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PDF Cambridge Igcse Chemistry 4th Edition Compress
PDF Cambridge Igcse Chemistry 4th Edition Compress
PDF Cambridge Igcse Chemistry 4th Edition Compress
Chemistry
Fourth Edition
Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford
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Contents
Acknowledgements vi
How to use this book ix
Scientific
Scientif ic enquiry x
1 States of matter 1
1.1
1.1 Solids, liquids and gases 1
1.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter 2
1.3 Changes of state 4
1.4 The eff
effect
ectss of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas 6
1.5 Diffusion 7
4 Stoi
Stoichiomet
chiometrr y – chemical calculations 54
4.1 Relative atomic mass 54
4.2 Calculating moles 55
4.3 Moles and compounds 57
4.4 Calculating
Calculat ing formulae 60
4.5 Moles and chemical equations 62
5 Electrochemistry 69
5.1
5.1 Electricity and chemistry 69
5.2 Electrolysis
Electr olysis of lead(II) bromide (Teacher demonstrat
demonstration)
ion) 70
5.3 Electrolysis
Electrolys is of aluminium oxide 72
5.4 Electrolysis
Electr olysis of aqueous solutions 75
5.5 Electrolysis
Electr olysis of copper(II) sulfate aqueous solution 78
5.6 Fuel cells 81
5.7 Electroplating 82
6 Chemical energeti
energetics
cs 87
6.1
6.1 Substances from petroleum 87
6.2 Fossil fuels 90
6.3 What is a fuel? 90
6.4 Alternative sources to fossil fuel
fuelss 91
6.5 Exothermic and endothermic react
reactions
ions 91
iii
7 Chemical reaction
reactionss 100
7.1 Reactions 100
7.2 Factors that affec t the rate of a react
reaction
ion 101
7.3 Enzymes 107
7.4 Reversible react
reactions
ions and equilibrium 108
7.5 Ammonia – an important nitrogen-containing chemical 109
7.6 Industrial
Industr ial manufacture of sulfuric acid – the Contact process 111
111
10 Metals 150
10.1 Properties of metals 150
10.2 Metal react
reactions
ions 151
151
10.3 Reactivity of metals and their uses 153
153
10.4 Identifying
Identif ying metal ions 156
10.5 Extraction
Extract ion of metals 157
157
10.6 Metal corrosion 161
161
10.7 Alloys 165
11 Chemistr
Chemistry
11.1 Water y of the environment 170
170
11.2 Artif
Artificial
icial fertilisers 175
175
11.3 The air 177
11.4 Atmospheric pollution 179
179
iv
13 Organic chemistry 2 206
13.1 Funct ional groups
Functional 206
13.2 Alcohols (R–OH) 206
13.3 Carboxylic acids 211
211
13.4 Esters 212
13.5 Condensation polymers 214
13.6 Natural polyamides 216
14 Exper
Experimental
imental techniques and chemical analysis 221
14.1 Apparatus used for measurement in chemistr
chemistryy 221
14.2 Separating mixtures 224
14.3 Qualitative analysis 233
v
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Irene, Katharine,
Kat harine, Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library, b
Photography/Science
Michael and Barbara for their patience,
pat ience, support and midosemsem – Fotolia; p.33 Science Source/
encouragement throughout the production of this Science Photo Library; p.36 l Mart
Martyn
yn F.
F. Chillmaid,
textbook. We would also like to thank the editorial r Mart
Martyn F. Chillmaid; p.37 (left column) l
yn F.
and publishing teams at Hodder Education who have Martyn
Marty n F. Chillmaid, r Mart
Martyn Chillmaid, (right
yn F. Chillmaid,
supported us on the journey over the past year. column) Courtesy of the University of Illinois at
Source acknowledgements Urbana-Champaign
Lambert /Sciencep.38
Archives;
Photography/Science
Photography Andrew p.40
Photo Library;
pp. 13, 38, 40, 41, 42, 189, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library;
and 213
p.41 l Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science
The molecular models shown were made using
Photo Library, r Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/
Photography/
the Molymod® system available from Molymod®
Science Photo Library; p.42 Andrew Lambert
Molecular Models, Spiring Enterprises Limited,
/Science Photo Library; p.44
Photography/Science
Photography
Billingshurst,
Billingshurst, West Sussex RH1
RH144 9NF England.
/Science Photo Library; p.46 l
E.R.Degginger/Science
E.R.Degginger
Photo credits Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library, r Robert
r right, l left, t top, m middle, b bottom Harding Photo Library; p.48 tl Richard Megna/
p.1 bl Dolphinartin/stock.adobe.com
Dolphinartin/stock.adobe.com,, tr Fundamental/Science Photo Library, bl Sheila
12ee12/stock.adobe.com, br Olaf Schubert/Image Terry/Science Photo Library, tr Michael Pettigrew
Broker/Alamy Stock Photo; p.2 l Donald L Fackler – Fotolia, br Kage Mikrofotografie GBR/Science
Jr/Alamy Stock Photo, r Andrew Lambert Photo Library; p.49 overthehill – Fotolia; p.56 l
Photography /Science Photo Library; p.3 tl
Photography/Science Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Photo
Geoscience Features
Fea tures Picture Library/Dr.Booth, bl
Pic ture Library/Dr.Booth, Library, r Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science
Javier Larrea/Ag
Larrea/Agefotostock/A lamy Stock Photo, br
efotostock/Alamy Photo Library; p.57 Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/
Photography/
Power And Syred/Science Photo Library; p.7 l Science Photo Library; p.63 Dirk Wiersma/Science
Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Photo Library, Photo Library; p.69 tl Alexander Maksimenko
r Photiconix/Alamy Stock Vector; p.8 l Andrew – Fotolia, tr Mkos83/stock.adobe.com
Mkos83/stock.adobe.com,, b Pavel
Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library, r
Photography/Science Losevsky/stock.adobe.com; p.72 Howard Davies/
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; Alamy Stock Photo; p.73 Kekyalyaynen/
p.10 NASA/ESA/STSCI/Hubble Heritage Team/ Shutterstock.com; p.74 l dpa picture alliance
Science Photo Library; p.11 t Robert Harding/ archive / Alamy Stock Photo, r Rex Features; p.75
Getty Images, m FlemishDreams – Fotolia, b l Kathy Gould/iStock/Thinkstock, r Trevor
Echo 23 Media/Alamy Stock Photo; p.12 tl Bay Clifford Photography/Science Photo Library; p.78 tr
Ismoyo/AFP/Getty Images, bl Christie’s Images / Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Photo
The Bridgeman Art Library, tr BL Images Ltd / Library, br Clynt Garnham Renewable Energy /
Brian Lawrence / Alamy Stock Photo; p.13 Andrew Alamy Stock Photo; p.81 Frankie Martin/NASA/
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.15 Science Photo Library; p.82 Adam Hart-Davis/
Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Science Photo Library; p.83 bl Andrew Lambert
Library; p.18 tr Galyna Andrushko – Fotolia, br Photography/Science
Photography /Science Photo Library, br Andrew
Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library; p.87 tl
Photography/Science
Library; p.19 Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/
Photography/ Dinodia Photos / Alamy Stock Photo, bl Oleg
Science Photo Library; p.20 (left column) tl Zhukov – Fotolia, mt Matt K – Fotolia, mb
Vvvita/stock.adobe.com,, tr Weyo/stock.adobe.
Vvvita/stock.adobe.com Dmitry Sitin – Fotolia, tr iofoto – Fotolia,
F otolia, br
com,, bl Shutterstock/Stay_Positive, bm
com yang yu – Fotolia; p.88 l Andrew Lambert
Magraphics/stock.adobe.com, br sommai/stock. /Science Photo Library, r Sindo
Photography/Science
Photography
column)) tr Science Photo
adobe.com, (right column Farina/Science Photo Library; p.89 Stevie Grand/
Library/Eye of Science, br moodboard/Thinkstock; Science Photo Library; p.90 GeoScience Features
p.21 tr
Library; Digital
p.24 br Instruments/Veeco/Science
Henry Westheim Photography Photo
/ Picture Library; p.101 tl Illustrez-vous - Fotolia,
bl Arnaud Santinil – Fotolia,
F otolia, tr Yakovlevadaria/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.30 tl Andrew Lambert stock.adobe.com, br National Motor Museum,
Photography// Science
Photography Librar y, tr Andrew
Sc ience Photo Library, Motoring Picture Library / Alamy Stock Photo;
vi
p.102 l © Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Elenathewise/stock.adobe.com; p.147 tl © Andrew
Photo Library, tr © Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/
Photography/ Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library, tr ©
Photography/Science
Science Photo Library, br © Andrew Lambert Vlorzor/stock.adobe.com; p.150 tr © Andrew
/Science Photo Library; p.104 tr ©
Photography/Science
Photography Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library, br ©
Photography/Science
Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Photo Library, Digital Vision/Getty Images; p.151 tl © Neil
bl © Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
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Emmerson/Ro bert Harding Picture
Pic ture Library Ltd /
Library, br © Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
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Photo Library; p.107 © Alfred Pasieka/Science Photography /Science Photo Library; p.153 tl ©
Photography/Science
Photo Library; p.108 © Daniel Kalker/DPA/PA govicinity – Fotalia.com, ml © M.bonotto/stock.
Images; p.109 © Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/ adobe.com, bl © Antony Nettle/Alamy Stock Photo;
Science Photo Library; p.111 © Boyer/Roger Viollet/ p.154 © Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
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Getty Images; p.116 tl © Yvdavid/stock.adobe.com, Photo Library; p.155 © Leah-Anne Thompson/stock.
bl © Picture Store/stock.adobe.com, tr © adobe.com; p.156 l © Andrew Lambert
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Photography/
Valery121283/stock.adobe.com, br © Iurii Science Photo Library, r © Andrew Lambert
Kachkovskyi/stock.adobe.com; p.117 tl © Alex Photography/Science
Photography /Science Photo Library; p.158 tl ©
Yeung/stock.adobe.com, ml © Leah-Anne Thompson/ GeoScience Features Picture Library, bl ©
stock.adobe.com, bl © Illustre z-vous – Fotolia, r ©
Illustrez-vous GeoScience Features Picture Library, r © GeoScience
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; Features Picture Library; p.159 Tata Steel’s Blast
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/Science Furnace 4 at its Port Talbot works in the UK
Photo Library, bl © Andrew Lambert
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Science Photo Library; p.119 © Alex White – Fotolia; Stockr/stock.adobe.com, b © Martin Bond/Science
p.121 © Andrew Lambert Photography
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Photo Library; p.122 © Andrew Lambert Library, r © Digital Vision/Getty Images; p.162 l ©
Photography /Science Photo Library; p.123 l © Decha
Photography/Science Helene Rogers/ Art Directors & TRIP / Alamy Stock
Thapanya/Shutterstock.com, tr © Andrew Lambert Photo, tr © Visual China Group/Getty Images, br ©
Photography /Science Photo Library, br © Andrew
Photography/Science Aleksandr/stock.adobe.com; p.163 tl © g215 –
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.124 Fotolia, ml © Gravicapa – Fotolia, bl © Blueblood/
© Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
/Science Photo stock.adobe.com, r © steven gillis hd9 imaging/
Library; p.125 l © Andrew Lambert
Lamber t Photography/
Photography/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.164 tl © Leslie Garland Picture
Science Photo Library, r © Andrew Lambert Library/Alamy Stock Photo, br © byggarn.se –
Photography/Science
Photography /Science Photo Library; p.126 © Andrew Fotolia; p.165 tr © Photo20ast/stock.adobe.com, br
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.127 © Kage Mikrofotografie GBR/Science Photo Library;
© Andrew Lambert Photography
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/Science Photo p.170 bl © Patricia Elfreth – Fotolia, br © BSIP SA/
Library; p.135 © Science Photo Library; p.136 tl © Alamy Stock Photo; p172. tl © Can Balcioglu –
Windsor – Fotolia, bl © jon11 – Fotolia, tr © Debby Fotolia, ml © Galina Barskaya – Fotolia, bl ©
Moxon, br © Mihaela Maiorescu - Fotolia; p.137 SciencePhotos/Alamy Stock Photo, br © Andrew
© Forance.stock.adobe.com; p.138 tl © Andrew Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library; p.173
Photography/Science
Lambert Photography /Science Photo Library, bl ©
Photography/Science © niyazz – Fotolia; p.174 l © Sze Fei Wong/iSto
Wong/iStock/
ck/
Andrew Lambert Photography
Photography/Science
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r © Andrew Lambert Photography
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Library; p.139 © Charles D. Winters/Science Photo p.176 bl © Dudarev Mikhail – Fotolia; p.177 l ©
Library; p.140 © Andrew Lambert
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Astrid
id & Hanns-Frieder Michler/
Michler/
Photography/Science
Photography /Science Photo Library, br © Andrew Science Photo Library, bl © VisualHongKong / Alamy
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.142 Stock Photo; p.181 tr © Photodisc/Getty Images, ml
© Mart
Martyn Chillmaid; p.143 tl © Mark Richardson/
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Alamy Stock Photo, bl © Richard B. Levine/Alamy stock.adobe.com; p.182 © Falko Matte – Fotolia;
Stock Photo, tr © Uniquely India/PhotosIndia.com p.184 © Mark Bourdillon/Alamy Stock Photo; p.188
LLC / Alamy Stock Photo, br © ZUMA Press, Inc. / © Centaur – Fotolia; p.189 tl–bl © Andrew Lambert
Alamy Stock
p.146 tl Photo; p.144 © Science Photo Library;
© Chris Leachman/stock.adobe.com, bl ©
Photography
Photography// Science
Sc ience
nikkytok – Fotolia Photo
, br © Library; p.191 tr ©Stock
Mr.Hackenbush/Alamy
Koichi Kamoshida/Getty Images, tr © Squirrel7707/ Photo; p.192 © Andrey Popov/stock.adobe.com;
stock.adobe.com; mr © Yakov/stock.adobe.com, br © p.193 © NASA; p.195 tl–bl © Andrew Lambert
vii
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Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.197 p.221 tl © Martyn F Chillmaid, tr © Martyn F
© Andrew Lambert Photography
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Library; p.198 © Andrew Lambert
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Photography/ Savage/Alamy Stock Photo; p.225 © Andrew
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Stock Photo, tr © Andrew Lambert
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Martyn
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F. Chillmaid. Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library, br © Klaus
Thanks to Molymod.com for providing the model; Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library; p.227 l ©
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viii
How to use this book
To make
make your study of Chemistr y for Cambridge As you read through the book, you will notice that
IGCSE™ as rewarding and successful as possible, some text is shaded yellow.
yellow. This indicates that the
this textbook, endorsed by Cambridge Assessment highlighted material is Supplement content only
only..
International Education, offers the following Text that is not shaded covers the Core syllabus. If
important features: you are studying the Extended syllabus, you should
look at both the Core and Supplement sections.
FOCUS
Each topicPOINTS
starts with a bullet point summary of
what you will encounter within the topic. Practical skills
These boxes identify the key practical skills
This is followed by a short outline of the topic you need to understand as part of completing
so that you know what to expect over the next the course.
few pages.
Key definitions
Test yourself These provide explanations of the meanings of key words
as required by the syllabus.
syll abus.
These questions appear regularly throughout the
chapter so you can check your understanding as you
progress.
Worked examples
Revision checklist These boxes give step-by-step guidance on how to approach
different sorts of calculations, with follow-up questions so
At the end of each chapter, a revision checklist will you can practise these skills.
allow you to recap what you have learned in each
topic and double-check that you understand the key
concepts before moving on.
Going further
Exam-style questi
questions
ons These boxes take your learning further than is
required by the Cambridge syllabus so that you have
the opportunity to stretch yourself.
Each chapter is followed by exam-style questions
to help familiarise learners with the style of Answers are provided online with the accompanying
questions they may see in their examinations.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Teacher’s Guide.
Guide. A Practical
These will also prove useful in consolidating your
Skills Workbook is also available to further support
learning. Past paper questions are also provided
you in developing your practical skills as part of
at the end of the book.
carrying out experiments.
ix
Scientific
Scientific enquir
enquir y
Throughout your IGCSE
IGCSE Chemistr y course, you will obtained. Most importantly, it is essential that
need to carry out experiments and investigations you carry out a risk assessment before you do any
aimed at developing some of the skills and abilities practical work.
that scientists use to solve real-life problems. 3 Make and record observations – the data you
Simple experiments may be designed to measure, need to answer the questions you have set
for example, the temperature of a solution or the yourself can only be found if you have planned
rate
or of a chemical may
investigations, reaction. Longer to
be designed experiments,
allow you to your investigation
example, you mightsensibly
start toand
usecarefully.
caref ully. For
a measuring
actually see the relationship between two or more cylinder to collect a gas, but as you develop
physical quantities such as how rate of reaction your ideas you may realise a burette might be
varies with temperature and concentration. more appropriate and more accurate. Be careful
caref ul
Investigations are likely to come about from the not to dismantle the equipment/apparatus until
topic you are currently studying in class, and your you have completed your analysis of the data,
teacher may provide you with suggestions. For all and you are sure you do not need
nee d to repeat any
investigations, both your teacher and you must
mus t of the measurements! If you have to reset your
consider the safety aspects of the chemicals and equipment/apparatus, it may add further errors
apparatus involved. You should never simply carry to the results you have obtained.
out a chemistry investigation without consideration Ensure that all your data, numeric or
of the hazards of the chemicals or getting the observational, is displayed in a clear format. This
approval of your teacher. will often be in the form of headed tables with
To carry out an investigation, you will need to: the correct units being shown to the appropriate
degree of precision.
1 Select and safely use suitable techniques,
4 Interpret and evaluate observations – the
apparatus and materials – your aim must be to
results you obtain from any investigation must
safely collect sufficient evidence using the most
be displayed carefully and to the accuracy of
appropriate apparatus for the technique you have
the equipment you have chosen to use. Your
chosen. Being able to draw and label
l abel diagrams
choice of presentation will help you interpret
correctly to show how the equipment will be used
your evidence and make conclusions. Often
is also important. Your techniques will need to be
your presentation will be in the form of a graph
explained clearly to do a proper risk assessment.
or a table. For some graphs, you may need to
For example, how to carry out a titration, how
calculate gradients or use it to find values at a
you are going to follow the rate of the reaction
specific point during the investigation by drawing
you are using, or how to test for ions and gases.
intercepts. Good chemists keep looking at the
2 – this is an important part
Plan
of yourscience
doing experiment
and involves working out what data and alter the way in which it is obtained to
get more accurate results. You should
should be able to
you are going to do to try to find answers to
evaluate whether your data is good or bad. If it is
the questions you have set yourself. Predictions
good, were there any anomalous results? Why did
based on work you have been studying or
you get them?
are doing in class may help you develop the
5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible
investigation in terms of the number and type
improvements – at the end of your investigation,
investigat ion,
of observations or data needed. You will also
you must be able to evaluate the equipment,
need to be able to identify the independent
methods and techniques that you have used.
and dependent variables. For example, if you
Think about any sources of errors that could have
are trying to find out how temperature affects
affected your results by the use of the wrong
the rate of a reaction, the temperature will be
equipment. Consider, if you were able to carry
carr y out
the independent variable, but the dependent
the investigation
investigat ion again, what you would change.
variable might be the volume of gas collected.
