricity needs
0.7 kg of coal
Energy due to electricity = (Consumption per day *Coal required* Energy per unit)
= 59.68*0.7*19.98
= 834.684 MJ per
day Energy consumed to transport is nil,
because the jaw crusher is mobile and hence material is crushed in-situ.
Embodied energy per kg = Total energy consumed
(Material produced in a day)
= (834.684) / (8*1500)
= 0.0695 MJ per kg
Fow 2 jaw crusher = 2*0.0695 = 0.139 MJ per
kg
A.3 Schedule of Energy

a. Energy of cement – 3.6MJ/kg
b. Energy of M-sand - 0.45MJ/kg
c. Energy of coarse aggregate - 0.07MJ/kg
d. Energy of C&D waste fines - 0.14MJ/kg

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MATERIALS
Quantity of material per Block.
cement CA (20%) FA (80%)

% Replacement
9% NA M sand C&D waste
0% 2.96 6.08 24.56 0
9% Cement
20% 2.96 6.08 19.6 4.96

40% 2.96 6.08 14.72 9.84
60% 2.96 6.08 9.84 14.72
80% 2.96 6.08 4.96 19.6
100% 2.96 6.08 0 24.56
0% 4.00 5.84 23.76 0
12% Cement
20% 4.00 5.84 18.96 4.8

40% 4.00 5.84 14.24 9.52
60% 4.00 5.84 9.52 14.24
80% 4.00 5.84 4.8 18.96
100% 4.00 5.84 0 23.76
Energy of material per Block. Brick

Total material
% Replacement Cement CA M Sand waste /RC
Energy (in MJ)
waste
0% 10.66 2.74 11.05 0.00 24.44
9% Cement
20% 10.66 2.74 8.82 0.69 22.91

40% 10.66 2.74 6.62 1.38 21.39
60% 10.66 2.74 4.43 2.06 19.88
80% 10.66 2.74 2.23 2.74 18.37
100% 10.66 2.74 0.00 3.44 16.83
0% 14.40 2.63 10.69 0.00 27.72
12% Cement
20% 14.40 2.63 8.53 0.67 26.23

40% 14.40 2.63 6.41 1.33 24.77
60% 14.40 2.63 4.28 1.99 23.31
80% 14.40 2.63 2.16 2.65 21.84
100% 14.40 2.63 0.00 3.33 20.35

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MATERIALS
QUARTILE RANKING OF JOURNALS
Reference Name of the Journal Title of the Paper Quartile

Number Ranking
Global Alliance for Buildings and
Construction 2020 global status report
1 Report for buildings and construction Book
Towards a zero- emissions, efficient
and resilient buildings and
construction sector
Sustainable construction practices for
2 Report affordable housing Feasibility of Book
using mud as a sustainable binder in
building construction
Sustainable Built International
3 Environment for Now and Recycling Construction conference
Future Demolition waste
4 Pertanika Journal of Use of Waste Material In Q3
Science and Concrete Blocks
Technology
Eco-efficient Construction Life cycle assessment of sustainable
5 and building materials: Book
Building Materials An overview
Recent Advancement in Life Cycle Assessment in National
6 Engineering Buildings: Indian conference
Perspective
International Journal of Construction and demolition waste
7 Sustainable Engineering generation in cities in India: an Q2
integrated approach
Development of Sustainable Engineered
8 ACI Materials Journal Cementitious Composites Using RCA Q2
— Feasibility Study Based on
Mechanical Properties.”
Construction and Properties of sustainable concrete
9 Building containing fly ash, slag and Q1
Materials recycled concrete
aggregate
The effects of by-products
10 Construction and incorporated in low-strength concrete Q1
Building for concrete masonry
Materials Units
Research progress on recycled clay
11 Construction and brick waste as an alternative to cement Q1
Building for sustainable
Materials construction materials
Construction and New approach for proportioning
12 Building of controlled low strength Q1
Materials Materials
Construction and Influence of mineral additions on the
13 Building performance of 100% recycled Q1
Materials aggregate concrete