Other variables such as concentration need to be The more data you obtain, the easier it is to spot
anomalous results.
controlled so that they will not affect the data
x
A written report of any chemical investigation label each axis of a graph with the name and unit
would normally be made of these fixed components: of the quantity being plotted. Make sure that the
scale you use allows the points to fill up as much
» First, state the aim of the work at the very
of the graph paper as possible.
beginning to inform your teacher what you were
Clearly explain the calculations involved in
doing the investigation to find out.
the interpretation of your data and give the
» A list of all items of equipment/appa
equipment/apparatus
ratus used
significant figures appropriate to the equipment
and a record of the smallest division of the scale
used.
of each measuring device you have used (see
» Conclusions can be obtained from the graphs
Chapter 14).
14). For example, burettes can
c an be read
and calculations you carry out. Your conclusions
to two decimal places, to the nearest 0.05 cm3, from the data obtained might be different from
where the second decimal place is either a 0
those that you expected. Even so it is very
if the bottom of the meniscus is on the scale
important for any scientist to come to terms with
division, or a 5 if it is between the divisions.
the findings of their experimental result, good
If the meniscus was
wa s between
bet ween 24.
24.10
10 cm3 and
or bad!
24.20 cm3, the reading would be 24.15 cm 3.
» In the evaluation you should make a comparison
» You must show that you have considered
considered the
between the conclusion
conclusionss of your investigation
safety of yourself and others before you carry
and your expectations: how close or how different
out any practical work. Provide a list of all the
were they? You should comment on the reliability
chemicals you will use, as well as the ones you
and accuracy of the observations and the data
will produce, and do a risk assessment to check
obtained. Could you have improved the method
on all the hazards of the chemicals. The results
to give better or more accurate results? Would a
of your risk assessment
asses sment might indicate that you
pH probe have been better
bet ter than using universal
need
fume to work in In
cupboard. a well-ventilated
some cases youroom
may or
needin athe indicator to find the point of neutralisation in a
titration? Were there any anomalous points on
assistance of your teacher. If in doubt, always ask
your graphs, or any unusual data or observations?
your teacher for advice.
Highlight
Highli ght these and try to give an explanation.
» Clearly state the details of the methods used,
starting with the wearing of eye protection. The
methods should be shown as numbered steps and Suggestions for
should be made as clear as possible. Ideas of the
number of measurements that will be made and investigations
their frequency should be stated. Observations Some suggested investigations are outlined in this
should be clear and you should use changes book as follows:
in colour and physical state as part of your 1 Find which vinegars contain the most acid.
observations. (Chapter 8)
» Presentation of results and calculations . If you
made several measurements of a quantity, draw 2 Find the molar
magnesium withvolume
volume of hydrogen
hydrochloric by reacting
acid. (Chapter 4)
up a table in which to record your results. Use 3 Determination of the enthalpy of combustion
the column headings, or start of rows, to name of ethanol. (Chapter 6)
exactly what the measurement is and state the 4 The effect of changing the surface area of a
units used; for example, in a rates of reaction reactant on the rate of reaction. (Chapter 7)
experiment,
exper iment, ‘Mass of calcium
calc ium carbonate/g’
carbonate/g’.. 5 Use the anion and cation methods of
Give numeric values to the number of identification to find the ions present in tap
significant figures appropriate to the equipment water. (Chapter 14)
being used, for example, a mass could be 6 Show that ammonia is a weak base by measuring
recorded to 0.5 g or 0.05 g depending on the its pH and conductivity, and comparing your
resolution of the top-pan balance you use. Take results with those from a solution of sodium
averages and remember that anomalous or non- hydroxide with the same concentration. (Chapter 8)
8)
concordant results should not be used in their 7 Determine the melting point
point of stearic acid.
calculation. If you decide to make a graph of your (Chapter 1)
results, you will need at least six data points 8 How can sodium chloride be obtained
obtained from rock
taken over as large a range as possible; be sure to salt? (Chapter 14)
xi
9 What are
are the effects of acid rain on a variet
varietyy of A further example involves the well-known
building materials? (Chapter 11) Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev. He realised that
10 Which is the best temperature, between 34 and the physical and chemical properties of the known
40°C, for the fermentation of sugar to take place? elements were related to their atomic mass in a
(Chapter 12) ‘periodic’ way, and arranged them
th em so that groups of
11 What are the chemical properties
proper ties of the weak elements with similar properties fell into vertical
organic acid, ethanoic acid? (Chapter 13) columns in his table. However
However,, in devising
dev ising his
12 Do foodstuf fs contain carbon? (Chapter 12) table, Mendeleev did not conform completely to the
order of atomic mass, with some elements swapped
around. It took time for his ideas to gain acceptance
Ideas
In some ofand evidence
the investigations in science
you perform in the
because the increase in atomic mass was not regular
when moving from one element to another. We
school laboratory, you may find
f ind that you do not now know, with the development of atomic theory theor y
interpret your data in the same way as your friends and a better understanding of chemical processes,
do; perhaps you will argue with them as to the best that the elements in the Periodic Table are not all
way to explain your results and try to convince in atomic mass order
order.. It took until
unt il 1934,
1934, with an
them that your interpretation is right. Scientific understanding of atomic number and post-Russian
p ost-Russian
controversy frequently arises through people revolution, for the Periodic Table to be f inally
interpreting evidence differently. accepted in the form you see today.
For example, our ideas about atoms have changed There are many different types of scientists
over time. Scientists have developed new models with specialties in their own areas of work such
of atoms over the centuries as they collected new as chemistry and physics, but they all work in the
experimental evidence. If we go back to the Greeks same way. They come up with new theories and
in the 5th century BC, they thought matter was ideas, they carry out work to find the evidence to
composed of indivisible building blocks which they establish whether their ideas are correct and, if not,
called atomos. However, the idea was essentially why. Scientists rely on other scientists checking
forgotten for more than 2000 years. Then
T hen John their work, often improving the ideas of everyone
Dalton published his ideas about atoms in 1800. He and moving science forward. The use of new ideas
suggested that all matter was made of tiny particles is often beneficial to everyone in the world, for
called atoms, which he imagined as tiny spheres example, the discovery
discover y of vaccines
vacc ines for Covid-
Cov id-19
19,, or
that could not be divided. It then took another the push to improve battery manufacture for use
100 years before Joseph Thomson, Ernest Rutherford
Ruther ford in electric cars which would in turn help solve one
and James Chadwick carried out experiments and of the biggest problems we have to face: global
discovered that there was a structure within the warming. Scientists are working hard to stop global
atom. This saw the continuous
cont inuous development of what warming but their ideas are not always embraced
we know today as atomic theory. because of economic and political factors.
xii
1 States of matter
FOCUS POINTS
★ What is the structure of matter?
of matter?
★ What are the three states of matter?
★ How does kinetic particle theory help us understand how matter behaves?
In this first chapter, you will look at the three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. The structure
of these states of matter and how the structures can be changed from one to another is key to
understanding the states of matter.
You will use the kinetic particle theory to help explain how matter behaves, so you can understand
the difference in the properties of the three states of matter and how the properties are linked to
the strength of bonds between the particles they contain. Why, for example, can you compress gases
but cannot compress a solid? By the end of this chapter, you should be able to answer this question
and use the ideas involved to help you to understand many everyday observations, such as why car
windows mist up on a cold morning or why dew forms on grass at night.
1.1 Solids,
S olids, liquids and gases
Chemistry is about what matter is like and how it
behaves, and our explanations and predictions of
its behaviour
behav iour.. What is matter? This word is used
use d to
cover all the substances and materials from which
the physical universe is composed. There are many
millions of different substances known, and all of
them can be categorised as solids, liquids or gases
(Figure 1.1
1.1). These are what we call the three
thre e states
state s
of matter.
b Liquid
a Solid c Gas
▲ Figure 1.1 Water in three different states
1.1
1
1 STATES OF MATTER
A solid, at a given temperature, has a definite The main points of the theory are:
volume and shape which may be affected by changes » All matter is made up of tiny, moving
moving particles,
particle s,
in temperature. Solids usually increase slightly in size
invisible to your eye. Different substances have
when heated, called expansion (Figure 1.2),
different types of particles (atoms, molecules or
and usually decrease in size if cooled, called
ions)) of varying
ions vary ing sizes.
contraction. » The particles move all the time. The higher the
A liquid, at a given temperature, has a
fixed volume and will take up the shape of any temperature,
» Heavier the faster
particles they move
move more slowlyon
slowly average.
than lighter
container into which it is poured. Like a solid, a
ones at a given temperature.
liquid’s volume is slightly
slightly affected
affe cted by changes in
temperature. The kinetic particle theory can be used as a
A gas, at a given temperature, has neither a scientific model to explain how the arrangement
definite shape nor a definite volume. It will take up of particles relates to the properties of the three
the shape of any container into which it is placed states of matter.
and will spread out evenly within
w ithin it. Unlike solids
and liquids, the volumes of gases are affected Explaining the states of matter
greatly by changes in temperature. In a solid, the particles attract one another. There
Liquids and gases, unlike solids, are compressible. are attractive forces between the particles which
This means that their volume can be reduced by hold them close together. The particles have little
the application of pressure. Gases are much more freedom of movement and can only vibrate about
compressible than liquids. a fixed position. They are arranged in a regular
manner,, which explains
manner expl ains why many solids form
crystals.
It is possible to model such crystals by using
spheres to represent the particles. For example,
Figure 1.3a shows spheres built up in a regular way
to represent the structure of a chrome alum crystal.
The shape is very similar to that of a part of an
actual chrome alum cryscrystal
tal (Figure 1.3b).
1.3b).
2
1.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter
Solid
Particles only vibrate about fixed positions.
Regular structure.
Liquid
Particles have some freedom and can move
around each other. Collide often.
Gas
Particles move freely and at random in all
▲ Figure 1.4 A modern X-ray crystallography instrument ▲ Figure 1.6 The arr angement of particles in solids, liquids
used for studying crystal structure and gases
3
1 STATES OF MATTER
of attraction
attract ion between themselves and the other
Test yourself particles in the liquid and they escape to form a gas.
1 When a metal (such as copper) is heated, it The liquid begins to evaporate as a gas is formed.
expands. Explain what happens to the metal Eventually,, a temperature is reached at which
Eventually
particles as the solid metal expands. the particles are trying to escape from the liquid
so quickly that bubbles of gas actually start to form
inside the liquid. This temperature is called the
boiling point of the substance. At the boiling point,
1.3 Changes of state
The kinetic particle theory model can be used to the pressure of the gas created above the liquid
explain how a substance changes from one state to air,, which is atmospheric pressure.
equals that of the air
another. If a solid is heated, the particles vibrate Liquids with high boiling points have stronger
s tronger
faster as they gain energy. This makes them ‘push’ forces between their particles than liquids with low
their neighbouring particles further away. This boiling points.
causes an increase in the volume of the solid, When a gas is cooled, the average energy of the
such that the solid expands, and we can say that particles decreases and the particles move closer
expansion has taken place. together. The forces of attraction between the particles
Eventually,, the heat energy causes
Eventually c auses the forces of now become significant and cause the gas to condense
attraction to weaken. The regular pattern of the into a liquid. When a liquid is cooled, it freezes to form
structure breaks down, and the particles canc an now a solid. Energy is released in each of these changes.
move around each other. The solid has melted. The Changes of state are examples of physical
temperature at which this takes place is called the changes. Whenever a physical change of state
melting point of the substance. The temperature occurs, the temperature remains constant during the
of a melting pure solid will not r ise until it has all change. During a physical change, no new substance
melted. When the substance has become a liquid, is formed.
there are still very significant forces of attraction
between the par ticles, which is why the substance Heating
Heating and cooling curves
cur ves
is a liquid and not a gas. The graph shown in Figure 1.7 was drawn by
Solids which have high melting points have plotting the temperature of water as it was
stronger forces of attraction between their particles heated steadily from −15°C to 110°C. You can see
than those which have low melting points. A list of from the curve that changes of state have taken
some substances with their corresponding melting place. When the temperature was first measured,
and boiling points is shown in Table 1.1. only ice was present. After a short time, the curve
▼ Table 1.1 Melting points and boiling points of substances flattens showing that even though heat energy is
Substance Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C being put in, the temperature remains constant.
Aluminium 661 24 67
Ethanol −117 79 110
100
Magnesium oxide 8 27 3 62 7 Liquid and All
gas (liquid gas
Mercur y −3 0 3 57 C
º/ water and
e
Methane −18 2 −16 4 r water
tu vapour)
O x yg e n −218 −18 3 ra
e
p
m All
Sodium chloride 8 01 1413 e liquid
T
S ul fur 113 445 0 (liquid
All Solid and liquid water)
Water 0 100 15 solid (ice and liquid
(ice) water)
If a liquidincreases
is heated, thethe
average energy Time/minutes
particles and par ticles
particles will of the around
move
▲ Figure 1.7 Graph of temperature against time for the
even faster. Some particles at the surface of the change from ice at −15°C to water to steam
liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces
4
1.3 Changes of state
Practical skills
Changes of state
For safe experiments/demonstrations which
Clamp
are related to this chapter, please refer to the
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills
Workbook, which is also part of this series. Thermometer
Time/mins 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Temperature/°C 79 76 73 70 69 69 69 69 69 67 64 62 60
In ice, the particles of water are close together melting point. A sharp melting
melt ing point therefore
and are attracted to one another. For ice to melt, indicates that it is a pure sample. The addition or
the particles must obtain sufficient energy to presence of impurities lowers the melting point.
overcome the forces of attraction between the
water particles, so that relative movement can You can find the melting point of a substance
take place. The heat energy is being used to using the apparatus shown in Figure 1.8. The
overcome these forces. addition or presence of impurities lowers the
The temperature will begin to rise again melting point. A mixture of substances also has a
only after all the ice has melted. Generally, the lower melting point than a pure substance,
subst ance, and the
heating curve for a pure solid always stops rising melting point will be over a range of temperatures
at its melting point and gives rise to a sharp and not sharp.
5
1 STATES OF MATTER
Heat
6
1.5 Diffusion
1.5 Diffusion
When you go through the door of a restaurant,
rest aurant, you
can often smell the food being cooked. For this
to happen, gas particles must be leaving the pans
the food is being cooked in and be spreading out
through the air in the restaurant.
res taurant. This spreading out
of a gas is called diffusion and it takes place in a
haphazard and random way.
All gases diffuse to fill the space available. ▲ Figure 1.12 Hydrochloric acid (left) and ammonia
Figure 1.11 shows two gas jars on top of each other. (right) diffuse at different rates
Liquid bromine has been placed in the bottom gas Gases diffuse at different rates. If one piece of
jar (left photo)
photo) and then left for a day (right
(right photo).
photo). cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia
The brown-red fumes are gaseous bromine that has solution and another is soaked in concentrated
spread evenly throughout both the gas jars from the hydrochloric
hydrochl oric acid and these are put at opposite
liquid present in the lower gas jarjar.. ends of a dry glass tube,
t ube, then after a few minutes
a white cloud of ammonium chloride appears.
Figure 1.12 shows the position at which the two
gases meet and react. The white cloud forms in
the position shown because the ammonia particles
are lighter; they have a smaller relative
relat ive molecular
mass (Chapter 4, p. 54) than the hydrogen chloride
particles (released from the hydrochl
hydrochloricoric acid) and
so move faster, such that the gas diffuses more
quickly. (See Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook for
more detail of this experiment.
exper iment.)) This experiment
exp eriment
is a teacher demonstration only, which must be
carried out in a fume cupboard
cupboard.. If considering
carrying out this practical, teachers should refer
to the Practical Skills Workbook for full guidance
▲ Figure 1.11 After 24 hours the bromine fumes have
and safety notes.
diffused throughout both gas jars
7
1 STATES OF MATTER
✔ Explain what is
is happening when a substance
changes state.
✔ Describe what happens to to a given amount
amount
▲ Figure 1.13 Diffusion of green food colouring can take of gas when temperature and/or pressure
days to reach the stage shown on the right decreases and increases.
✔ Use the kinetic particle theory to
to explain the
When diffusion takes place between a liquid and effects of pressure and temperature on the
a gas, it is known as intimate mixing. Kinetic volume of a gas.
particle theory can be used to explain this process. ✔
It states that collisions are taking place randomly Describe
why gasesthe process of diffusion and explain
diffuse.
between particles in a liquid or a gas and that there ✔ Describe and explain
explain the rate
rate of diffusion of a
is sufficient space between the particles of one gas in terms of its relative molecular mass.
substance for the particles of the other substance to
move into.
Test yourself
6 When a jar of coffee is opened, people can often
smell it from anywhere in the room. Use the
kinetic particle theory to explain how this happens.
7 Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the diffusion of
a drop of green food colouring added to the bottom
of a beaker.
8 liquids.
Explain why diffusion is faster in gases than in
8
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 a Sketch diagrams
diagrams to show the arrangement of a Describe what you would observe after:
particles in: i a few hours [1]
[1]
i solid oxygen [1]]
[1 ii sever
several
al days. [1]]
[1
ii liquid oxygen [1]]
[1
iii oxygen gas. [1]]
[1 b Explain your answer to Question 5a using
b Describe how the particles move
move in
in these your ideas of the kinetic particle theory. [2
[2]]
three states of matter. [3]]
[3
c State the physical process
process that takes place in
c Explain, using the kinetic part
particle
icle theory, this exper
experiment.
iment. [1
[1]
what happens to the particles in oxygen
as it is cooled down. [3]]
[3 6 The apparatus
apparatus shown below was set up.
up.
Stopper White cloud Glass tube
2 Explain the meaning of each of the following
terms. In your answer include an example to help
with your explanation.
a expa
expansion
nsion [2]]
[2
b contraction [2]]
[2
c physic
physical
al change [2]]
[2 Cotton wool soaked Cotton wool soaked
d diffus
diffusion
ion [2]]
[2 in concentrated in concentrated
hydrochloric acid ammonia solution
e random motion [2]]
[2
3 a Explain why solids do not diffuse. [2]]
[2 When this apparatus is used, the following
b Give two examples of diffus
diffusion
ion of gases things are observed. Explain why each of these
and liquids found in your house. [2]]
[2 is observed.
4 Explain the following,
following, using the ideas you have
have a A white cloud is forme
formed.
d. [1]]
[1
learned about the kinetic particle theory: b It took
took a few minutes before the white
a When you take a block of butter out of the cloud forme
formed.
d. [1]]
[1
fridge, it is quite hard. However,
However, after
aft er 15 c The white cloud formed further from the
minutes it is soft enough to spread. [2]]
[2 cotton wool soaked in ammonia than that
b When you come home home from school and open soaked in hydrochloric acid. [2]]
[2
the door, you can smell food being cooked. [2 [2]] d Cooling the concentrated
concentrated ammonia
ammonia and
c A football is blown
blown up until it is hard
hard on hydrochloric acid before carrying out the
a hot summer’s day. In the evening the experiment increased the time taken for
football feels softer. [2]]
[2 the white cloud to form. [1]
[1]
d When a person wearing perfume enters a
room, it takes several minutes for the smell
to reach the back of the room. [2]]
[2
5 Some green food colouring
colouring was carefully added to
the bottom of a beaker of water using a syringe.
The beaker was then covered and left for several
days.
Beaker
Water
Green
food
colouring
9
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
FOCUS POINTS
★ How arethe
elements, molecules, ions,les
compounds
compounds
★ How do properties
proper ties of the partic
particles in an atomand
leadmixtur
mixtures
to an es different
atom’
atom’s from each other?
s structure?
★ What do oxidation and reduction mean?
★ What is an isotope?
In Chapter 1, you saw that all matter is made up of particles. In this chapter you will look closely at
these particles and see that they are made up of atoms. Atoms are the smallest part of elements.
An element is made up of one type of atom and can be either a metal or a non-metal. Metals and
non-metals have different properties.
You will look at how atoms of different elements can combine to form substances called compounds,
and how this combining occurs in a chemical reaction. By the end of the chapter you should be able to
write a simple word or symbol equation to represent these reactions.
You will see that although atoms are the smallest part of an element that shares the chemical
properties of that element, they are made from even smaller particles. By learning about the
properties and behaviour of these smaller particles (electrons, protons and neutrons), you will be
able to see how they affect the chemical properties of elements and compounds.
The universe is made up of a very large number of In 1803, John Dalton suggested
suggested that
t hat each element
substances (Figure 2.1), and our own part of the was composed of its own kind of particles, which he
universe is no exception. When we examine this vast called atoms. Atoms are much too small to be seen.
se en.
6
array of substances more closely, it is found that they We now know that about 20 × 10 of them would
are made up of some basic substances which were stretch over a length of only 1 cm.
given the name elements in 1661 by Robert Boyle.
2.1 Elements
aAssimpler
well assubstance,
not being able
each to be broken
element downupinto
is made of
only one kind of atom. The word atom comes from
the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’. For
example, aluminium is an element which is made up
of only aluminium atoms. It is not possible to obtain
a simpler substance chemically from the aluminium
atoms. You can only combine it with other elements
to make more complex substances, such as aluminium
oxide, aluminium nitrate or aluminium sulfate.
One hundred and eighteen elements have now
been identified. Twenty of these do not occur in
nature and have been made artificially by scientists.
They include elements such as curium and flerovium.
▲ Figure 2.1 Structures in the universe, such as stars, Ninety-eight of the elements occur naturally and
planets and meteorites, are made of millions of range from some very reactive gases, such as
substances. These are made up mainly from just 91
fluorine and chlorine, to gold and platinum, which
elements, all of which occur naturally on the Earth
10
2.1 Elements
are unreactive elements. A physical property is any ▼ Table 2.1 Physical data for some metallic and
characteristic of a substance that we can measure. non-metallic elements at room temperature and
pressure
The elements have different properties that we can
measure, and we can then classify them according to Metal or Density/ Melting Boiling
those properties. Element non-metal g cm−3 point/°C point/°C
All elements can be classified according to their Aluminium Metal 2.70 660 25 8 0
various properties. A simple way to do this is to C opper Metal 8.9 2 10 8 3 25 67
classify them as metals or non-metals (Figures 2.2 Gold Metal 19.29 1065 2 8 07
and 2.3). Table 2.1 shows the physical property
Iron Metal 7.87 15 35 2 750
data for some common metallic and non-metallic
elements. You will notice from
f rom Table 2.1
2.1 that many Lea d Metal 11.3 4 328 174 0
metals have high densities, high melting points and Magnesium Metal 1.74 6 49 1107
high boiling points, and that most non-metals have Nickel Metal 8.90 14 5 3 2 732
low densities, low melting
melt ing points and low boiling Silver Metal 10.50 962 2 212
points. Table 2.2 summarises the different properties
Zinc Metal 7.14 420 9 07
of metals and non-metals.
C a r bon Non-metal 2 . 25 Sublimes at 3 6 42
Hydrogen Non-metal 0.07a −259 −25 3
Nitrogen Non-metal 0. 8 8 b −210 −196
Ox ygen Non-metal 1.15 c
−218 −18 3
Sulfur Non-metal 2 .0 7 113 445
Source: Earl B., Wilford L.D.R. Chemistry data book. Nelson
Blackie, 1991 a: at −254°C; b: at −1
−197°C;
97°C; c: at −1
−184°C.
84°C.
Proper ty Me t al No n - m e t a l
Physical state at Usually solid Solid, liquid or gas
room temperature (occasionally
liquid)
Malleabilit y Go o d Poor – usually
b Aluminium has many uses in the aerospace industry D u c ti l i t y Go o d soft or brittle
Appearance Shiny (l
(lustrous) Dull
(solids)
Melting point Usually high Usually low
Boiling point Usually high Usually low
Densit y Usually high Usually low
Conductivity Go o d Ver y poor
(thermal and
electrical)
c These coins contain nickel
▲ Figure 2.2 Some metals
11
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Test yourself
1 Using Tables
Tables 2.1
2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in
the following group and explain why it is different
from the others.
zinc copper oxygen lead
2 Using Tables
Tables 2.1
2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in
the following group and explain why it is different
from the others.
carbon nitrogen iron sulfur
3 Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in
the following group of properties of metals and
explain why it is different from the others.
– high melting point
– high density
– soft or brittle
– good electrical conductivity
12
2.1 Elements
Phosphorus P Solid
Potassium (K alium) K Solid
Silicon Si Solid
Silver ( Argentum) Ag Solid
Sodium (Natrium) Na Solid
S ul fur S Solid
Tin (Stannum) Sn Solid b Represented by a space-filling model
Zinc Zn Solid ▲ Figure 2.4 A chlorine molecule
13
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Hydrogen Oxygen Hydrogen and Water Elements other than hydrogen will also react
a pure a pure oxygen mixed a pure with oxygen to form compounds called oxides.
element element together compound
formed from For example, magnesium reacts violently with
hydrogen oxygen gas to form the white powder magnesium
burning in
oxygen oxide (Figure 2.6).
2.6). This reaction
reac tion is accompanied
by a release of energy as new chemical bonds are
H formed.
O O
H
H O O H
H H O
O H H
H
H O H H
H
H H O
H O
O
H
H
H H
O H H O
H H
a The element hydrogen reacts with the element oxygen to
produce the compound water
14
2.2 Compounds
Test yourself
8 Zinc is extrac
extracted
ted from its ore zinc blende in a
furnace by a redox reaction. What does the term
‘redox reaction’ mean?
15
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Practical skills
Heating copper Mass of crucible = 12.90 g
For safe experiments/demonstrations which Mass of crucible + copper = 14.18 g
are related to this chapter, please refer to the Mass of copper = g
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills
Workbook, which is also part of this series. Mass of crucible
cr ucible + contents after heating = 14.30
14.30 g
Colour of contents after heating = black
Safety
1 Draw a labelled diagram of
of the experimenta
experimentall
l Eye protection must be worn.
set-up used in
set-up i n this experiment.
l Take care when hand
handling
ling hot apparatus.
2 Calculate the change in mass that has taken
l Handle
Hand le the copper with tongs or tweezers,
tweezers, not
place during the heating.
heati ng.
your fingers.
3 Explain
Explai n what has caused
caused the change in mass.
A student wants to find
fi nd out what happens
happens when 4 What is the black substa
substance
nce left on the copper
copper
copper is heated in air. In order to do this, after heating?
they carried out the following experiment and 5 Write a word and balanced chemical equation
recorded their results. to show the process that has taken place.
l First, they found
found the mass of an empty crucible 6 a How could you modif modifyy the experiment
to ensure there was no loss of substance
(an
a suitably
su itably prepared
alternative beer-bottle
to a porcelain top (metal) is
crucible). taking place during the heating process?
l They added a piece
piece of copper toto the crucible b What are the other possible sources of
and found the mass again. error?
l They then heated the crucible strongly
strongly for
for 7 Predict what would happen, in terms of of mass
approximately two minutes. change and colour change, if calcium were
l After
Af ter they allowed it to
to cool,
cool, they then found heated in air in the same way as the copper.
the mass after heating.
16
2.2 Compounds
The ratio of atoms within a chemical compound Balanced equations often include symbols that
is usually constant. Compounds are made up of show the physical state of each of the reactants and
fixed proportions of elements: they have a fixed products:
composition. Chemists call this the Law of constant (s)) = solid
(s
composition. (l) = liquid
For further discussion of formulae, see p. 35.
35. (g) = gas
(aq)) = aqueous (water
(aq (water)) solution
Balancing chemical equations We can use the reaction between iron and sulfur as an
Word equations are a useful way of representing example. The word equation to represent this reaction is:
chemical reactions, but a better and more useful
heat
way of seeing what happens during a chemical iron + sulfur
→ iron(II) sulfide
reaction is to produce a balanced chemical When we replace the words with symbols for the
equation. This type of equation gives the formulae reactants and the products, and include their
of the substances that are reacting, the reactants,
reactant s, physical state symbols, we get:
and the new substances formed during the heat
chemical reaction, the products, as well as showing Fe(s) + S(s)
→ FeS(s)
the relative numbers of each of the particles
part icles Since there is the same number of each type of atom
involved. on both sides of the equation, this is a balanced
chemical equation.
Worked example
Write, for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen change the formula of magnesium oxide, so to produce
producing magnesium oxide: the necessary two oxygen atoms on the right-hand side,
a the word equation we will need 2MgO – this means 2 × MgO formula units.
b the balanced chemical equation. The equation now becomes:
heat
a The word equation is: Mg(s)
Mg(s) + O2 (g
(g))
→ 2MgO(
2MgO(s)
s)
heat
magnesium + oxygen
→ magnesium oxide There are now two atoms of magnesium on the right-
hand side and only one on the left. To balance the
b When we replace the words with symbol
symbolss for the reactants equation, we place a 2 in front of the magnesium, and
and the products and include their physical state symbols, obtain the following balanced chemical equation:
it is important to remember that oxygen is a diatomic
heat
molecule: 2Mg(s)
2Mg(s) + O2 (g)
→ 2MgO(
2MgO(s)
s)
Mg(s)
Mg(s) + O2 (g)
heat
→ MgO(
MgO(s)
s) This balanced chemical equation now shows us that
two atoms of magnesium react with one molecule
In the equation there are two oxygen atoms on the left- of oxygen gas when heated to produce two units of
hand side (O2) but only one on the right (MgO). We cannot magnesium oxide.
Test yourself
11 Write the word and balanced chemical equations
for the reactions which take place between:
a calcium and oxygen
b copper and oxygen.
17
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Going further
Instrumental techniques
Elements and compounds can be detected and
identified by a variety of instrumental methods.
Scientists have developed instrumental techniques
2.3 Mixtures
Many everyday things are not pure substances:
subst ances:
they are mixtures . A mixture contains more than
one substance, which could be elements
element s and/or
and/or
compounds. Examples of common mixtures are:
▲ Figure 2.8 The elements sulfur and iron at the top of the
» sea water (Figure
(Figure 2.7)
2.7)
photograph, and (below) black iron(II) sulfide on the left
» air
air,, which is a mixture of elements such as and a mixture of the two elements on the right
oxygen, nitrogen and neon, and compounds such
as carbon dioxide (see Chapter 11, p. 178) Substances in a mixture
chemical reaction and it have not undergone
is possible a
to separate
» alloys such as brass, which
which is a mixture of
of copper
and zinc (for a further discussion of alloys, see them, provided that there is a suitable difference
Chapter 10, p. 165). in their physical properties. If the mixture of iron
18
2.3 Mixtures
and sulfur is heated, a chemical reaction occurs reaction, which is called an endothermic reaction
and a new substance is formed. The product of the (Chapter 6, p. 92). You will learn more about the
reaction is iron(II) sulfide (Figure 2.8 bottom left), different types of reactions in Chapter 6.
and the word equation for this reaction is: ▼ Table 2.6 Different properties of iron, sulfur, an iron/
heat sulfur mixture and iron(II ) sulfide
iron + sulfur
→ iron(II) sulfide
Effect of dilute
Subs
Substa
tanc
nce
e Appe
Appear
arance Effect
ance magnet of a hydrochloric
acid
Iron Dark grey Attracted Very little action
powder to it when cold. When
warm, a gas is
produced with a
lot of bubbling
(effervescence)
S ul fur Yellow None No ef fect when
powder hot or cold
Iron/sulfur Dirty yellow Iron powder Iron powder
mixture powder attracted reacts as above
to it
▲ Figure 2.9 A magnet will separate the iron from the Iron(II) Black so
solid No ef
ef fec t A fo
foul-smelling
Mixture Compound
It contains t wo or more substances. It is a single substance.
The composition can var y. The composition is always the same.
No chemical
chemical chan
change
ge takes
takes place when
when a mixtur
mixture
e is formed.
formed. When the
the new substa
substance
nce is formed
formed it invol
involves
ves chemica
chemicall
change.
The properties are those of the individual elements/ The properties are ver y different to those of the component
compounds. elements.
The components may be separated quite easily by physical The components can only be separated by one or more
means. chemical reactions.
Test yourself
12 Make a list of some other common mixtures
mixtures and 13 Which of the following are not mixtures: milk, tin,
then use your research to find out and state what sulfur, cough linctus, brass, gold?
they are mixtures of.
19
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Going further
Other types of mixtures The glass fibres give the plastic extra strength so that it
does not break when it is bent or moulded into shape. The
There are mixtures which are formed by mixing two
finished material has the strength and flexibility of the
substances (or phases) which cannot mix. Gels, sols,
glass fibres as well as the lightness of plastic (Figure 2.11).
foams and emulsions are all examples of just such
mixtures. Look
which shows closely of
examples at these
the substances in Figure
different types 2.10,
of mixture.
a b
Neutrons and protons have a similar mass, The number of neutrons present can be calculated
whereas electrons possess very little mass. So the by rearranging the relationship between the proton
mass of any atom depends on the number of protons number,, mass number and number of neutrons to
number
and neutrons in its nucleus. The total number give:
of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of
number of neutrons = mass number − proton number
an atom is called the mass number (or nucleon
number) and is given the symbol A A.. (A) (Z )
Key definitions
Proton number or atomic number is the number of
Worked example
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
1 What is the number of neutrons in one atom of 24
12Mg
?
Mass number or nucleon number is the total number of
number of neutrons = mass number − proton number
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
12 = 24( A
A)) – 12(Z
12( Z)
mass number = proton number + number of neutrons
2 What is the number of neutrons in one atom of 207
82Pb?
(A) (Z )
number of neutrons = mass number − proton number
The helium atom in Figure 2.14
2.14 has a mass number
of 4, since it has two
t wo protons and two neutrons in 125 = 207( A
A)) – 82(Z
82(Z)
its nucleus. If we consider the metallic element
lithium,
nucleus. it
It has three protons
therefore and number
has a mass four neutrons
of 7. in its
it s Table 2.9 in
electrons shows the number
the atoms of protons,
of some common neutrons
elements.and
The proton number and mass number of an
element are usually written in the following
shorthand way:
Mass number ( A ) ←4 He
2
←
← Symbol of the element
Proton number ( Z )
22
2.4 Inside atoms
23
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
24
2.4 Inside atoms
Going further
The mass spectrometer The spectrometer is set up to ensure that when the
ions leave the acceleration area they all have the same
How do we know isotopes exist? They were first
kinetic energy, regardless of the mass of the ions. This
discovered by scientists using apparatus called a mass
means that the lighter ions travel faster than the heavier
spectrometer (Figure 2.17). The first mass spectrometer
ones, and effectively separate the ions according to their
was built by the
and enabled British to
scientists scientist
compareFrancis Aston in
the relative 1919
masses mass. Having left the acceleration area, the time for
the ions to reach the detector is recorded. The detector
of atoms accurately for the first time.
counts the number of each of the ions which fall upon
Vacuum chamber
it and so a measure of the percentage abundance of
each isotope is obtained. A typical mass spectrum for
Sample Ion
detector
chlorine is shown
show n in Figure 2.
2 .18.
inlet
100
The arrangemen
arr angementt of electrons in
atoms
The nucleus of an atom contains the heavier sub-
8p
atomic particles – the protons and the neutrons. The 8n
electrons, the lightest of the sub-atomic particles,
move around the nucleus at great distances from the
nucleus relative to their size. They move very fast in
electron shells, very much like the planets orbit the
Sun. ▲ Figure 2.19 Arr angement of electrons in an oxygen atom
2.19
It is not possible to give the exact position
of an electron in an electron shell. However, we
can state that electrons can only occupy certain, H
1p
26
2.4 Inside atoms
From Table
Table 2.12
2.12 you can see helium has a full
f ull outer chemical bonding, which we will discuss further in
shell of two electrons, and neon has a full outer the next chapter.
shell of 8 electrons. These two elements are very
unreactive for this reason. In Chapter 9 we will see Test yourself
that the number of outer shell electrons is related to
19 How many electrons may be accommodated in
the position in the Periodic Table. Helium and neon each of the first three electron shells?
are part gases
or inert of a group of elements
and they knownvery
are generally as the noble
stable and 20 What is the same
configurations of: about the electronic
unreactive (p. 145).
145). This is linked to their full outer a lithium, sodium and potassium?
shells. When elements react to form compounds, b bery
beryllium,
llium, magnesium and calcium?
21 An element X has a proton number
number of 13. What is
they do so to achieve full electron shells, and this the electronic configuration of X?
idea forms the basis of the electronic theory of
27
2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 2 you should be able to: ✔ Define an oxidising agent and a reducing agent.