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MATERIALS
Structural and Recycling of Demolished Building International
14 Geotechnical Materials as Concrete conference
Engineering Coarse Aggregates in Egypt
15 ACI Materials Journal Controlled low-strength materials using Q2
bagasse ash and fly ash
Experimental investigation on the
Construction and Building variability of the main mechanical
16 Materials properties of concrete produced Q1
with coarse recycled
concrete aggregates
Assessment of properties of recycled
17 Construction and Building concrete by means of a highly Q1
Materials fractioned factorial design
of experiment
Construction and Building Modelling of mechanical properties and
18 Materials durability of Q1
recycled aggregate
concretes
Experimental analysis of properties of
19 Construction and Building recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) Q1
Materials concrete with
mineral additives
Properties of concrete incorporating fine
20 Construction and Building recycled aggregates from crushed Q1
Materials concrete
Wastes
21 Construction and Building Crushing characteristics of a Q1
Materials recycled aggregate from waste
concrete
Construction and Building Combined effects of recycled aggregate
22 Materials and fly ash towards Q1
concrete sustainability
Experimental analysis of properties of
23 Construction and Building recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) Q1
Materials concrete with
mineral additives
Methods of physical tests for hydraulic
24 IS 4301 Part 11 cement, Part 11: Determination Code book
of density
On the Development of a Technical
Specification for the Use of Fine
25 Materials science Recycled Aggregates Q1
from Construction and Demolition
Waste in Concrete
Production
26 Journal of Building Use of fine recycled concrete Q1
engineering aggregates in concrete: A critical
review,”
Advances in Materials Effect of the aggregate size on strength
27 Science properties of recycled Q2
and Engineering aggregate concrete
International Journal of Effect of Recycled Aggregates on
28 Scientific & Mechanical Properties of Q3

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MATERIALS
Engineering Research Concrete

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MATERIALS
Construction and Building Combined effects of recycled aggregate
29 Materials and fly ash towards Q1
concrete sustainability
Cement concrete Short and long-term behaviour of
30 composites structural concrete with recycled Q1
concrete aggregate
Advances in Materials Towards better understanding of
31 Science concrete containing recycled Q2
and Engineering concrete aggregate
Technological characterization and
Recycling and utilization of recycled aggregate in
32 Sustainable the fine fraction in substitution to the Book
Development fine natural
aggregate for concrete production
An evaluation of the recycled aggregate
33 Construction and Building characteristics and the recycled Q1
Materials aggregate concrete
mechanical properties
Materials Today: Mechanical properties of concrete with
34 Proceedings recycled aggregate and M- Q2
Sand
Flow and Strength Characteristics of
35 Journal of Materials CLSM Using Ground Granulated Q1
in Civil Blast Furnace
Engineering Slag
Construction and Building Use of recycled fine aggregates for
36 Materials Control Low Strength Materials Q1
Production
Recycled concrete aggregates and
37 Construction and Building their influences on performances of Q1
Materials low and normal
strength concretes
Rapid-hardening controlled low
38 Construction and Building strength materials made of recycled fine Q1
Materials aggregate from construction and
demolition
Waste
Properties of recycled concrete
39 HBRC Journal aggregate under different -
curing Conditions
Influence of amount of recycled coarse
40 Cement concrete aggregates and production process on Q1
composites properties of recycled
aggregate concrete
Performance of concrete made with
41 Cement and concrete commercially produced coarse recycled Q1
research concrete
Aggregate
Study on the influence of attached
42 Construction and Building mortar content on the properties Q1
Materials of recycled concrete
Aggregate