✔ Describe thethe differences
differences between elements,
elements,
compounds and mixtures. ✔ Describe the structure of the atom as a central
✔ Interpret and use symbols for given atoms.
nucleus containing neutrons and protons
✔ State the
the formulae of the elements and compounds
you have dealt with. ✔
surrounded by electrons
State the relative chargesinand
charges shells.
relative masses of a
✔ Define the molecular formula of a compound as
proton, a neutron.
the number and type of different atoms in one ✔ Define proton number and atomic number as well
molecule. as mass number.
✔ Deduce the formula of a simple compound from
✔ Determine the electronic
electronic configuration
configuration ofof
the relative numbers of atoms present in a elements with the proton number 1 to 20.
model or a diagrammatic representation
representation of the ✔ Describe the formation of positive
positive ions, known as
compound. cations, and negative ions, known as anions.
✔ Construct word equation
equation and
and symbol equations
equations to
to ✔ State what isotopes are.
show how reactants form products, including state
symbols. ✔ State that isotopes of the same element have
✔ Define redox
redox reactions asas involving both oxidation
oxidation the same electronic configuration and so have
and reduction. the same chemical properties.
✔ Define oxidation
oxidation as
as oxygen gain
gain and reduction
reduction as ✔ Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of an
relative atomic
oxygen loss. element from given data of the relative masses
masse s
✔ Identify redox reactions as reactions involving
involving gain and abundance of their different isotopes.
and loss of oxygen.
28
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 a Define the terms: 5 State, at room temper
temperature
ature and pressure (r.t.p.
(r.t.p.),
),
i proton [3]]
[3 which of the substances listed below is/are:
ii neutr
neutronon [2]]
[2 a a solid element
iii elec
electron.
tron. [3]]
[3 b a liquid element
b An atom X has a proton number of 19 and c a gaseous mixture
relative atomic mass of 39. d a solid mixture
i How many electrons, protons and neutrons e a liquid compound
are there in atom X? [3] f a solid compound.
ii How many electrons will there be in the bromine, carbon dioxide, helium,
outer electron shell of atom X? [1] steel, air, oil, marble, copper, water,
water,
iii What is the electronic configuration of sand, tin, bronze, mercur
mercury,
y, salt [11
11]]
atom X? [1] 6 a How many atoms of of the different elements are
there in the formulae
for mulae of these compounds
compounds??
69
2 a Ga and 71
31 31Ga are isotopes of gallium. i nitric acid, HNO3 [3]]
[3
Use this example to explain what you ii methane, CH4 [2]]
[2
understand by the term isotope. [3]]
[3 iii copper nitrate, Cu(NO
Cu(NO3)2 [3]]
[3
69
b A sample
sample of gallium is 60%
60% 31Ga atoms iv ethanoic acid, CH3COOH [3]
71
and 40% 31Ga atoms. Calculate the relative v sugar, C12H22O11 [3]]
[3
atomic mass of this sample of gallium. [2]]
[2 vi phenol, C6H5OH [3]
vii amm
ammonium
onium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 [4]]
[4
3 Define the following terms using specif
specific
ic b Balance the following equations.
examples to help with your explanation: i Zn(s) + O2(g) → Zn ZnO(s)
O(s) [2]
a elemen
elementt [2]]
[2 ii Fe(s) + Cl 2(g) → FeCl3(s) [3]
b meta
metall [3]]
[3 iii Li(s) + O2(g) → Li2O(s) [2]
c non-met
non-metalal [2]]
[2 iv H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) [2]
d compound [2]]
[2 v Mg(s) + CO2(g) → MgO(s) + C(s) [2]
e molecul
moleculee [2]]
[2
f mixt
mixture.
ure. [2]]
[2
4 State which of the substances listed below are:
a metallic elements
b non-metallic elements
cd mixtures.
compounds
silicon, sea water, calcium, argon,
water, air, carbon monoxide, iron,
sodium chloride, diamond, brass,
copper,, dilute sulfuric acid, sulfur,
copper
oil, nitroge
nitrogen,
n, ammonia [17]
[17]
29
3 Bonding
Bonding and structure
structure
FOCUS POINTS
★ In what
★ How do different
the bondsways doaelements
within compoundcombine to proper
affect its form compounds?
properties?
ties?
★ What is a redox reaction?
30
3.1 Ionic bonding
In this way both the atoms obtain full outer the electrons from one atom are shown as crosses
shells and become ‘like’ the noble gas nearest to and those of the other atom as dots. In the reaction
them in the Periodic Table (see Figure 9.3, p. 135). the sodium atom has become
be come a sodium ion, in a
One way of showing this transfer of electrons is by process known as ionisation.
ionisat ion. This sodium ion has an
using a dot-and-cross diagram. In these diagrams, electronic configuration like the noble gas neon.
11 protons 11 17 protons 17
10 electrons 10 18 electrons 18
Over
Overal
alll ch
char
arge
ge 1 Over
Overal
alll ch
char
arge
ge 1
A further discussion of oxidation and reduction All students should be able to describe the
in terms of electron transfer takes place in formation of ionic bonds between elements of Group
Chapter 5 (p. 71). I and Group VII
VI I and draw dot
dot-and-cross
-and-cross diagrams.
Extended learners should be able to do this for
any metallic and non-metallic
non-metal lic element, including
drawing dot
dot-and-cross
-and-cross diagrams.
Na Cl [Na] Cl
31
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Mg O [Mg] 2 O
Figure 3.4 shows the electron transfers that Magnesium obtains a full outer shell by losing
take place between a magnesium atom and an two electrons. These are transferred to the oxygen
oxygen atom during the formation of magnesium atom. In magnesium oxide, the Mg2+ and O2− are
oxide. oppositely charged and are attracted to one
another. The formula for magnesium oxide is MgO.
Cl Cl
Ca [Ca]2
Cl Cl
▲ Figure 3.5 The transfer of electrons that takes place during the formation of calcium chloride
When calcium and chlorine react, the calcium formed containing two chloride ions (Cl−) for each
atom gives each of the two chlorine atoms one calcium ion (Ca2+). The chemical formula is CaCl 2.
electron (Figure 3.5)
3.5).. In this case, a compound is
Test yourself
1 Define the term ‘ionic bond’. b lithium chloride (LiCl)
2 Why do inert (noble) gases not bond with themselves
and other elements? c magnesium fluoride (MgF2)
3 Draw diagrams to represent the bonding in each d calcium oxide (CaO).
of the following ionic compounds:
a potassium fluoride (KF)
32
3.1 Ionic bonding
Going further
Scientists, using X-ray diffraction (Figure 3.6a), have is possible to use them to investigate extremely small
obtained photographs that indicate the way in which the structures.
ions are arranged (Figure 3.6b). The electron density
When X-rays are passed through a crystal of sodium
map of sodium chloride is shown in Figure 3.6c.
chloride, for example, you get a pattern of spots called
Crystal
X-rays
Diffraction pattern
on a photographic film
a X-ray diffraction technique
Na Cl
Cl
300
500
1000
2000
Na su
surro
rroun
unde
ded
d Cl surro
surroun
unde
dedd
5000 by 6 C l ions by 6 N a ions
2000 5000
d The structure of sodium chloride
c Electron density map of sodium chloride
▲ Figure 3.6
33
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Na+
Cl
− O
H H
Na+ Cl
−
Cs sur
surrou
rounde
nded
d by
by 8 Cl− ions
In the same way, each Cl −
is surrounded by 8 Cs ions
b The unit cell
34
3.1 Ionic bonding
Test yourself
4 Link the terms in the boxes
boxes on the left with the definitions on the right.
Oxidation An atom or group of atoms which has lost one or more electrons
Formulae of ionic substances can form the Cu+ ion and the Cu2+ ion, with oxidation
numbers of 1 and 2 respectively. Therefore it can
We saw previously (see p. 31) that ionic compounds form two different compounds with chlorine, CuCl
contain positive and negative ions, whose charges and CuCl2. We can also distinguis
distinguish
h the difference
dif ference
balance. For example, sodium chloride contains one by using Roman numerals in their names: CuCl is
Na+ ion for every Cl− ion, giving rise to the formula
copper(I) chloride and CuCl2 is copper(II) chloride.
NaCl. This method can be used to write down Similarly, iron forms the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions and so
formulae which show the ratio
rat io of the number of ions can also form two different compounds with, for
present in any ionic compound. example, chlorine: FeCl2 (iron(II) chloride) and FeCl 3
The formula of magnesium chloride is MgCl2. This
(iron(III) chloride).
formula is arrived at by each Mg2+ ion combining
combining with Table 3.1
3.1 shows the oxidation numbers of a
−
two Cl ions, and once again the charges balance. The series of ions you will normally meet in your study
use of oxidation numbers is useful when working out
of chemistry.
the formula of a compound. An oxidation number shows You will notice that Table 3.1 includes groups
how oxidised or reduced an ion is compared to its atom. of atoms which have net charges. For example,
Na+ has an oxidation number of +1 because it is formed the nitrate ion is a single unit composed of one
by the loss of one electron (Chapter 5, p. 71) from a nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms, and has
sodium atom but Mg2+ has an oxidation number of +2 one single negative charge. The formula, therefore,
because it is formed when a magnesium atom loses of magnesium nitrate would be Mg(NO3)2. You will
two electrons (Table 3.1). Na+ can bond (combine) with notice that the NO3 has been placed in brackets with
only one Cl− ion, whereas Mg2+ can bond with two a 2 outside the bracket. This indicates that there are
−
Cl ions. it
because A is
chloride
formedion hasaanchlorine
when oxidation state
atom of –1
gains one two nitrate ions present for every magnesium ion.
ion.
The ratio of the atoms present is therefore:
extra electron.
Some elements, such as copper and iron,iron, possess Mg (N O3)2
two ions with different oxidation numbers. Copper 1Mg : 2N : 6O
▼ Table 3.1 Oxidation numbers (valencies) of some elements (ions) and groups of atoms
35
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Oxidation number
Each atom in an element or compound is assigned
an oxidation number to show how much it is
reduced or oxidised.
remembered The oxidation
when using following numbers.
points should be
» Roman numerals
numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII)
are used in writing the oxidation number of an
element.
▲ Figure 3.9 Iron(II ) sulfate is pale green, while iron( III )
sulfate is yellow
» This number
number is placed after the element that
it refers to. For example, the name for FeCl 3 is » An increase in the oxidation number,
number, for
iron(III) chloride and not iron(3)
iron(3) chloride.
chlor ide. example, from +2 to +3 as in the case of Fe2+ to
» The oxidation number
number of the free element is Fe3+, is oxidation.
always 0, for example, in metals such as zinc » However
However,, a reduction in the oxidation
oxidation number,
number,
and copper. for example, from +6 to +3 as in the case of Cr 6+
» In simple monatomic
monatomic ions,
ions, the oxidation number
number (in CrO42−) to Cr3+, is reduction.
36
3.1 Ionic bonding
Key definitions
An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
substance and is itself reduced. substance and is itself oxidised.
37
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
38
3.2 Covalent bonding
6
C 2,4 1
H1
The carbon
attain atom needs
the electronic four more electrons
configuration to gas
of the noble
neon. Each hydrogen atom needs only one electron
2 chlorine atoms
to form the electronic configuration of helium.
Figure 3.15
3.15 shows how the atoms gain these elect
electronic
ronic
configurations by the sharing of electrons. Note that
only the outer electron shells are shown.
Cl Cl
C
Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
H Cl H Cl
39
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
N H
40
3.2 Covalent bonding
▲ Figure 3.18 Model of the ammonia molecule ▲ Figure 3.20 Model of a water molecule
O 2 oxyge
oxygen
n atoms
atoms Carb
Carbon
on atom
atom
H H
O C O
Water molecule (H2O)
▲
Figure 3.21of Dot-and-cross
formation diagram
a carbon dioxide to show the
molecule
41
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
configuration of the
The triple bond noble
can gas neon.
be shown in the molecule as
N ≡ N.
N N
H
▲ Figure 3.23 Dot-and-cross diagram to show the
formation of an oxygen molecule
As with the carbon dioxide molecule, the double
bond can be shown by a double line between the H C O H
42
3.2 Covalent bonding
43
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Si
b Quart
Quartzz is a hard solid at room temperature.
temperature . It has a
a The silicon( IV ) oxide structure in quartz melting point of 1610°C and a boiling point of 2230°C
▲ Figure 3.27
Going further
Giant covalent structures physical forms is called an allotrope. Allotropy is
actually quite a common feature of the elements in the
When an element can exist in more than one physical
Periodic Table (p. 135). An example of an element which
form in the same physical state, it is said to exhibit
shows allotropy is carbon.
allotropy (or polymorphism). Each of the different
Practical skills
are related to this chapter, please refer to the solutions: most are low hazard (and should all
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills be ≤1M); 0.2–1.0 mol/dm3 copper(II) sulfate
Workbook, which is also part of this series. solution is an irritant and corrosive.
44
3.2 Covalent bonding
Test solution
45
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
One layer
46
3.2 Covalent bonding
▼ Table 3.2 Physical properties of graphite and diamond ▼ Table 3.3 Uses of graphite and diamond
Proper ty G r a p h it e D ia m o n d G r a p h it e Diamond
Appearance A dark grey, shiny A colourless Pencil s Jeweller y
solid transparent crystal
Electrodes Glass cut ters
which sparkles
in light Lubricant Diamond-studded saws
Electrical
conductivity Conducts
electricity Does not conduct
electricity Drill bits
Polishers
Hardness A sof t material A very hard
with a slippery feel substance
Density (g/cm3) 2 .2 5 3.51
Graphite Diamond
Figure 3.28a shows the structure of graphite. This
T his Figure 3.29a shows the diamond structure. Each of
is a layer structure. Within each layer, each carbon the carbon atoms in the giant structure is covalently
atom is bonded to three others by strong covalent bonded to four others. They form a tetrahedral
bonds. Each layer is therefore like a giant molecule. arrangement similar to that found in silicon(IV) oxide
Between these layers there are weak forces of (p. 44). This bonding scheme gives rise to a very
attraction and so the layers will pass over each rigid three-dimensional structure and accounts for
other easily. the extreme hardness of the substances silicon(IV)
With only three covalent bonds formed between oxide and diamond. All the outer shell electrons of
carbon atoms within the layers, an unbonded the carbon atoms are used to form covalent bonds, so
electron is present on each carbon atom. These there are no electrons available to enable diamond or
‘spare’ (or delocalised) electrons form electron silicon(IV) oxide to conduct electricity.
clouds between the layers and it is because of these It is possible to manufacture the different
spare electrons that graphite conducts electricity. allotropes of carbon. Diamond is made by heating
heat ing
graphite to about 300°C at very high pressures.
Going further Diamond made by this method is known as industrial
diamond. Graphite can be made by heating
heat ing a
Graphitic compounds mixture of coke and sand at a very high temperature
In recent years, a set of interesting compounds in an electric arc furnace for about 24 hours.
known as graphitic compounds have been developed. The various uses of graphite and diamond result
In these compounds, different atoms have been fitted from their differing
dif fering properties
propert ies (Figure 3.30).
3.30).
in between the layers of carbon atoms to produce a
substance with a greater electrical conductivity than
pure graphite. Graphite is also used as a component
in certain sports equipment, such as tennis and
squash rackets.
Going further
Graphene
Discovered in 2004, graphene is a so-called super
material made up of single layers of graphite as
shown in the upper diagram of Figure 3.28a. It is
able to conduct electricity one million times better
than copper metal and has enormous potential in
electronics.
47
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
▲ Figure 3.30 Uses of graphite (as a pencil ‘lead’ and in a squash racket) and diamond (as a toothed saw to cut marble and
on a dentist’s drill)
Going further
Buckminsterfullerene – an unusual form of Buckminsterfullerene is named after an American
architect, Buckminster Fuller, who built complex
carbon geometrical structures (Figure 3.32).
In 1985, a new allotrope of carbon was obtained by
Richard Smalley and Robert Curl of Rice University,
Texas. It was formed by the action of a laser beam on a
sample of graphite.
The structure of buckminsterfullerene can be seen in
Figure 3.31.
This spherical structure is composed of 60 carbon
atoms covalently bonded together. Further spherical
forms of carbon, ‘bucky balls’, containing 70, 72 and
84 carbon atoms have been identified and the discovery
has led to a whole new branch of inorganic carbon
chemistry. It is thought that this type of molecule exists
in chimney soot. Chemists have suggested that, due to
the large surface area of the bucky balls, they may have
uses as catalysts (Chapter 7, p. 106). Also they may have
uses as superconductors. ▲ Figure 3.31 Buckminsterfullerene – a ‘bucky ball’ (C 60)
48
3.2 Covalent bonding
▲ Figure 3.32 C60 has a structure similar to a football and to the structure of the domes shown
Test yourself
10 Explain the difference between ionic and covalent 12 Draw up a table to summarise the properties of the
bonding. different types of substances you have met in this
chapter.. Your table should include examples from
chapter
11 Compare the structure
structuress of silicon( IV ) oxide and
ionic substances and covalent substances (simple
diamond.
and giant).
Going further
Glasses and ceramics
Glasses
Glasses are all around us. Glasses are irregular giant
molecular structures held together by strong covalent
bonds. Glass can be made by heating silicon( IV ) oxide
with other substances until a thick viscous liquid is
formed. As this liquid cools, the atoms present cannot
move freely enough to return to their arrangement
within the pure silicon(IV ) oxide structure. Instead they
are forced to form a disordered arrangement as shown
O Si
in Figure 3.33. Glass is called a supercooled liquid.
▲ Figure 3.33 Two-dimensional structure of silicon(IV )
oxide in glass
49
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Force
applied
here
Before
Properties of metals
Metals have the following properties. After
» They conduct
conduct electricity
electric ity due to the mobile ▲ Figure 3.35 The positions of the positive ions in a metal
electrons within the metal structure. When a before and after a force has been applied
50
3.3 Metallic bonding
Going further
51
3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 3 you should be able to: ✔ Identify oxidation
oxidation and reduction in redox reactions.
reactions.
✔ Explain how compounds form between metals and
non-metals. ✔ Identify oxidising
oxidising agents and reducing agents in
✔ Describe the properties of ionic compounds. redox reactions.
✔ Explain in terms
terms of structure and bonding the
the
properties of ionic compounds. ✔ Explain how simple compounds
compounds form between
non-metals by single covalent bonds.
✔ Work out the formulae of
of ionic substances from
the charges on the ions. ✔ Expl ain how simple compounds containing multiple
Explain
covalent bonds form between non-metals.