RVCE
MATERIALS
43 ACI Materials Journal Effective Water in Concrete Q2
with Recycled Aggregate
Construction and Building Prediction of the shrinkage behaviour of
44 Materials recycled aggregate concrete: Q1
A review
Journal of Sustainable Incorporating recycled aggregates
45 Cement- Based in self-compacting concrete: a Q1
Materials Review
Porosity of recycled concrete with
46 Cement and concrete substitution of recycled concrete Q1
research aggregate: An
experimental study
Study on the influence of attached
47 Construction and Building mortar content on the properties Q1
Materials of recycled concrete
Aggregate
American Journal of Civil Rapid-hardening controlled low
48 Engineering and strength materials made of recycled fine Q1
Architecture aggregate from construction and
demolition
Waste
Construction and Building Paving blocks made with
49 Materials recycled concrete aggregate and Q1
crushed clay brick
50 Construction and Building Use of recycled aggregates in Q1
Materials moulded concrete bricks and
blocks
51 Journal of Cleaner Use of recycled mixed aggregates Q1
Production in floor blocks manufacturing
Recycled Brick Masonry Aggregate
Concrete: Use Of Recycled
52 Property management Aggregates From Demolished Brick Q3
and built Masonry Construction In Structural
environment And Pavement Grade Portland
Cement Concrete
Use of Mixed Construction and
53 Indian Geotechnical Demolition Recycled Materials in Q3
Journal Geosynthetic Reinforced
Embankments
Materials and Compressive behaviour of fired- clay
54 Structures brick and lime mortar masonry Q1
Constructions components in dry and
wet conditions
International Journal of Strength and Durability Evaluation
55 Concrete Structures of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Q1
and Materials,
Method of Test for aggregate for
56 IS 2386-1963 Part III concrete. Part III- Specific Code book
gravity, density, voids,
absorption and bulking

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MATERIALS
Specification for Coarse and Fine
57 IS 383- 1970 Aggregates from Natural Sources Code book
for Concrete

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MATERIALS
58 IS 2386-1963 part I Indian method of test for aggregate for Code book
concrete. Part I - particle size and
shape.
59 IS 516:2014 Method of Tests for Strength Code book

of Concrete
Common Schedule of Rates for
Engineering Departments 2021- 2022
60 Report Public Works Department Book
Government of Karnataka.
Volume-1 2021-22.
Common Schedule of Rates for
Engineering Departments 2021- 2022
61 Report Public Works Department Book
Government of Karnataka.
Volume 2 2021-22.
Common Schedule of Rates for Road
and Bridge WORKS 2021- 2022
62 Report Public Works Department Government Book
of Karnataka.
Volume-3 021-22.
Embodied energy of common and
63 Energy and Buildings alternative building materials and Q1
technologies.
A study on embodied energy of
64 Energy and Buildings recycled Q1
aggregates obtained from processed
demolition waste.

RVCE
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“STUDIES ON PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MIXES SUITABLE
FOR MASONRY UNITS USING SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS”
D P Chandana1 , Laxmi Bellagi2 , M V Renuka Devi3 , S M
Basurkar4 1PG student, RV college of Engineering, Bengaluru, India.
2
PG student, RV college of Engineering, Bengaluru, India.
3
Professor, RV college of Engineering, Bengaluru, India.
4
Assistant Professor, RV college of Engineering, Bengaluru, India.
E-mail id: chandanaprakash18@gmail.com, renukadevimv@rvce.edu.in
ABSTRACT
More production and construction generate more waste, creating environmental concerns of toxicity in ecology. A
feasible solution to this problem is to reuse these waste materials, which reduces solid wastes which in turn minimizes
the burden on landfill spaces. The major contribution of C & D waste is from the demolition of buildings, which is
mostly of concrete or brick masonry. This C&D waste can be crushed into smaller sized particles and then used as
replacement to the natural coarse and fine aggregates.
In this study, optimum proportions of fine and coarse aggregate for achieving M10 grade concrete is worked out with
replacement of conventional fine and coarse aggregate with C & D waste such as demolished brick waste and recycled
concrete aggregate. This approach has two-fold benefits, firstly making the blocks economical and secondly helps in
management of disposal of C&D waste. Prisms test specimen of size 10cm x 10cm x 20cm and concrete blocks of size
40cm x 20cm x 20cm are manufactured replacing conventional aggregates by recycled aggregates derived from brick
waste and concrete waste. Apart from mechanical properties, the study also investigates the cost, and embodied energy
of concrete blocks made for various percentage replacement of Natural aggregates.
From the result it was observed that compressive strength of concrete mix linearly decreased with increased
concentration of recycled aggregates. Increase in cement content leads to an improvement in compressive strength. Use
of recycled aggregates reduced the cost of concrete block by 1.2 – 4%. Embodied energy of block was found to be reduced
by 4 – 9% when recycled aggregates was used as an alternative to natural coarse and fine aggregates.
Keywords: Concrete mix, C&D Waste, Brick waste, RC waste, compressive strength, energy.
INTRODUCTION
Due to rapid urbanization, the need to reduce consumption of non-renewable natural resources and energy has
encouraged the development of low-cost, safe, and sustainableconstructive solutions, such as affordable houses [1].
Minimizing the environmental impact, energy and carbon emission of concrete used for construction is important as
resources declining and the impact of greenhouse emission is more evident. Therefore, adopting sustainable
construction can help in minimizing the use of high carbon-emitting materials such as concrete, cement, steel, bricks,
aggregates, etc., and the use of alternative sustainable materials which is left out as waste from the construction and
demolition and coal factories, agriculture industry like fly ash, silica fume, GGBS, Recycled Aggregates, Bagasse,
etc., can be adopted in the construction sector. The alternate materials should be such that they should satisfy the
strength, serviceability as well as sustainability criteria. The use of sustainable materials helps to reduce the carbon
footprint as well as the problem of landfills and demolition waste is often used as alternative in production of
cementitious products. Utilization of these Recycled aggregates with different percentage replacements to the natural
coarse and fine aggregates to obtain the required strength and durability of concrete [2]. Recycled coarse aggregates
are comprised of independent natural coarse aggregate and old cement mortar content in the aggregate, therefore the
influence of percentage recycled coarse aggregate in the concrete plays an important role in its mechanical properties.
In addition to recycled aggregates, alternate binders as suitable admixture to the cement can be used to achieve the low
strength concrete blocks. The major contribution of C & D waste is from the demolition of buildings, which is mostly
of concrete or brick masonry which can be further crushed into smaller sized particles and then used as replacement to
the natural coarse and fine aggregates. Sustainable development refers to the whole life cycle of a structure with a
lower carbonfootprint. There are mainly five stages in the lifecycle: feasibility, design, construction, operation, and
demolition [3][4]. All stages contribute equally in selecting suitable construction materials which helps to a larger
extent in reducing the carbon footprint of a building [5][6]. Therefore, a detailed study can be carried out to provide a
sustainable environment to the society with the use of some alternate materials to the conventionalconcreting
materials. The sources of C & D waste are obtained from several regions, they maybe waste obtained from excavation
of roads, land, building materials, waste from the construction site, or the
Bashandy et.al [7][8] studied based on the cement content, and suggested that building debris may be used as concrete
aggregates, if it is graded and impurity free. When casting building concrete that will be subjected to medium loads, it
may be employed. Their durability and resistance to abrasion serve as defining characteristics. López-Gayarre et al.,