✔ Identify redox reactions as reactions involving
involving gain
and loss of oxygen. ✔ Describe and explain the properties of simple
covalent compounds.
✔ Identify redox
redox reactions as reactions involving ✔ Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite
gain and loss of electrons. and diamond.
✔ Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation
number. ✔ Describe the giant covalent structure of
of silicon(IV )
oxide, SiO2.
✔ Define redox
redox reactions
reactions as involving simultaneous
oxidation and reduction. ✔ Relate the structures of graphite and
and diamond to
✔ Identify oxidation
oxidation as gain of oxygen and reduction
reduction their uses.
as loss of oxygen.
✔ Describe the
the similarity
similarity in properties between
between
✔ Define oxidation
oxidation as loss of electrons and increase diamond and silicon(IV ) oxide, related to their
in oxidation number, and reduction as gain of structures.
electrons and reduction in oxidation number. ✔ Describe the arrangement of of particles in a solid
✔ Identify redox
redox reactions by the colour changes metal.
involved when using acidified potassium ✔ Recognise that the particles in a metal are held
manganate( VII ) or potassium iodide. together by metallic bonds.
✔ Define an oxidising agent as a substance that ✔ Describe metallic bonding.
oxidises another substance and is itself reduced ✔ Use metallic bonding to explain some of of the
during a redox reaction. properties of metals.
✔ Define a reducing agent
agent as a substance that
reduces another substance and is itself oxidised
during a redox reaction.
52
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 Define the following: 5 Atoms of elemen
elements ts X, Y and Z have 16, 17 and
a posit
positive
ive (+
(+)) ion [2]]
[2 19 electrons, respectively.
respec tively. Atoms of argon
argon have
b negat
negative
ive (–
(–)) ion [2]]
[2 18 electrons.
c ionic bond [2]]
[2 a Determine the formulae of of the compounds
compounds
d electrost
electrostatic
atic force of attrac
attraction.
tion. [2]]
[2 formed by the combination of the atoms of
2 Using Table
Table 3.1
3.1 on p. 3535,, write down the names of: the elements:
a three atoms which would form an ion i X and Z [1]]
[1
with
wit h a charge of +2 [3]]
[3 ii Y and Z [1]]
[1
b three atoms which would would form an ion iii X wit
withh its
itself.
elf. [1]]
[1
with
wit h a charge of +1 [3]]
[3 b In each of the cases shown in a i–iii above,
shown in
c three atoms/gr
atoms/groups
oups of atoms
atoms which would identify the type
t ype of chemical bond formed. [3 [3]]
form an ion witwithh a charge of –2. [3]]
[3 c Give two properties you would expec expectt each
of the compounds formed in a ii and iii
3 Sketch diagrams
diagrams to show
show the bonding
bonding in each to have. [4]]
[4
of the following
follow ing compounds:
a calcium fluoride (CaF2) [4] 6 Explain the following statements.
b oxygen (O2) [4] a Ammonia is a gas at room temper
temperature.
ature. [3]]
[3
c magnesium chloride (MgCl2) [4] b The melting points of sodium chloride
4 d
4).
Usetetrachloromethane
the information (CClin
information given Table 3.1
3.1 [4] and iodine are very different.
c Metals generally are good conductors
[8]]
[8
on p. 35 to deduce the formula for: of electr icity. [3]]
[3
a silver oxide d Graphite act
actss as a lubricant but diamond
b zinc chloride does not. [3]]
[3
c potassium sulfate
d calcium nitrate
e iron(II) nitrate
f copper(II) carbonate
g iron(III) hydroxide
h aluminium fluor ide. [8]]
[8
53
Stoichiometry – chemical
4 calculations
FOCUS POINTS
★ How
★ Whatcan I calculate
is relative the mass?
atomic mass of products in a reaction?
★ How is a mole and the Avogadro constant useful in balancing calculations?
calculation s?
★ How can I determine the formula of a compound?
In this chapter, you will learn how to calculate the masses of products formed in a chemical reaction,
when told the quantity of reactants you start with,
w ith, and also how to calculate the mass of starting
materials you need to produce a certain mass of product. These are the typet ype of calculations your
teacher does before they write the methods for student practicals. Have you ever thought how your
teachers were able to get it right every time?
We will look at the amounts of substances used and formed during reactions involving solids,
gases and solutions. You need to know whether you actually got the right amount of product in your
experiment, and we will also look at how well a reaction went.
By the end of this chapter we hope that you will be confident in using numbers and balanced chemical
reactions to help you to discover these things.
54
4.2 Calculating moles
12 32 44
This number is 6.02 × 1023 atoms, ions or
12 g 32 g 44 g
molecules and is called
calle d Avogadro’s
Avogadro’s constant after
the famous Italian scientist
sc ientist Amedeo Avogadro
The above calculation shows that if 12 g of carbon was (1776–1856). An amount of substance containing
burned completely then 44 g of carbon dioxide gas would
be formed. So, 6 g of carbon burning would result in the
6.02 × 1023 particles is called a mole (often
formation of 22 g of carbon dioxide gas. abbreviated to mol)
mol)..
55
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Worked example
Calculate the number of atoms of carbon in: Atoms of carbon in 0.5 moles = 6.02 × 10 23 × 0.5 = 3.01 × 10 23
a 0.5 moles atoms
b 0.1 moles
moles.. In a similar way:
Molar mass of carbon contains 6.02 × 10 23 atoms of carbon Atoms of carbon in 0.1 moles = 6.02 × 10 23 × 0.1 = 6.02 × 10 22
so 0.5 moles would contain half of this amount: atoms
Worked example
What mass of hydrogen gas would be produced if 46 g of Now write these masses under the balanced chemical
sodium was reacted with
wi th water? equation taking into account the numbers used to balance
the equation.
First write down the balanced chemical equation:
2Na
2Na + 2H O → 2NaO
2NaOH
H + H
2 2
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H 2
2 × 23 = 46 2 × 18 = 36 2 × 40 = 80 2
Next find the relative atomic mass of sodium (from the
Periodic Table (p. 135)) and work out the relative formula These relative masses can now be converted into actual
masses of water, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The or reacting masses by putting in mass units, for example,
term relative formula mass is used when the compound is grams.
ionic, in this case sodium hydroxide. It is used and calculated
2Na
2Na + 2H O → 2NaO
2NaOH
H + H
in the same way as we have used relative molecular mass for 2 2
56
4.3 Moles and compounds
Worked example
Calculate the mass of a 2 moles of iron and b 0.25 mole
of iron. ( Ar: Fe = 56)
a mass of 2 moles of iron
= number of moles × relati ve atomic mass ( Ar)
relative
= 2 × 56
= 112 g
b mass of 0.25 mole of iron
= number of moles × relati ve atomic mass ( Ar)
relative
= 0.25 × 56
= 14 g
Worked example
Calculate the number of moles of aluminium present in
a 108 g and b 13.5 g of the element. ( Ar: Al = 27)
a number of moles of aluminium ▲ Figure 4.3 1 mole of water (H 2O) (left) and 1 mole
masss of alu
mas alumin
minium
ium of ethanol (C2H5OH) (right) in separate measuring
= cylinders
molar
mol ar mas
masss of alu
alumin
miniu
ium
m
57
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
2 moles
molar of oxygen
mass of CO2atoms. Therefore:
= (1 × 12) + (2 × 16) or
volume of a gas (in dm 3 at r.t.p.) = number of moles
= 44 /mol
mass of 3 moles = number of × molar mass of gas × 24 dm3
of CO2 moles of CO2 We will use these two relationships to help us
= 3 × 44
= 132 g answer some questions concerning gases.
b mass of 0.2 mole = number of × molar mass
of CO2 moles
= 0.2 × 44
of CO2 Worked example
= 8.8 g Calculate the number of moles of ammonia gas, NH 3, in a
volume of 72 dm3 of the gas measured at r.t.p.
58
4.3 Moles and compounds
A simple method of calculating the Sometimes chemists need to know the mass of
concentration uses the relationship: a substance that has to be dissolved to prepare a
number of moles known volume of solution at a given concentration.
concentr
concentration
ation (in mol/dm3 ) =
mol/dm
volu
volume
me (i
(in dm3 )
n dm A simple method of calculating the number of
moles, and so the mass of substance needed, is by
It is very easy to change a volume given in cm 3
using the relationship:
into one in dm3 by simply dividing the volume in
cm3 by 1000. For example, 250 cm3 is 0.25 dm3. number of = concentration × volume
volume in solution
3
moles (in mol/dm ) (in dm 3)
Worked example
Worked example
Calculate the concentration (in mol/dm 3) of a solution of
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, which was made by dissolving Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide, KOH, that
10 g of solid sodium hydroxide in water and making up to 3 3
250 cm3. ( Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Na = 23) needs toin
solution bewater.
used to
( Aprepare 500 cm of a 2 mol/dm
r: H = 1; O = 16; K = 39)
1 mole of NaOH contains 1 mole of sodium, 1 mole of number of moles of KOH
oxygen and 1 mole of hydrogen. Therefore:
= concentration of solution × volume of solution
molar mass of NaOH = (1 × 23) + (1 × 16) + (1 × 1) (mol/dm3) (dm3)
= 40 g
= 2 × 500 = 1
numbe
nu mberr of mol
moles
es mass
ma ss of Na
NaOH
OH 1000
=
NaO
aOH H in10 g mola
mo larr ma
mass
ss of Na
NaOH
OH 1 mole of KOH contains 1 mole of potassium, 1 mole of
oxygen and 1 mole of hydrogen. Therefore:
= 10 = 0.
0.25
25
40 molar mass of KOH
= (1 × 39) + (1 × 16) + (1 × 1)
c m3 = 250 dm3 = 0.
(250 cm d m3 )
0 .25 dm
1000 = 56 g
concen
concentra
tratio
tion
n of th
the
e nu Therefore:
= numb
mberer of mo
moleless of Na
NaOH
OH
NaOH solu
solution
tion volu
volume
me of so
solu
luti
tion
on (d
(dmm3 ) mass of KOH in 1 mole (500 cm 3 of 2 mol/dm3) = 56 g
= 0.25 = 1 mo
mol/dm3
l/dm
0.25
59
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Identify
Identi
bromide fying
ing2.an
is PbBr Thisunknown
means that 1 compound
mole of lead(II)
Test yourself bromide contains 1 mole of lead ions and 2 moles
Use these values of Ar to answer the questions below. of bromide ions. If we do not know the formula of a
H = 1; C = 12; N = 14; O = 16; Ne = 20; Na = 23; Mg = 24; compound,
compou nd, we can find
f ind the masses of the elements
S = 32; Cl = 35.5; K = 39; Fe = 56; Cu = 63.5; Zn = 65 present experimentally, and we can then use these
1 mole of any gas at r.t.p. occupies 24 dm 3. masses to work out the formula of that compound.
l
7 Calculate the mass of:
a 2 mol of zinc oxide (ZnO) Take care when handling hot apparatus.
b 0.25 mol of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Crucible (or 'bottle-top' crucible')
c 0.35 mol of copper( II ) sulfate (CuSO4).
8 Calculate the number of moles at r.t.p.
r.t.p. in:
a 2 dm3 of carbon dioxide (CO 2)
b 240 dm3 of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
c 20 cm3 of carbon monoxide (CO).
9 Calculate the volume of: Magnesium
a 0.3 mol of hydrogen chloride (HCl) Pipe clay ribbon
b 4.4 g of carbon dioxide triangle
c 34 g of ammonia (NH3).
10 Calculate the concentration of solutions containing:
a 0.2 mol of sodium hydroxide dissolved in
water and made up to 100 cm 3 Heat
b 9.8 g of sulfuric acid dissolved in water and Tripod
made up to 500 cm3.
11 Calculate the mass of:
of:
a copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4) which needs to be used
to prepare 500 cm3 of a 0.1 mol/dm3 solution
b potassium nitrate (KNO3) which needs to be used
to prepare 200 cm3 of a 2 mol/dm3 solution.
12 How many atoms are there in:
a 0.25 moles of aluminium
b 0.1
0.15
5 moles of magnesium?
13 How many moles of calcium contain 1.204 1.204 × 1024
atoms? ▲ Figure 4.4 Apparatus used to determine
magnesium oxide’s formula
4.4 Calculati
Calculating
ng formulae If a known mass of magnesium ribbon is
heated strongly in a crucible (or 'bottle-top'
If we have 1 mole of a compound, then the formula crucible) with a lid, it reacts with oxygen to
shows the number of moles of each element in that form magnesium oxide.
compound.
compou nd. For example, the formula for lead(II)
60
4.4 Calculating formulae
magnesium + oxyg
oxygen
en → magnesium oxide From these data we can find the formula of
magnesium oxide by following these steps:
To allow oxygen into the crucible, the lid needs
to be lifted briefly during the heating process. 1 Calculate the mass of magnesium metal used
in this experiment.
To heat to constant mass:
2 Calculate the mass of oxygen which reacts
l Heat strongly for
for 5 minutes, then the crucible
and contents should be allowed to cool and 3 with the magnesium.
Calculate the number of moles of magnesium
reweighed. used.
l The above step should be repeated unti
untill a 4 Calculate the number of moles of oxygen
constant mass is obtained. atoms which react with the magnesium.
5 Determi
Determine
ne the simplest ratio of moles of
When the
t he magnesium is
i s heated, it can be seen magnesium to moles of oxygen.
that: 6 Determi
Determine
ne the simplest formula for
l the shiny magnesium
magnesium metal
metal burns brightly
brightly to magnesium oxide.
form a white powder, magnesium oxide This formula is the empirical formula of the
l the powder
powder is very fine and when the lid is compound.
lifted it can be seen to rise out of the crucible
(which is the reason the lid is lifted only Key definition
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest
briefly). whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a
▼ Table 4.1 Data from the magnesium oxide experiment compound.
Mass of crucible 14.6 3 g 7 Why is it important to lift the lid briefly while
while
Mass of crucible and magnesium 14.87 g heating the crucible?
Mas
asss of cru
ruccib
ible
le an
and
d mag
magn
nes
esiu
ium
m oxi
xide
de 15.0
.03
3g
8 What are the main sources
sources of e
error
rror in this
experiment?
Worked example
In an experiment, an unknown organic compound was found Using a mass spectrometer, the relative molecular mass
to contain 0.12 g of carbon and 0.02 g of hydrogen. Calculate (Mr) of this organic compound was found to be 56. We need
the empirical formula of the compound. ( Ar: H = 1; C = 12) to find out the number of empirical formulae units present:
C H Mr of the empirical formula unit
0.12 = 0. 0.02 = 0. = 14
Number of moles 0.01
01 0.02
02
12 1 Number of empirical formula units present
Ratio of moles 1 2 of com
compou
pound
nd
Mr
Empirical formula CH2 = = 56
Mr of emp
empiri
irical
cal for
formu
mula
la un
unit
it 14
From our knowledge of covalent bonding (Chapter 3, p. 38) =4
we know that a molecule of this formula cannot exist.
Therefore, the actual formula of the unknown organic
However, molecules with the following formulae do exist:
compound is 4 × CH 2 = C4H8.
C2H4, C 3H6, C 4H8 and C5H10. All of these formulae show the
same ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms, CH2, as our This substance is called butene. C 4H8 is the molecular
unknown.
formula forTothe
find out which
unknown of these
organic formulaewe
compound, is the
needactual
to of atoms for
formula this substance
of each and shows
element present themolecule
in one actual numbers
of the
know the molar mass of the compound. substance.
61
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Key definition
Test yourself
The molecular formula of a compound is the number
and type of dif ferent atoms in one molecule. Use the following values of Ar to answer the
questions below: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16; Ca = 40.
14 Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of
Sometimes the composition of a compound is given calcium formed when 0.4 g of calcium reacts
as a percentage by mass of the elements present. with 0.16 g of oxygen.
In cases such as this, the procedure shown in the 15 Determine the empirical formula of an organic
next example is followed. hydrocarbon compound which contains 80% by
mass of carbon and 20% by mass of hydrogen.
If the Mr of the compound is 30, what is its
Worked example molecular formula?
62
4.5 Moles and chemical equations
Solids
Worked example
Lime (calcium oxide, CaO) is used in the manufacture of From this relationship between grams and tonnes we can
lime mortar: a mixture of lime, sand, aggregate and water. replace the masses in grams by
b y masses in tonnes:
It is used as a binding material when building with brick. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Lime is manufactured in large quantities in Europe (Figure
4.5) by heating limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO 3). 10 0 t 56 t 44 t
10 t 5. 6 t 4. 4 t
CaCO
3
10 tonnes of limestone
Heat
Ca = 40)
▲ Figure 4.6 How much lime is produced?
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg
The equation now shows that 100 t of limestone will produce
1 kg = 1000 g 56 t of lime. Therefore, 10 t of limestone will produce 5.6 t of
lime.
Gases
Many chemical processes involve gases. The volume of gaseous reactants and products needed using
of a gas is measured more easily than its mass. This Avogadro’s
Avogad ro’s Law and the idea of moles.
example shows how chemists work out the volumes
63
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Worked example
Some rockets use hydrogen gas as a fuel. When hydrogen When 960 dm3 of hydrogen is burned in oxygen:
burns in oxygen it forms
form s water vapour. Calculate
Calculate the volumes a 480 dm3 of oxygen is required and
of a O2(g) used and b water, H2O(g), produced if 960 dm3 of b 960 dm3 of H2O(g) is produced.
hydrogen gas, H2(g), was burned in oxygen. ( Ar: H = 1; O = 16)
3
Assume 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm .
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
2 × 24 1 × 24 2 × 24
= 48 dm3 = 24 dm3 = 48 dm3
Therefore:
(×2) 96 dm3 48 dm3 96 dm3
(×10) 960 dm3 480 dm3 960 dm3
Solutions
Worked example
Chemists usually carry out reactions using solutions. If they Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
know the concentration of the solution(s) they are using, 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
they can find out the quantities reacting. 0.25 mol 0.25 mol 0.25 mol 0.25 mol
Calculate the volume of 1 mol/dm 3 solution of H2SO4 required
to react completely with 6 g of magnesium. ( Ar: Mg = 24). So 0.25 mol of H2SO 4(aq) is required. Using:
Worked example
40 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm 3 solution of hydrochloric acid just concentration of NaOH (mol/dm3)
neutralised 20 cm 3 of sodium hydroxide solution in a
titration (Chapter 8, p. 128). = nu
numb
mberer of mo
mole
less of Na
NaOH
OH = 0.008
volu
volume
me of Na
NaOH(
OH(dmdm3 ) 0.02
What is the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution in
g/dm3 used in this neutralisation reaction? (volume of NaOH in dm3 = 20 = 0.0
0.02)
2)
1000
number of moles of HCl used
= 0.4 mol/dm3
= concentration (mol/dm3) × volume (dm3) = 0.2 × 0.04
= 0.008 Now we have the concentration in mol/dm 3, we can easily
convert this in g/dm3 using the relationship below:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(
NaOH(aq)
aq) → NaCl(
NaCl(aq)
aq) + H2O(l)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole Concentration of a = concentration in × molar mass of
solution in g/dm 3 mol/dm3 the substance
0. 0 0 8 m o l 0. 0 0 8 m o l 0. 0 0 8 m o l 0.0 0 8 mol
So the concentration of the NaOH in g/dm3 = 0.4 × (23 + 16 + 1)
You will see that 0.008 mole of NaOH was present. The
= 16g/dm3
concentration of the NaOH(aq) is given by:
64
4.5 Moles and chemical equations
Percentage
Percentage yield Of this, 24g is magnesium and 16g is oxygen.