made an experimental study by substituting recycled aggregates with constant water-cement ratio did not alter
compressive strength of concrete, but at 50 % substitution of recycled aggregates lowers the modulus of elasticityof
the concrete [9]. Similarly, Lovato et al. assessed the evaluation of mechanical properties such as water absorption
and
carbonation depth at different levels of the recycled coarse aggregates, the response surface methodology was used. It
was found that 50% replacement of recycled aggregates with conventional aggregates showed greater feasibility in its
properties [10]. Yamini Jayantibhai Patel and the other author Ma Kang and Li Weibin attempted to study the impact
of coarse aggregate in concrete mixes, it was observed that with 30 to 50% of RA, attains acceptable strength.
Concrete mix with 70% coarse and fine RA showed the decremental strength of about 29.11% and 26.84% as
compared to the use of NA in concrete. With no replacement and complete replacement of the recycled aggregates, the
strength was higher, and the size of the aggregates is co-related to the compressive performance [11], [12]. Kyuhun
Kim et.al [12] observed that increased flowability of concrete was a result of the higher recycled aggregate content.
Additionally, the flowability of RCA was enhanced by the application of fly ash. Using 30% recycled aggregates
exhibited just a little decline in compressive strength.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Materials
Concrete mixes and proportions with target strength of 5-10MPa is produced using various materialssuch as Cement,
sand, aggregates, etc. with different percentage replacement of recycled C & D waste. Figure.1 and Figure.2 shows the
Construction and Demolition waste used for the present study.
The study involved use of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 53 grade, with a specific gravity of 3.1. Fine aggregates,
passing 4.75mm IS sieve, had a specific gravity of 2.48 and water absorption of 2.62. Coarse aggregates, passing
6.3mm and retained on 4.75mm IS sieve, had a specific gravity of 2.66 and water absorption of 2.4. Recycled coarse
and fine aggregates were sourced from a crushing plant in Jala Halli, Bengaluru. The specific gravity of the recycled
coarse aggregate and brick waste was 2.37 and 2.3, with a water absorption rate of 4.4 and 14.0 respectively. Also, the
recycled fine aggregate had a specific gravity of 2.22 and 2.16, with water absorption of 25.5 and 18.3 respectively.
Figure.1: Demolished Brick Waste Figure.2: Recycled Concrete Waste
Methodology
Trails studies were carried out by casting cylindrical and prism test samples for various cement, fine and coarse aggregate
content. The objectives of trail studies was to explore case of demendability, geometric stability and aesthetic appearance
of test samples. The parametric study was designed to investigate the influence of cement content, fine and coarse
aggregate content and effect of brick and concrete waste as an substitute to conventional aggregate. In the first stage of
parametric study, strength characteristics of concrete mix was investigated by limiting the coarse aggregate fraction at
20% natural coarse aggregate passing 6.3mm and retained on 4.75mm IS sieve. The fine aggregate fraction
constituting 80% was contributed by replacing M sand by brick waste and concrete waste by 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%.
Effect of binder content was explored for two cement content i.e., at 9% and 12%. In the second stage of the
parametric study equal weightage of coarse and fine aggregate was used. The fine aggregate constituted 50% M sand,
25% brick waste and 25% concrete waste and the natural coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled concrete coarse
aggregate by 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%. Cement content was maintained at 9%.
To evaluate compressive strength, prism of size 100mm x 100mm x 200mm was cast for both stages. The concrete
mix was thoroughly mixed in a concrete mixer. Moisture content was decided based on slump cone test resulting zero
slump and also resulting in non-disintegration of material during demoulding. The moulds were prepared by oiling
before filling the concrete mix. The moulds were filled with concrete mix in 3 layers. Each layer was rammed 25 times
for adequate compaction. The density of fresh rammed sample 2.0 to 2.1 gm/cc. The moulds were removed
immediately after compaction and cured by immersing in the water tank after 24 hours of demoulding. The cured
samples were then tested after 7 and 28 days of curing. Figure 3 shows the concrete prism samples made with 9%
cement and various percentages of fine and coarse aggregates. It can be seen from Figure 3, samples containing coarse
aggregates more than 20% resulted in non-homogeneity of mix when cast into a prism.
Prism samples were tested for compressive, split tensile and flexural strength after 28 days of curing. There specimens
were tested per test, per proportion and per curing period. Based on the results obtained from testing prisms, concrete
blocks of size 400mm(l) x 200mm(b) x 200mm(h) were cast. A concrete mixer was used for through mixing of
constituent materials and manual compaction was carried out using a rammer. The cement content and mix proportion
for concrete block manufacturing was same as that of second stage of parametric study. A total of 5 blocks were
manufactured. The casting of concrete blocks is illustrated in Figure. 4.
Figure 3: Casting of Concrete prisms for different combinations of coarse and fine aggregates
Figure 4: Casting of Concrete blocks

The basic material tests were conducted such as specific gravity, sieve analysis and Water absorption as per Indian
standard code of practice [14][15]. The specific gravity of the materials were determined for Cement, Sand,
demolished brick powder, natural coarse aggregate, recycled coarse concrete aggregate, and demolished brick coarse
aggregate. The other basic tests on the aggregates such as Impact test, 10% fines test as well as aggregate crushing
value which influence the strength parameter was determined a perthe Codal provision. The material test results were
tabulated in the Table.1.
Table 1: Material tests results on aggregate

Type of aggregate NCA RCA Brick waste
Aggregate Crushing Value (%) 29.22 30.99 65.4
10% fines test % 8.11 15.2 21.64
Impact Test % 72.11 27.65 25.01
Water absorption of fine aggregate (%) 15.7 25.5 18.3
Water absorption of coarse aggregate (%) 0.8 4.4 14
Specific Gravity fine aggregates 2.48 2.219 2.158
Specific Gravity of coarse aggregates 2.66 2.37 2.3
Results and Discussion

The compressive strength of concrete prism samples of both stages for each percentage replacement was carried
out for 7- and 28-days strength and density of fresh concrete was in the range between 2.0-2.1 gm/cc. The results
of stage 1 and stage 2 parametric studies for aggregate distribution and compressive strength for 7 and 28 days are
shown in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively.
Table 2: composition and Properties of prisms for first stage study

Aggregate percentage distribution Compressive strength
Coarse Fines (N/mm2)
Material Sl.
R% Brick
combination No.
NCA M Sand RC waste
waste 7 days 28 days
(%) (%) (%) (%)
1 20% 20 64 16 0 3.61 4.67
2 40% 20 48 32 0 3.32 4.15
Brick waste 3 60% 20 32 48 0 2.92 3.74
9% cement
4 80% 20 16 64 0 1.93 3.12
5 100% 20 0 80 0 1.61 2.69
6 20% 20 64 16 0 3.88 5.92
7 40% 20 48 32 0 3.43 5.58
Brick waste 8 60% 20 32 48 0 2.89 4.69
12% cement
9 80% 20 16 64 0 2.51 3.66
10 100% 20 0 80 0 2.19 3.13
11 20% 20 64 0 16 2.94 4.84
12 40% 20 48 0 32 2.53 3.93
RC waste 13 60% 20 32 0 48 2.19 3.61
9% cement
14 80% 20 16 0 64 1.87 2.24
15 100% 20 0 0 80 1.65 1.85
16 20% 20 64 0 16 4.06 6.42
17 40% 20 48 0 32 3.89 5.48
RC waste 18 60% 20 32 0 48 3.27 4.87
12% cement
19 80% 20 16 0 64 2.75 3.73
20 100% 20 0 0 80 2.09 2.91
From Table 2, the density of prism samples were maintained in between 2.10-2.25 g/cc. It is observed that the
compressive strength of the concrete prisms decreases linearly as the replacement percentage increases for both brick
and concrete waste replacement which is shown in Figure 5.
NA-Brick Waste
5
9% CEMENT
4
NA-RC Waste
3 9% CEMENT
2
Linear (NA-RC
1 Waste
9% CEMENT
0 )
0%20%40%60%80%100%120%
(a) Variation of compressive strength at 9% cement
10
NA-Brick Waste
9
12% CEMENT
8
7
NA-RC Waste 12% CEMENT
6
5
4 Linear (NA-Brick
3
2
Waste 12%
1
CEMENT)
0
Linear (NA-RC
Waste
12% CEMENT
0%20%40%60%80%100%120% )
(b) Variation in compressive strength at 12% Cement
Figure 5: Compressive strength for different combination of brick and concrete waste replacement
Table 3: Concrete Prisms Properties for coarse aggregate replacement (second stage study)
Aggregate percentage distribution Compressive strength