65
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
end amount
The of the reaction
react ion is called
of product the be
that can limiting reactant.
obtained ableIntoa determine
chemical reaction, it is important
which reactant to be
is the limiting
is determined by the limiting reactant. This is reactant as this will allow you to find the maximum
often the case when acids are used to make mass of products which can be produced.
Worked example
How much copper(II ) oxide could be formed if 16 g of copper 2 moles of Cu would react with 1 mole of O 2
reacted with 20 g of oxygen gas?
0.25 moles of Cu would react with 0.25/2 = 0.125 moles of O 2
Step 1: Write down the balanced chemical equation for the
So Cu will be the limiting reactant because it would be
reaction.
used up, but there would be 0.625 − 0.125 = 0.5 moles of O 2
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s) remaining at the end of the reaction. The oxygen would have
been used in excess.
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
Step 4: Now we know which is the limiting reactant, we
can use the mole ratio between it and the product to find
Step 2: Convert the mass of each reactant into moles: the mass of copper( II ) oxide we could produce.
Moles of Cu used = 16/64 = 0.25 moles 0.25 moles of Cu would give 0.25 moles of CuO
Moles of O 2 used = 20/(2×16) = 0.625 moles Mass of CuO which could be produced
prod uced = 0.25 × (64 + 16) = 20 g
Step 3: Now look at the ratio of the moles in the balanced
equation:
Test yourself
Use the following Ar values to answer the questions 19 A rocket uses hydrogen as a fuel. Calculate
below: O = 16; Mg = 24; S = 32; K = 39; Cu = 63.5.
16 Calculate the mass of sulfur dioxide produced by thedm
24 volume of hydrogen
3 of water (H2O(g)).used to produce
burning 16 g of sulfur in an excess of oxygen. volume of 2 mol/dm3 solution
20 Calculate the volume
17 Calculate the mass of sulfur
sulfur which, when burned in
of sulfuric acid required to react with 24 g of
excess oxygen, produces 640 g of sulfur dioxide.
magnesium.
18 Calculate the mass of copper required to produce
21 20 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm3 solution of
159 g of copper( II ) oxide when heated in excess hydrochloric acid just neutralised 15
oxygen. cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution in a
titration (see Chapter 8, p. 128). What is
the concentration of potassium hydroxide
solution used in this neutralisation reaction?
22 Calculate the percentage composition of
ammonium nitrate, NH 4NO3.
23 What is the maximum mass of magnesium
oxide that could be produced if 48 g of
magnesium reacted with 38 g of oxygen gas?
66
4.5 Moles and chemical equations
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 4 you should be able to: ✔ Carry out calculations
calculations to
to find masses, moles,
✔ Define and,
and, given data,
data, calculate the molecular volumes and concentrations in reactions using
solids gases and solutions.
and empiri
empirical
cal formula
formula of a compo
compound.
und.
✔ Describe the terms relative atomic, molecular and ✔ State that concentratio
concentrationn has units of g/dm3 and
formula mass. mol/dm3, and convwert between them.
✔ State that the mole is the unit of amount of ✔ Calculate percentage yield and purity.
substance and that it contains 6.02 × 10 23 ✔ Calculate the
the percentage
percentage composition
composition ofof a
particles. compound.
67
4 STOICHIOMETRY – CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
Use the data in the table below to answer the 3 Calculate the number of moles
moles of gas present in
questions. the following:
a 36 cm3 of sulfur dioxide
Element Ar
b 144 dm3 of hydrogen sulfide.
H 1 4 Use the following exper
experimental
imental information to
C 12 determine the empirical formula of an oxide of
N 14 silicon.
O 16 Mass of crucible
cruc ible = 18.20 g
Na 23 Mass of crucible
cruc ible + silicon = 18.48 g
Mg 24 Mass of crucible
cruc ible + oxide of silicon = 18.80 g
Si 28 5 a Calculate the empirical
empirical formula of an organic
organic
S 32 liquid containing 26.67%
26.67% of carbon
c arbon and
Cl 3 5 .5 2.22%
2.22 % of hydrogen, with the rest being
oxygen.
Fe 56
b The Mr of the liquid is 90. What is its
it s
1 Calculate the mass of: molecular formula?
a 1 mole of: 6 Iron is extr
extracted
acted from its ore, hematite, in a
i chlorine molecules blast furnace. The main extraction reaction is:
ii iron(III) oxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
b 0.5 moles of:
i magnesium nitrate a Identify the reducing agent in
in this process.
ii ammonia. b Give the oxide of iron shown
shown in the equation.
2 Calculate the volume occupied,
occupied, at r.
r.t.p.
t.p.,, by the c Explain why this is a redox
redox reaction.
following gases. (1 mole of any gas occupies a d Calculate the mass of iron which will be
volume of 24 dm3 at r.t.p.) produced from 640 tonnes of hematite.
a 12.
12.5
5 moles of sulfur
sulfur dioxide
dioxide gas
b 0.0.15
15 mole of nitroge
nitrogenn gas
68
5 Electrochemistry
FOCUS POINTS
★ What
★ How isiselectrolysis
the processuseful
of electrolysis?
to us?
★ How do we make use of the Earth’s aluminium?
★ Will fuel cells be used for transport
transpor t in the future?
In this chapter, you will look at the process of electrolysis and the industries based around the
process of electrolysis. You will look at the electrolysis of various substances in the molten state,
and in aqueous solution. You will see how useful electrolysis is across manufacturing and fuel
production industries, by considering the extraction of aluminium, chlor-alkali industry and the
industry based around electroplating. Finally, you will learn about fuel cells and how these cells may
be used in our methods of transport .
5.1 Electricity and chemistry The electricity is carried through the electrolyte
by ions. In the molten state and in aqueous or
Take a look at the photographs in Figure 5.1. What water solution, the ions are free to move to the
do you think they all have in common
common?? appropriate electrodes due to weakened forces of
They all involve electricity and the process known attraction between them.
as electrolysis . Electrolysis is the breakdown of an
» Substances that do not
not conduct
conduct electricity
electric ity when
ionic compound,
compound, either molten or in solution,
solut ion, by the
in the molten state or in solution are called
passage of electricity through it. The substance that
non-electrolytes.
is decomposed is called the electrolyte (Figure 5.2).
» Substances that conduct electricity
electricit y to a small
small
An electrolyte is a substance that conducts
extent in the molten state or in solution are
electricity when in the molten state or in solution.
called weak electrolytes.
a b
The electric current enters and leaves the
electrolyte
made of unreactive electrodes
through metals, , which
such are usually
as platinum or the
non-metal carbon (graphite).
(graphite). These are said to be
inert electrodes because they do not react with
the products of electrolysis. The two electrodes
c
are the cathode, the negative electrode which
attracts cations (positively charged ions
ions),
), and the
anode, the positive electrode which attracts anions
(negatively charged ions).
Key definition
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound,
a This watch has a thin coating
coating of gold over steel; the thin
thin when molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of an
coating is produced by electrolysis electric current.
b This picture frame has been silver plated using an Metals or hydrogen are formed at the cathode and non-
electroplating process involving electrolysis
c Aluminiu
Aluminium m is produced by electrolysis metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the anode.
▲ Figure 5.1
69
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
5.2 Electrolysis of
lead(II) bromide (Teacher
Inert carbon Inert carbon
demonstration)
cathode ( ) anode ( ) This experiment should only ever be carried out as a
(an
(an elec
electr
trod
ode)
e) (an electrode) teacher demonstration and in a fume cupboard.
Electrolyte
Cathode ( ) ( ) Anode
Graphite
Heat if necessary electrodes
70
5.2 Electrolysis of lead(II) bromide (Teacher demonstration)
71
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Today we use aluminium in very large quantities. » Bauxite, an impure form of aluminium
aluminium oxide, is
The annual production in the world is 19.5
19.5 million first treated with sodium hydroxide to obtain
tonnes. The commercial extraction of aluminium pure aluminium oxide, removing impurities such
has been made possible by two scientists, working as iron(III) oxide and sand. This improves the
independently of each other, who discovered a conductivity of the molten aluminium oxide.
method using electrolysis. The two scientists
were Charles Martin
Mar tin Hall (USA),
(USA), who discovered » The purified aluminium
aluminium oxide is then dissolved
dissolved
the process in 1886, and the French chemist in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6). Cryolite, a mineral
Paul Héroult, who discovered the process found naturally in Greenland, is used to reduce
independently in the same year. The process they the working temperature of the Hall–Héroult
developed,
involves theoften
electcalled
rolysisthe
electrolysis Hall–Héroult
of aluminium process,
oxide cell from 2017°C
aluminium oxide) (the melting800
to between point of1000°C.
and pure
(alumina
alumina).
). The process involves the following Therefore, the cryolite provides a considerable
stages. saving in the energy requirements of the process.
72
5.3 Electrolysis of aluminium oxide
In recent years it has become necessary to The overall reaction which takes place in the
manufacture the cryolite. cell is:
» The molten mixture is then electrolysed in a cell electrolysis
similar to that shown in Figure 5.6. aluminium oxide
→ aluminium + oxygen
73
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Using cheap electrical energy has allowed aluminium Obtaining aluminium from recycled scrap requires
to be produced in such large quantities that it is approximately 5% of the energy needed to extract
the second-most widely used metal after iron. It is aluminium from its ore. However, it should be born
used in the manufacture of electrical/transmission in mind that collecting scrap metal and transport to
cables. Aluminium strands are wrapped around a the metal extraction plant add extra costs to the
core of steel wires. Aluminium is used because overall recycling costs.
of its low density, chemical inertness and good There are serious environmental problems
electrical conductivit
conductivityy. This means that it will take associated with the location of aluminium plants
a high voltage and low current to carry the same including:
power. Owing to the first two of these properties » the effects
effect s of
of the extracted impurities, which
which
of aluminium,
aluminium, it is also
al so used for making cars,
c ars, bikes, form a red mud (Figure 5.9)
cooking foil and food containers, as well as in » the fine cryolite dust, which
which is emitted through
alloys (Chapter 10, p. 165) such as duralumin, which
very tall chimneys so as not to affect the
is used in the manufacture of aeroplane bodies
surrounding area
(Figure 5.8).
5.8). Worldwide production
product ion of aluminium » the claimed link between environmental
now exceeds 40 million tonnes each year. aluminium and a degenerative brain disorder
called Alzheimer’s disease – it is thought that
aluminium is a major influence on the early onset
of this disease. However, the evidence is still
inconclusive.
Test yourself
5 Complete the following passage about the Oxygen Hydrogen
extraction of aluminium using words from the collected collected
list below. here here
75
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
To enable water to conduct electricity better, some gases, hydrogen and chlorine, are produced. Sodium
dilute sulfuric acid (or sodium hydroxide solution) is might have been expected to be produced at the
added. When the power is turned on and an electric cathode. Why does this not happen?
current flows through this solution, gases can be Four ions are present in the solution:
seen to be produced at the two electrodes and they » from water: H+ and OH−
are collected in the side arms of the apparatus.
» from sodiu
sodium chloride: Na+ and Cl−.
m chloride:
After about 20 minutes, roughly twice as much gas
is produced at the cathode as at the anode. When the current flows, the H+ ions and the Na +
+
The gas collected at the cathode burns with ions are both attracted to the cathode. The H ions,
a squeaky pop, showing it to be hydrogen gas however elect rons more easily than the Na +
however,, accept electrons
(Table 14.6, p. 236). ions and so hydrogen gas (H2) is produced at the
cathode.
For hydrogen to be collected
collect ed in this way, reduction
hydrogen ions + electrons
→ hydrogen molecules
the positively charged hydrogen ions must have
moved to the cathode. 2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
hydrogen
hydrogen ions + electrons → hydrog
hydrogen
en molecules Because the sodium is more reactive than the
+
4H (aq) + 4e −
→ 2H2(g) hydrogen, it loses electrons
elect rons more easily. Generally
it is found that, during the electrolysis of aqueous
If, during this process, the water molecules
If, solutions, very reactive metals like sodium are not
lose H+(aq), then the remaining portion must
mus t be
hydroxide ions, OH−(aq). These ions are attracted formed at themetals
that reactive cathode. You will
liberate see in Chapter
hydrogen 10
when they
to the anode. react with water.
OH− and Cl− are attracted to the anode. The
The gas collected at the anode relights a glowing Cl− ions give up electrons more readily than the
splint, showing it to be oxygen (Table 14.6, p. 236). OH− ions and so chlorine gas is produced by the
electrode process.
This gas is produced in the following
follow ing way.
oxidation
chloride ions → chlorine molecules + electrons
hydroxide
hydroxide ions → water + oxyg
oxygen
en + electrons
2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e−
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e−
This leaves a high concentration of hydroxide ions,
Generally when aqueous solutions are electrolysed, OH−(a
(aq),
q), around the cathode. The solution in the
hydrogen is produced at the cathode and non-metals region of the anode therefore becomes alkaline.
(other
(other than hydrogen) are formed at the anode.
This experiment was first carried out by Sir Electrolysis guide
guidelines
lines
Humphry Davy. It confirmed that the formula for The following points may help you predict the
water was H2O. products of electrolysis in unfamiliar situations.
In the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid, They will also help you remember what happens at
platinum (an inert electrode) may be replaced by each electrode.
carbon (graphite).
(graphite). The only difference to occur
is that, as well as oxygen being produced at the » Non-metals are produced
produced at the anode whereas
anode, a little carbon dioxide will also be formed. metals and hydrogen gas are produced at the
cathode.
Electrolysis of concent
concentrated
rated » At an inert
inert anode, chlorine, bromine
bromine and iodine
(the halogens)
halogens) are produced in preference to
aqueous sodium chloride oxygen.
When sodiumbecome
chloridefree
(NaCl) is dissolved in water, the » At an inert
inert cathode, hydrogen is
is produced in
ions present to move. When concentrated preference to metals unless unreactive metals
aqueous sodium chloride is electrolysed, the two such as copper are present.
76
5.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Going further
The chlor-alkali industry lakes. Three important substances are produced in this
electrolysis process – chlorine, sodium hydroxide and
The electrolysis of concentrated or saturated sodium
hydrogen. The electrolytic process is very expensive,
chloride solution (brine) is the basis of a major industry.
requiring vast amounts of electricity, and the process is
In countries where rock salt (sodium chloride) is found
economical only because all three products (hydrogen,
underground, it is mined. In other countries it can be
obtained by evaporation of sea water in large, shallow chlorine and sodium hydroxide) have a large number of
uses (Figure
(Fig ure 5.12).
5.12).
Hydrochloric
Soap
acid
Bromine
production
Paper EWS
DAILY N
Water
treatment
Aluminium
extraction Plastic
A
CO L
Sodium
hydroxide Chlorine
Solvents
Inorganic / tip p e
x
Effluent
treatment
Extraction
of titanium
Textiles (e.g.
rayon, wool Chemicals
& cotton) (e.g. dyes &
pesticides)
Hydrogen
77
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Oxygen
Copper(II)
sulfate
solution
Copper forms
on surface of
carbon electrode
Bung
e OH
Electrons
Cu Cu2 2e
e OH collected
Electrons by Cu 2
from OH O2 ions.
left behind e OH 2H 2O Copper
Cu Cu2 2e coats the b Due toto the high density of copper and its cost,
electrode steel-cored aluminium
aluminium cables are used for electrical
e OH transmission through national grids
▲ Figure 5.1
5.15
5
▲ Figure 5.14 Oxygen is given off at the anode and copper However, even small amounts of impurities
However, impurit ies cut
is deposited at the cathode down this conductivity quite noticeably, whether
OH (aq) and SO42−(aq) ions are both attracted to the
−
in fine wires or larger cables. The metal must be
anode. The OH− ions release electrons more easily 99.99% pure to be used in this way. To ensure this
78
5.5 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate aqueous solution
level of purity, newly extracted copper has to be is itself involved in the electrolytic process, the
purified by electrolysis. copper cathode is known as an ‘active’ electrode.
The impure copper is used as the anode in the The electrolyte is a solution of copper(II) sulfate
electrolysis process, and is typically 1 m square, (0.3 mol/dm3) acidified with a 2 mol/dm3 solution
35–50 mm thick and 330 kg in weight. The cathode of sulfuric acid to help the solution conduct
is a 1 mm thick sheet and weighs about 5 kg; it electr icity (Figure 5.16
5.16).
).
Pure Impure
copper copper
When the current flows, the copper moves from the from the copper(II) sulfate solution and the copper
impure anode to the pure cathode. Any impurities is deposited or copper plated on to the cathode.
fall to the bottom of the cell and collect below copper ions + electrons → copper atoms
the anode in the form of a slime. This slime is
rich in precious metals and the recovery of these Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
metals is an important aspect of the economics of
Cath
Cathod
ode
e( ) Anod
Anode
e( )
the process. The electrolysis proceeds for about
three
10% ofweeks
theiruntil the size
original anodes
andare
thereduced
cathodes to weigh
about
between 100 and 120 kg. kg. A potential
potent ial of 0.25 V and
Pure copper Impure copper
densit y of 200 A/m2 are usually used.
a current density electrode electrode
The ions present in the solution are:
» from the water: H+(aq) + OH−(aq)
» from the copper(II) sulfate: Cu2+(aq) + SO42−(aq).
2e Cu2 Cu2 2e
During the process, the impure anode loses mass
because the copper atoms lose electrons and 2e Cu2 Cu2 2e
become copper ions, Cu2+(aq) (Figure 5.17).
2e Cu2 Cu2 2e
copper atoms → copper ions + electrons
Electrolyte of
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e− acidified copper(II)
sulfate solution
The electrons released at the anode travel around
around
the external circuit
c ircuit to the cathode. There the ▲ Figure 5.17 The movement of ions in the purification of
5.17
ions, Cu2+(aq),
electrons are passed on to the copper ions, copper by electrolysis
79
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Going further
The annual production of copper worldwide is in excess of obtaining copper is increasing in importance as it
of 16 million tonnes. However, a large amount of the becomes more difficult and expensive to locate and
copper we need is obtained by recycling. This way extract the copper ore from the ground.
Practical skills
C o p p e r s t r ip Mass at star t/
t/g Mass af ter 15 minutes/g Change in mass/g Obser va
vations
Pure copper 3.16 3. 4 0 Has an or ange/brown
cathode(-) colouration on the part of the
copper that has been in the
copper(II) sulfate solution
Impure copper 3 . 25 2.98 Looks a little thinner. Small pile
anode (+) of material below this electrode
a What safety precautions would you take in f It was found that there was some material
carrying out the experiment? below the anode. Explain how you could
b Why do you thin
think
k the coppe
copper(II)
r(II) sulfate was obtain a sample of this material.
acidified? g It was thought
thought that thi
thiss mix
mixture
ture you
you have
c The colour of the copper(II) sulfate solution isolated in f was a mixture
mixt ure of substances
does not change. Why not? including what appeared to be a dye.
d Calculate the mass change for each of the i WhWhich
ich technique could be used to
copper electrodes. check this?
e Are the changes in mass what you ii Design an experiment,
experiment, using the
expected? Explain your answer. technique you have described in i,
which would allow you to identify the
components of the dye material.
80
5.6 Fuel cells
5.6 Fuel cells The OH− ions formed are removed from the fuel
Scientist s have found a way of changing chemical
Scientists cell by reaction with H2:
electr ical energy, using a fuel cell
energy into electrical H2(g) + 2OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + 2e −
(Figure 5.18
5.18).
). Fuel cells are chemical cells
cell s except
The electrons produced by this process pass
that the reagents are supplied continuously
continuously to the
around an external circuit to the cathode.
electrodes. The reagents are usually hydrogen and
oxygen. The fuel cell principle was first discovered by ( ) External circuit ( )
Sir William Grove in 1839.
H2O
2
H in O2 in
Na
Anode made Cathode made
from a porous from a porous
material, OH material with
impregnated cobalt oxide
with platinum or platinum
catalyst catalyst
H2O
out
Electrolyte of
NaOH(aq)
▲ Figure 5.1 8 The space shuttle’s computers use electricity
5 .18 electricit y
▲ Figure 5.19 A diagrammatic view of a fuel cell
produced by fuel cells
81
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electroplating
where one metalis the processorinvolving
is plated, electrolysis
coated, with another. silver ions + electrons → silver atoms
Often the purpose of electroplating is to improve Ag+(aq) + e− → Ag(s))
Ag(s
the appearance of the object and give a protective
82
5.7 Electroplating
Anode ( ) Cath
thod
ode
e( )
Object to be plated,
Going further
e.g. spoon
Plating plastics
Nowadays it is not only metals that are electroplated.
Plastics have been developed that are able to conduct
electricity. For example, the plastic poly(pyrrole) can
be electroplated
have in the same
discussed earlier (Figureway as the metals we
5.22).
e− Ag+
e− Ag+
e− Ag+
▲ Figure 5.22 This plastic has been coated
coated with copper
e− Ag+ by electrolysis
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
A
oncoating of silver
the spoon at theforms
cathode
Test yourself
13 Explain why copper(II) chloride solution would 14 Write equations which represent the discharge at
not be used as an electrolyte in the electrolyte the cathode of the following ions:
cell used for copper plating. a K+ b Pb2+ c Al 3+
and at the anode of:
d Br − e O2− f F−.
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 5, you should be able to: ✓ State that
that metals
metals or hydrogen
hydrogen are formed at the
✓ Define electrolysis. cathode and that non-metals (other than hydrogen)
✓ In a simple electrolytic
electrolytic cell, identify the component are formed at the anode.
parts of anode, cathode and the electrolyte. ✓ Predict the identity of the products of electrolysis
electrolysis
✓ Identify which
which electrode in a simple electrolytic
electrolytic of a specified binary compound, such as lead(II)
cell the anions and cations are attracted to. bromide, in the molten state.
✓ Describe the transfer of charge that
that takes
takes place ✓ Describe how the refining
refining of copper takes
takes place
during electrolysis. by the process of electrolysis
elec trolysis using an aqueous
✓ Construct ionic half-equati
half-equations
ons for reactions at solution of copper(II) sulfate with carbon and
the anodereduction).
(to show (to show oxidation) and at the cathode copper electrodes.
✓ Describe how and why metals are electroplated.
✓ Describe the electrode products
products as well as the ✓ State that hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells use
observations made during the electrolysis of the hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity with
following substances: molten lead (II) bromide, water as the only substance produced.
concentrated
concentrate d aqueous sodium chloride, dilute
sulfuric acid. ✓ Describe the
the advantages
advantages and
and disadvantages
disadvantages of
of
using hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells in comparison
✓ Describe the process of the extraction of
with gasoline or petrol engines in vehicles.
aluminium from purified bauxite.
84
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 A B a Identify the materials used for the
electrodes A and B. [2]
b Identify the electrolyte C and substance D. [2]
X Y c Explain why substance D is of economic
Dilute sulfuric acid
importance in respect of this process. [2]]
[2
d Give word
word and
and symbol equations for the
reactions which take place at the cathode
– +
and anode during this process. [6]]
[6
This is a diagram of an exper
experiment
iment in which e Explain why elect rolyte C has to be
electrolyte
electricity was passed through a mixture of acidified with dilute sulfuric acid. [2]]
[2
distilled water containing a little dilute sulfuric f Explain why copper has to be 99.99%
99.99% pure
acid. for use in electr ical cables. [2]]
[2
a Identify the gas that collect
collectss at A. [1]
b Identify the gas that collect
collectss at B. [1]
c If 100 cm of gas collects in A, how much
3 4 Copy and complete the table below, which shows
the results of the electrolysis of four substances
would there be in B? [1]
using inert electrodes.
d Identify the metal usually used for X and Y. [1]
f X
e is calle
Y is called
call ed
called the
d the .. [1]
[1
[1]]]
[1 Product at Product at
anode (positive cathode (negative
g Give the formulae of the three ions
ions pr
present
esent Electrolyte electrode) electrode)
in the solut
solution.
ion. [3]
[3]
Molten aluminium Aluminium
oxide
h Give the ionic
ionic half-equations
half-equations for the
reactions that take place at both X and Y.
Y. [4
[4]] Concentrated Chlorine
sodium chloride
2 Explain the meaning
meaning of each
each of the following
following terms. solution
a Anod
Anodee [2] Molten lithium
b Cat
Cathode
hode [2]]
[2 chloride
c Electrolysis [2]]
[2 Silver nitrate Silver
d Electrolyte [2]]
[2 solution
e Anion [2]]
[2
[5]
[5]
f Cat
Cation
ion [2]
[2] a Give the meaning of ‘inert electrodes’. [2]]
[2
g Oxidation, in terms of electrons [1] b Explain why the sodium
sodium chloride solution
h Reduction, in terms of electrons [1] becomes progressively more alkaline during
electrolysis. [3]
c Explain why solid
solid lithium chloride is a non-
non-
3 Copper is purif
purified
ied by electrolysis, as in the conductor of electricity, whereas molten
example shown below. lithium chloride and lithium chloride solution
A B are good conductors of electr icity. [3]]
[3
85
5 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
5 Sodium hydroxide
hydroxide is made by the electrolysis of 6 Electroplating
Electroplat ing is an important industrial
industrial pro
process.
cess.
brine (concentrated sodium chloride
chlor ide solution). a Explain what electroplat
electroplating
ing is. [2]]
[2
b Explain why certain metals are are
a Give ionic half-equations for the reactions electroplated. [2]
which take place at the cathode and anode. c Give two examples of the use of
State clearly whether a reaction is oxidation electroplating. [2]
or reduc
reduction.
tion. [8]]
[8
86
6 Chemical energetics
FOCUS POINTS
★ What are
★ How do wefossil fuels
obtain and how
a range are they
of useful used?s from petroleum?
materials
material
★ How do we obtain energy from chemical reactions?
In this chapter, you will look at the energy, or enthalpy, changes which happen when a chemical
reaction occurs. We know that when we burn a fuel, energy is released, and the surroundings get
warmer. Many of the fuels we use are obtained from the fossil fuel petroleum. How are important
fuels such as gasoline or diesel obtained from petroleum?
In this chapter, we will look at why heat is produced and you will be introduced to the idea of chemical
reactions which occur and cause things to get cooler. Have you met any of these reactions? What
could they be used for?
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to calculate the energy change which occurs when a
chemical reaction happens.
87
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Oil refining
Petroleum (also called crude oil) is a complex
mixture of compounds known as hydrocarbons
(Figure 6.2).
6.2). Hydrocarbons are molecules which
contain only the elements hydrogen and carbon
bonded together covalently (Chapter 3, p. 39).
These
called carbon
organiccompounds
compoundsform
. All the basis
living of a are
things group
made from organic compounds based on chains of
carbon atoms similar to those found in petroleum.
Petroleum is not only a major source of fuel but alsoal so
a raw material of enormous importance. It supplies a
large and diverse chemical industry to make dozens
of products that we use in everyday life, such as
polymers and medicines.
Key definition
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and
carbon only.
88
6.1 Substances from petroleum
30 C
°
Gasoline/petrol fraction
for fuel used in cars
110 C °
Naphtha fraction
as a chemical feedstock
Fractionating
tower 180 C °
Kerosene/paraffin fraction
for jet fuel
260 C °
Bitumen fraction
for making roads
Test yourself
1 What do you understand by the term ‘hydrocarbo
‘hydrocarbon’?
n’? a waxes
2 All living organisms are composed of compounds b fuel for aeroplanes
which contain carbon. Why do you think carbon c polymers?
chemistry is often called ‘organic chemistry’? 5 Describe how the propertie
propertiess of fractio
fractions
ns obtained
3 List the main fractio
fractions
ns obtained by separating from petroleum change as they are collected in a
the petroleum mixture and explain how they are fractionating column from the bottom to the top of
obtained in a refinery. the column, in terms of their:
4 Which of used
could be the fractio
fractions
ns obtained from petroleum
for producing: a chain length
b volatility cd viscosity
boiling points.
89
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Going further
Coal was produced by the action of pressure and heat from the remains of plants, animals and bacteria that
on dead wood from ancient forests. When dead trees once lived in seas and lakes. This material sank to the
fell into the swamps they were buried by mud. Over bottom of these seas and lakes, and became covered in
millions of years, due to movement of the Earth’s crust mud, sand and silt which thickened with time.
as well as changes in climate, the land sank and the
Anaerobic decay took place and, as the mud layers built
decaying wood became covered by even more layers of
up, high temperatures and pressures were created
mud and sand. As time passed, the gradually forming
which converted the material slowly into petroleum
coal became more and more compressed as other
and gas. As rock formed, Earth movements caused it
material was laid down above it (Figure 6.5).
to buckle and split, and the oil and gas were trapped in
Petroleum and gas were formed during the same period folds beneath layers of non-porous rock or cap-rock
as coal. It is believed petroleum and gas were formed (Figure 6.6).
Oil platform
North Sea
Sea bed
Oil
90
6.5 Exothermi
E xothermicc and endothermic reactions
6.5 Exothermic
endothermic and
reactions
We obtain our energy needs from the combustion of
Heat Steam
turbine
fuels.
from
burning Water
fuel Combustion
When natural gas burns in a plentiful supply of air, it
Grid
system produces a large amount of energy.
methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + (ΔH )
CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) → CO2 (g) + 2H 2 O(l) + (Δ H )
During this process, the complete combustion of
Transformer methane, heat is given out. It is an exothermic
reaction. An exothermic reaction is one which
▲ Figure 6.7 The way in which fuels are used to transfers thermal energy to the surroundings
surroundings when
produce electricity the reaction occurs. If only a limited supply of air
91
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
C H H H H
BREAK BONDS O O O O
takes in energy
H
MAKE NEW BONDS
O O gives out energy
J
k
/
y C
g
r
e
H O O
n
E H
H O
H H
O C O
O
H H
Progress of reaction
▲ Figure 6.9 Breaking and forming bonds during the combustion of methane
92
6.5 Exothermi
E xothermicc and endothermic reactions
93
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Activation
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) energy (Ea) 2NO(g)
Activation energy
J J (Ea)
k
k
/
/
y
y
g −∆H
g
r
+∆H
r e
e n
n E
E
CO (g) + 2H O(l) N2(g) + O2(g)
2 2
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) Δ H = +181 kJ/mol ∆H value tells us that when 1 mole of methane
This ∆H
is burned in oxygen, 728 kJ of energy are released.
This value is called the enthalpy change of
combustion of methane.
Worked example
Look at the reaction pathway diagrams below. b an endothermic reaction?
The endothermic reactions will have the products at a higher
A B C energy than the reactants, showing that energy is being taken
J J J
k
/
y R
k
/
y
P k
/ in, or added, when the reaction occurs. So the endothermic
g y P
r
e
P g
r
e R g
r R reactions are B and C.
n e
n n
E E
Progress Progress
E
c the most endothermi
endothermicc reactio
reaction?
n?
Progress
D J
E J The two endothermic reactions were reactions B and C. The
k
/
R k R
/
y y P most endothermic reaction will have the biggest gap between
g g
r r
e
n
P e
n
the energy of the reactants and products. In this example that
E E
is reaction B.
Progress Progress
Which of the diagram(s) shows: d the reaction with the highest activ ation energy, Ea?
activation
a an exothermic reactio
reaction?
n? To find which reaction has the highest activation energy
draw a line across from the reactant line and then up to
The exothermic reactions will show the products at a lower
energy than the reactants, showing that energy has been the top of the
activation curve.
energy Theone
is the reaction which
with the has the
longest highest
vertical line to
given out when the reaction occurs. So the exothermic
the top of the curve. In this example that will be reaction B.
reactions are A, D and E.
94
6.5 Exothermi
E xothermicc and endothermic reactions
Worked example
Look at the two reactions below, which have been given ∆ H value and place the
You should be able to label the ∆H
∆ H values.
with their ∆H symbols for the reactants and products
pro ducts on their lines.
No information was given about the activation energy in
C + H 2O → H2 + CO; Δ H = +131 kJ/mol
this question so the shape and height of the curve is not
C + O → CO ; Δ H = −393 kJ/mol specific.
2 2
For each of these reactions, draw and label a reaction The second reaction is an exothermic reaction, so we need
pathway diagram and label on each diagram the reactants, to draw a reaction pathway diagram which has the products
∆ H, and the
the products, the enthalpy change of reaction, ∆H at a lower energy than the reactants, showing energy is
activation energy, Ea. being given out (lost) when the reaction occurs.
The first reaction is an endothermic reaction, so we need to
draw a reaction pathway diagram which has the products at
a higher energy than the reactants, showing that energy is
being gained (or added) when the reaction occurs.
J
k
/
∆H = –393 kJ/mol
y
g
r
H2 + CO e
n
E
J
∆H
/
k
y C + H2O = +131 kJ/mol
g
r
e
n
E
Progress
Worked example
Using the bond energies in Table 6.1, calculate the enthalpy The second step is to work out the total amount of energy
∆ H, when the hydrocarbon ethane, C2H6, is
of reaction, ∆H which is released when the bonds in the products are
completely combusted. formed. The products are 2 moles of carbon dioxide and 3
moles of water.
H H
O Bond making:
1
H C C H + 3 O O 2O C O + 3H H
2
Making 4 C O bonds releases 4 × 803 = 3212 kJ
H H
Making 6 H −O bonds releases 6 × 464 = 2784 kJ
The first step is to work out the total amount of energy
needed to break the bonds in the reactants. The reactants Total = 5996 kJ
are 1 mole of ethane and 3½ moles of oxygen gas.
enthalpy of reaction = energy required to break the bonds –
Bond breaking:
energy given off when bonds are made
Breaking 6 C −H bonds requires 6 × 435 = 2610 kJ
Breaking one C −C bond requires 347 kJ = 4696.5 – 5996
95
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Going further
Enthalpy change of neutralisation (molar heat of neutralisation)
This is the enthalpy change that takes place when 1 mole of hydrogen ions (H +(aq)) is neutralised.
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H 2O(l); Δ H = −57 kJ/mol
This process occurs in the titration of an alkali by an acid to produce a neutral solution (Chapter 8, p. 128).
Practical skills
Experiment to find the enthalpy change of thermal energy transferred during the reaction
reaction = mass of × 4.2 J/g/°C × change in
For safe experiments/demonstrations which solution/g temperature/°C
are related to this chapter, please refer to the 1 Why is an expanded polystyrene cup used for
for
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills the reaction to occur in?
Workbook, which is also part of this series. 2 What is the pur
purpose
pose of placing the expanded
polystyrene cup into
i nto the beaker?
Safety
l Eye protection must be worn.
3 Why is the mixture stirred after the zinc is
added?
l Take care with copper(II)
copper(II) sulfate solution: 4 Use these questions to identify improvements
improvements
3
≤1.0 mol/dm is an irritant and corrosive. to this experiment
experiment..
Disposable gloves should be worn when a Thin
Thinkk of
of possible
possible sources of error
errorss in this
measuring out. experiment.
A student uses a simple
si mple experiment to find
fi nd b Give some improvements which wil willl lessen
the energy given off when a chemical reaction these errors.
occurs (the enthalpy change of reaction, ∆ H ) in Sample data:
the reaction between zinc metal and copper(II)
Initial temperature of the copper(II) sulfate
sulfate. When zinc reacts with copper(II) sulfate,
solution = 19.5 °C
the following reaction occurs:
Maximum
Maxi mum temperature reached = 26.9 °C
zinc + copper(II)
copper(II) sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper
copper 5 Use the relationship
relationship above to determine the
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)
→ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s
Cu(s))
thermal energy transferred in joules. (Assume
They place an expanded polystyrene cup into a that the density of the copper(II) sulfate
beaker and pour into the expanded polystyrene solution is 1 g/cm3.)
cup 25 cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 copper sulfate solution 6 Calculate the number of moles of copper(II)
and records the temperature of the copper(II) sulfate used in the reaction.
sulfate solution using a thermometer. They then
You now know the amount of energy given
You g iven off
add 5 g of zi nc powder,
powder, which is
i s in excess.
when the number of moles you have calculated in
The student stirred the mixture carefully with
question 6 have reacted.
the thermometer and recorded the highest
temperature reached. 7 Calculate the energy that would have been
given off if 1 mole of copper(II) sulfate had
Find the change in temperature and then use the
been used.
following relationship
transferred during thetoreaction:
find the thermal energy 8 Convert the energy given off into kJ and write
down the value of the enthalpy change of
reaction, ∆H, you have calculated.