Coarse Fines (N/mm2)
Material Sl.
R%
combination No. M RC Brick
NCA RCA
San waste waste 7 days 28 days
(%) (%)
d (%) (%)
(%)
1 0% 50 0 25 12.5 12.5 4.83 7.27
2 40% 30 20 25 12.5 12.5 4.7 7.17
C&D waste 3 60% 20 30 25 12.5 12.5 4.02 5.86
9% cement
4 80% 10 40 25 12.5 12.5 3.8 5.17
5 100% 0 50 25 12.5 12.5 3.4 4.3
From Table 3 it is indicated that, the compressive strength decreases with increase in percentage replacement due to its
aggregate crushing value increases as there is brick aggregate is used as a substitute to the coarse aggregates.
However, they can be utilizedin the construction of non-load bearing wall, and other non-structural application.
8
7
brick waste
6 9% cement
5 brick waste
12% cement
Axis
4
RC waste
39% cement
2 RC waste
12% cement
1
stage 2
study
0
0%20%40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Axis Title
Figure 6: Comparison of compressive strength of stage 1 and stage 2 mix proportion
Figure 6 shows the comparison of compressive strength between stage 1 and stage 2 parametric study. From the graph
it is clear that stage 2 mix gives better compressive strength compared to stage 1 mix as the coarse aggregate
percentage is more in stage 2 mix. Therefore, the blocks are manufactured with the stage 2 mix proportion.
Referring to Indian Standard codes such as IS 10262: 1982[16], the low strength of about M10 grade concrete blocks
was designed. A total of 5 mix proportions were manufactured as that of second stage parametric studies i.e., for five
different percentage replacements of recycled coarse aggregates (RCA & DBW) with natural coarse aggregate and
properties like dimension, density, crushing strength and compressive strength were discussed in Table 4.
Table 4: Concrete Block Properties
% Replacement Aggregate Compressive

Dimension of Block Density of
level of Coarse crushing value strength of Block
(L×B×D in cm) Block(g/cc)
recycled aggregate (%) (MPa)
0% 40.5 × 20.1 × 20.2 2.228 29.22 10.62
40% 40.4 × 20.2 × 20.2 2.175 36.81 9.01
60% 40.2 × 20.2 × 20.3 2.12 40.605 8.6
80% 40.3 × 20.5 × 20.4 2.053 44.4 7.5
100% 40.4 × 20.3 × 20.2 2.033 48.195 6.71
From Table 4 dimensionality values of the concrete blocks are as per the Indian standard codes. IS 2185 (2005) part-
1[13] suggests that variation in length should notbe more than ±5mm. This condition is satisfied as all blocks have
dimensional variation within 5mm. And the density of the concrete blocks decreases when the percentage replacement
of coarse aggregate increases. The density of demolished brick aggregateis much lower as compared to the density of
natural aggregate; hence it can be clearly observed that concrete blocks with 0% replacement of coarse recycled
aggregate as thatof concrete blocks made of 100% replacement of C & D waste varies in the range of 9-10%. While
the aggregate crushing value at the corresponding % replacements of coarse aggregate display an incremental trend.
The compressive strength of the blocks are in the decreasing order as the percentage replacement is increased because
of decrease in percentage of natural coarse aggregate.
Cost Analysis
The cost and embodied energy analysis of solid concrete blocks is carried out in order to compare with the
conventional blocks which helps in the sustainable development with use of recycled C & D waste materials. The
cost analysis is one of the major aspects which is considered in any construction activity. In this section, cost of
materials is taken from the schedule of rates available from the Karnataka Public works Department’s schedule of
rates 2022 [18]–[20]. And then the total quantity of materials for each proportion is calculated thus obtaining the
cost of each block of 8 inches (40cm× 20cm × 20cm).
Table 4: Cost analysis of concrete blocks
Total cost per block (in Rupees)

% replacement
Stage 2 mix Stage 1 mix
20% 37.11/- 44.21/-
40% 37.65/- 42.50/-
60% 37.17/- 40.80/-
80% 36.69/- 39.09/-
100% 36.21/- 37.35/-
From Table 4, Blocks made up of stage 2 mix are more economical compared to blocks of stage 1 mix and use of
recycled aggregates reduced the cost of concrete block by 1.2 – 4%.
Embodied energy analysis

The total energy consumption from cradle to grave i.e., starting from the extraction of raw materials, the
manufacture and transportation to the site is termed Embodied energy. It indicates the overall impact on the
surrounding environment due to the building materials. The embodied energy values are taken from the literature
sources are correlated with the estimated quantity of materials [21], [22]. The embodied energy of the commercial
as well as the blocks of different level replacement of C &D waste is calculated as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Embodied energy analysis of concrete blocks
Total energy per block (in MJ)

% replacement
Stage 2 mix Stage 1 mix
20% 21.82 22.91
40% 20.84 21.39
60% 19.85 19.88
80% 18.86 18.37
100% 17.86 16.83
From the Table 5, Blocks made up of stage 2 mix are more sustainable compared to blocks of stage 1 mix as the
energy released is more in stage 1 compared to stage 2. Use of recycled aggregates reduced the cost of concrete block by
4-9%.
Conclusions
Based on the experimental investigation following conclusions have been drawn:
1. The crushing value of brick waste was maximum of the order 3 times as that of Natural coarse aggregate
resulting in 10% fine value of the order 22%. Water absorption of fine demolished brick aggregate was found
to vary from 14 – 18%. Recycled concrete aggregates exhibited better results as compared to demolished
brick waste.
2. Mix proportions suitable for concrete block production indicated with increase in coarse aggregate fraction
results in non-homogeneity of compacted samples with excessive honeycomb pockets.
3. Linear reduction in compressive strength of concrete samples and blocks was observed for increased
replacement of recycled aggregate fraction. Reduction in strength was found to vary from 5 – 9%. However,
it was also observed that compressive strength increased when fine aggregate fraction restricted to 50% and
coarse aggregates were replaced by recycled concrete aggregates.
4. Use of recycled aggregates reduced the cost of concrete block by 1.2 – 4% which makes the blocks economical
when recycled aggregates was used as an alternative to natural coarse and fine aggregates.
5. Embodied energy of block was found to be reduced by 4 – 9% which makes the block sustainable when recycled
aggregates was used as an alternative to natural coarse and fine aggregates.
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Major Project: Phase II Report

“FEASIBILITY STUDIES ON CONCRETE BLOCK

Under the Guidance

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of degree

I express my warm gratitude to Dr. Somanath M Basutkar, Assistant Professor, R V College of

work. I extend my regards to my parents for their constant support and

Table No. Particulars Page No.

3.1 Percentage of materials used for casting of prism 18

C&D : Construction and

Due to rapid urbanization, the need to reduce consumption of non-renewable natural

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023

1.1.1 Sustainable construction materials

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 2

The construction and demolition waste as a landfill can be utilized as a replacement to

1.1.2 Advantages of sustainable materials

1.1.3 Mechanical properties of concrete mixes

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 3

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 4

1.2.1 Sustainable materials

To enhance sustainable development, Madrid M et al. carried out several trials of

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 5

1.2.3 Recycled fine aggregates

F. López-Gayarre et al., have made a factorial experimental study with a greater

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 6

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 7

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 8

1.2.4 Recycled coarse aggregates

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 9

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 10

Structural Engineering, 2022-2023 Page 11

Jose´ M.V. Go´mez-Sobero´n [46] findings indicated considerable variance between

1.3 Literature Summary

Replacement of recycled coarse aggregates up to 70 percent experience better

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1.4 Literature Gap

1.7 Organization of Thesis

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2.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate

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2.2 Demolished Brick Waste

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3.1 Materials used

3.1.2 Fine aggregates

3.1.3 Coarse aggregates

Figure 3.1: Demolished Brick Waste

Figure 3.2: Recycled Concrete Waste [source: Rock Crystals Devanahalli,

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a. As per Codal provision the M10 grade concrete was designed.

3.3 Work Plan Flowchart

Figure 3.3: Work plan flowchart

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The present study includes firstly procurement of materials, then segregation of

3.4 Mix Proportion

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Table 3.1: Percentage of materials used for casting of prism