96
6.5 Exothermi
E xothermicc and endothermic reactions
Revision checklist
Test yourself
After studying Chapter 6 you should be able to:
11 Use the bond energy data given in Table 6.1 to
✓ Describe the fractionation of petroleum
petroleum to
answer the following questions.
a Calculate the enthalpy change per mole for produce different fractions.
the combustion of ethanol, a fuel added to ✓ Describe the changing properties of the fractions
petrol in some countries. as they are produced from the fractionating
fr actionating
b Draw a reaction pathway diagram to column.
represent this combustion process. ✓ Name uses for the fractions produced.
produced.
c How does this compare with the enthalpy
✓ Explain what exothermic and endothermic
of combustion of heptane (C7H16), a major
component of petrol, of −4853 kJ/mol? reactions are.
d How much energy is released per gram of
ethanol and heptane burned? ✓ Explain why energy
energy is given
given out or taken
taken in
12 How much energy is released if: during reactions in terms of the bond breaking
a 0.5 mole of methane is burned? and bond making which occurs when the
b 5 moles of methane are burned? reaction happens.
c 4 g of methane are burned?
( Ar: C = 12; H = 1)
13 How much energy is released if: ✓ Interpret and draw reaction pathway diagrams.
diagrams.
a 2 moles of hydrogen ions are neutralise
neutralised?
d?
b 0.25 moles of hydrogen ions are ✓ Define activation energy.
neutralised? ✓ Calculate the enthalpy
enthalpy change
change of reaction by
c 1 mole of sulfuric acid is completely using bond energy data.
neutralised?
✓ Identify coal,
coal, natural
natural gas and petroleum
petroleum as
fossil fuels, and that natural gas contains mainly
methane.
✓ State that hydrocarbons are
are compounds
compounds that
that
contain only the elements hydrogen and carbon.
✓ State that petroleum
petroleum is a mixture of different
different
hydrocarbon molecules.
97
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 a State which of the following processes
processes is b Name each of the frac tions A to H and give
fractions
endothermic and which is exothermic. a use for each. [8]]
[8
i the break
breaking
ing of a chemic
chemical
al bond [1]
[1] c Why do the fractions come
come from the
ii the forming of a chemic
chemical
al bond [1]]
[1 fractionating
frac tionating column in this order? [3]]
[3
d What is the connection between your answer
b The
datatable
for a below
below shows
series sh
ofows the bond
covalent energy
bonds. to c and the size of the molecules in each
fraction? [1]
Bond Bond energy/k J/ mo
mol e Which of the fractions will be the most
C—H 4 35 flammable? [1]
O=O 497 3 ‘Propagas’ is used in some
some central heating
C= O 803 systems where natural gas is not available. It
H— O 46 4 burns according to the following equation:
C— C 3 47 C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l);
C— O 35 8 Δ H = −2220 kJ/mol
i Use the information given in the table a What are
are the chemical
chemical names for propagas
propagas
to calculate the overall enthalpy change and natural gas?
for the combustion of ethanol producing b Would you expec
expectt the thermal energy released
carbon dioxide and wate
water.r. [3]]
[3 per mole of propagas burned to be greater
ii Is the process in b i endothermic or than that for natural gas? Explain your answer.
exothermic? [1] c What is propagas obtained from?
from?
d Calculate:
2 Petroleum is a mixture of
of hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons. The i the mass of propagas required to produce
refining of petroleum produces fractions which 5550 kJ of energy
are more useful to us than petroleum itself. Each ii the thermal energy produced
produced by
by burning
burning
fraction is composed of hydrocarbons which 0.5 mole of propagas
have boiling points within a specific range of iii the thermal energy produced by burning
burning
temperature. The separation is carried out in a 11 g of propagas
fractionating column, as shown below. iv the thermal energy produced
produced by burning
3
Fraction
2000 dm of propagas
A (Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16. 1 mole of any
gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature
and pressure.)
B
4 This question is about endothermic and
C exothermic reactions.
a Explain the meaning
meaning of
of the terms endothermic
D and exoth
exothermic.
ermic. [2]]
[2
E
b i Draw a reaction pathway diagram for the
reaction: [4]
F NaOH(aq)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(
HCl(aq)
aq) → NaCl(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l);
Δ H = −57 kJ/mol
G
Crude ii Is this reaction endothermic or
oil
exothermic? [1]
Furnace
H
iii Calculate the enthalpy change associated
with this reaction if 2 moles of sodium
a Which separation technique is used to hydroxide were neutralised by excess
separate the fract
fractions?
ions? [1] hydrochlor ic acid. [1]]
[1
98
Exam-style questions
99
7 Chemical reactions
FOCUS POINTS
★ How does
★ Why is thethe
raterate
of aofchemical
a reaction vary? important?
reaction
★ What is a reversible reaction?
In this chapter,
chapter, we will look at how we are able to alter the rate
r ate at which chemical reactions occur.
Industry needs to produce chemical products in the shortest possible time, so they are made
efficiently and increase profits. We know that all chemical reactions go faster when heated to a
higher temperature, for example, an egg cooks faster at higher temperatures, but why does this
happen?
Industry also wants to make more product from a reaction. In any chemical reaction, reactants will
make products eventually, so how can there be more product? We will introduce the fact that not
all reactions simply produce products from reactants: some reactions are reversible and, once the
product has been formed, it may breakdown to produce reactants again.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to fully explain how the rates of chemical reactions can
be altered and how reversible reactions can be manipulated to produce products efficiently.
7.1 Reactions
A physical change does not result in the formation Figure 7.1
7.1 shows some slow and fast
fas t reactions.
react ions.
of a new substance. It simply alters the state of the The two photographs at the top show examples
substance involved. For example, when ice melts of slow reactions. The ripening of apples takes
to form water, it is a physical change because the place over a number of weeks, and the making and
water has not changed: only its state has changed maturing of cheese may take months. The burning
from a solid to a liquid. This is also the case if we of solid fuels, such as coal, can be said to involve
boilA water to produce
chemical change,steam.
however, results in the chemical
or rate. Areactions taking
fast reaction place
is an at a medium
explosion speed
(bottom
formation of something new. An everyday example right), where the chemicals inside explosives, such
of this is frying an egg. The chemicals in the fried as TNT, react very rapidly in reactions which are over
egg have undergone chemical reactions forming new in seconds or fractions of seconds.
substances, and the fried egg cannot be changed As new techniques have been developed, the
back into the egg you started off with. This is the processes used within the chemical industry have
main difference between a physical and chemical become more complex. Therefore, chemists and
change. chemical engineers have increasingly looked for ways
In a physical change, it is possible to reverse to control the rates at which chemical reactions
the change, and the change can be temporary. For take place. In doing so, they have discovered that
example, the water from melted ice can be frozen there are five main ways in which you can alter the
again to form ice. In a chemical change, this cannot rate of a chemical reaction. These ideas are not only
happen. For all chemical reactions, a chemical incredibly useful to industry but can also be applied
change occurs and this is a permanent change. to reactions in the school laboratory.
100
7.2 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
▲ Figure 7.1 Some slow (ripening fruit and cheese making), medium
medium (coal fire) and fast (explosion)
(explosion) reactions
7.2 Factors that affect the and not every collision results in the formation
rate of a reaction
The five main ways to alter the rate of a chemical
of products.
known as theThis minimum
activation amount
energy , Eaof(Figure
Collisions which result in the formation
energy7.2).
format ion of
is
to be formed, the collision has to have a certain ▲ Figure 7.2 Energy level diagram showing activation
minimum amount of energy associated with it, energy
101
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2HCl(aq)
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s
(s)) → CaCl 2(aq) + CO2(g) + H 2O(l)
formation of a gasshown
The apparatus as oneinofFigure
the products.
7.4 is used to
7.4
measure the loss in mass of the reaction mixture.
The mass of the conical flask plus the reaction ▲ Figure 7.4 After 60 seconds the mass has fallen by 1.24 g
102
7.2 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
If the surface area of a reactant is increased, The surface area has been increased by powdering
more particles are exposed to the other reactant, the limestone (Figure 7.6). The acid particles now
so the rate of a chemical reaction can be raised have an increased amount of surface of limestone
by increasing the surface area of a solid reactant. with which to collide. The products of a reaction
are formed when collisions occur between reactant
2 particles.
Powdered
limestone
/g
ss
a
m Lumps of
in
1
limestone Powder
ss
o Cut up Cut up
L
0 etc.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time/min ▲ Figure 7.6 A powder has a larger surface area
Practical skills
Experiment to show the effect of surface
area on reaction rate 4 a Af
After
ter how many seconds
seconds was the experiment
For safe experiments/demonstrations which using the
t he single lump of limestone
l imestone complete?
complete?
are related to this chapter, please refer to the b How can you tell this from the graph?
graph?
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills 5 What other factors must be kept constant
Workbook, which is also part of this series. during this experiment to show the effect of
surface area on the rate of reaction?
Safety 6 Can you thi
think
nk of any sources of errors with the
l Eye protection must be worn. method used?
A student
student took
took a lump of limestone
limestone (calci
(calcium
um A lump of Smaller fragments
carbonate)) and reacted it with an
carbonate a n excess of dilute
di lute Time/secs limestone of limestone
hydrochloric acid in a conical flask which had a Volume of CO2/cm3 Volume of CO2 /cm3
delivery tube attached. The gas produced was
0 0 0
collected in an inverted burette filled with water.
The experiment was repeated using smaller 10 12 25
fragments of limestone of the same mass. The table 20 25 42
on the right gives the results of the experiments. 30 36 53
1 Draw the apparatus
apparatus which could be used in 40 46 62
the experiment above.
50 54 66
2 Plot a graph of volume of carbon dioxide
collected ( y-axis) against
against time
t ime (x-axis) for both 60 61 68
experiments. Use the same axes. 70 65 68
3 a Which of the experiments
experiments is the fastest? 80 68 68
b How can you tell this from the graph?
graph?
c Use ideas about particles to explai
explainn your 90 68 68
10 0 68 68
answer.
103
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Test yourself
1 What apparatus would you use to measure the
Time/ 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2. 5 3 . 0 3 . 5 4 . 0 4 . 5 5 . 0
rate
acid of
by reaction
measuringof limestone
the volumewith dilute hydrochloric
of carbon dioxide min
produced? Total 0 15 24 2 8 31 33 3 5 35 35 35 35
volume
2 The following results were obtained from an of CO2
experiment of the type you were asked to design gas/cm3
in question 1.
a Plot a graph of the total volume of CO2 against time.
b At which point is the rate of reaction fastest?
c What volume of CO2 was produced after 1 minute 15 seconds?
d How long did it take to produce 30 cm3 of CO2?
104
7.2 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
thiosulfate
its solution
fastest. This was used,
is shown by thethe reaction
shortest wastaken
time at have of having
activation sufficient
energy energy toand
of the reaction, overcome
so it is the
more
for the cross to be obscured. likely that a successful collision occurs. This means
that the rate of a chemical reaction will increase
120
/sr if the concentration of reactants is increased,
a
e 100
p
p
because there are more particles per unit volume.
a
is 80
d
to
ss 60
o
r
Pressure of gases
c 40
r In reactions involving only gases, an increase in the
fo
e 20 overall pressure at which the reaction is carried out
im
T
0
increases the rate of the reaction. The increase in
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 pressure results in the gas particles being pushed
Concentration of sodium thiosulfate/mol/dm 3
closer together, increasing the number of particles
▲ Figure 7. 9 Sample data for the sodium thiosulfate/
7.9
per unit volume. This means that they
the y collide more
acid experiment at different concentrations of sodium frequently and so the rate of reaction increases.
thiosulfate
From the data shown in Figure 7.9
7.9 it is possible to Temperature
produce a different graph which directly shows the Why do you think food is stored in a refrigerat
refrigerator?
or?
rate of the reaction against concentration rather The reason is that the rate of decay of food is slower
than the time taken for the reaction to occur at lower temperatures. This is a general feature of
against concentration. To do this, the times can be the majority of chemical processes.
converted to a rate using: The reaction between sodium thiosulfate and
hydrochloric acid can be used to study the effect of
rate
rate = 1 temperature on the rate of a reaction.
react ion. Figure 7.1
7.11
1
reaction time (s) shows some sample results of experiments with
sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid
ac id (at
This would give the graph shown in Figure 7.10. fixed concentrations) carried out at different
0.035 temperatures. You can see from the graph that the
0.03 rate of the reaction is fastest at high temperatures.
1
–
/s 0.025
140
n
io
t
c
0.02 /sr 120
a a
e
r 0.015 e
f p
o
p100
a
t
e 0.01 is
a d
80
R
to
0.005 s
s
o
r 60
0 c
r
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 fo 40
3 e
Concentration of sodium thiosulfate/mol/dm
im
T 20
▲ Figure 7.10 Graph to show the rate of reaction against
concentration 0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature/ ºC
180
As the temperature increases, the reactant 160
1gMnO2
particles increase their kinetic energy. Some of 3
m140 0.5gMnO2
c
/
the particles will have an energy greater than n 120
e
g 100
the activation energy, Ea, and they move faster. y
x
o 80
The faster movement results in more frequent f
o
collisions between the particles. Some of the e 60
m
l 40
u
o
extra collisions V 20
increase will be that result collisions.
successful from the temperature
This causes 0
the reaction rate to increase. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time/s
Catalysts
Over 90% of industrial processes use catalysts. A
reaction hasFor
physically. taken place,a but
example, finerthey can change
manganese(IV)
oxide powder is left behind after the
catalyst is a substance which can alter the rate of
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
a reaction without being chemically changed itself.
» catalyst
catalystss are specif
specific
ic to a particular chemical
In the laboratory, the effect of a catalyst can be
reaction.
observed using the
th e decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide as an example. Some examples of chemical processes and the
hydrogen peroxide → wáter + oxyg
oxygen
en catalysts used are shown in Table 7.1.
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) ▼ Table 7.1 Examples of
of catalysts
106
7.3 Enzymes
Without
catalyst
With
catalyst Activation
y
g energy
r
e
n
Reactants ▲ Figure 7.14 The enzyme molecules (red, pink, green and
E
Enthalpy blue) lock on exactly to a particular reactant molecule
change (yellow). Once the enzyme is locked on, the reactant
Products of reaction molecule breaks up into pieces
For example, hydrogen peroxide is produced within
our bodies. However, it is extremely
ex tremely damaging and
0 Progress of reaction must be decomposed very rapidly. Catalase is the
enzyme which converts hydrogen peroxide into
▲ Figure 7.13 A reaction pathway diagram showing
activation energy, with and without a catalyst harmless water and oxygen within our livers:
catalase
hydrogen peroxide
→ water + oxygen
catalase
2H 2O2 (aq)
→ 2H 2O(l) + O2 (g)
Test yourself Although many chemical catalysts can work under
6 Using a catalysed reaction of your choice, devise various conditions of temperature and pressure,
an experiment to follow the progress of the as well as alkalinity or acidity, biological catalysts
reaction and determine how effective the catalyst is.
is . operate only under very particular conditions.
For example, they operate over a very narrow
temperature range and, if the temperature becomes
7.3 Enzymes too high, they become inoperative. At temperatures
above about 45°C,
45°C, they denature. This means that
Enzymes are protein molecules produced in living the specific shape of the active site of the enzyme
cells. They are catalysts which speed up hundr
hundreds
eds of molecule changes due to the breaking of bonds. This
different chemical reactions taking place inside living means that the reactant molecules are no longer
cells. These biological catalysts are very specific in able to fit into the active site.
that each chemical reaction has a different enzyme A huge multimillion-pound industr
industryy has grown
catalyst. There are literally hundreds
hundreds of different
dif ferent up around the use of enzymes to produce new
kinds of enzyme. Enzymes all have an active site.
s ite. materials. Biological washing powders (Figure 7.15)
The active site is a particular shape and locks into contain enzymes to break down stains such as
a corresponding shape in a reactant molecule. When
this has happened, the enzyme can work to break up sweat, blood and egg, and they do this at the
relatively low temperature
tempera ture of 40°C. This reduces
the reactant (Figure 7.14). energy costs, because the washing water does not
need to be heated as much.
107
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Test yourself
7 When using biological washing powders what
factors have to be taken into consideration?
8 Enzyme
Enzymess in yeast are used in the fermentation
of glucose. Why, when the temperature is raised
to 45°C, is very little ethanol actually produced
compared with the amount formed at room
temperature?
108
7.5 Ammonia – an important nitrogen-containing chemical
7.5 Ammonia – an
important nitroge
nitrogen-
n-
containing chemical
Nitrogen from the air is used to manufacture
ammonia,
chemical isa one
verythat
important
is usedbulk chemical.
in large A bulk
quantities,
across a range of uses. The major process used
for making ammonia is the Haber process. This
process was developed by the German scientist
Fritz Haber in 1913. He was awarded a Nobel Prize
in 1918
1918 for his work. The process involves reacting
react ing
nitrogen and hydrogen. Ammonia has many uses
including the manufacture of explosives, nitric
▲ Figure 7.16 Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate changes from acid and fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate.
white to blue when water is added to it
This is an example of a reversible reaction:
Obtaining nitrogen
The nitrogen needed in the Haber process is
hydrated copper(II) anhydrous copper(II) + water
sulfate sulfate obtained from the atmosphere by fractional
distillation of liquid air (Chapter 12, p. 229).
blue solid white solid
We can show this reaction as being reversible by
Obtaining hydrogen
using the symbol. The hydrogen needed in the Haber process is
obtained from the reaction between methane and
steam.
Key definition
Some chemical reactions are reversible as shown by the methane + steam hydrogen + carbon
symbol. monoxide
CH4(g) + H2O(g) 3H2(g) + CO(g)
Another example is cobalt(II) chloride,
chlor ide, which is
This process is known as steam re-forming and is
a blue solid in its anhydrous form and pink in its
reversible.
hydrated form. Adding
chloride changes waterfrom
the colour to anhydrous
blue to a cobalt(II)
pink In any reversible reaction, the reaction shown
going from left to right in the equation is known as
solid as it produces hydrated cobalt(II) chloride.
chlor ide.
the forward reaction. The reaction shown going from
If hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is heated the colour
right to left in the equation is known as the reverse
changes from pink back to blue.
reaction. Special conditions are employed to ensure
anhydrous cobalt(II) + water hydrated cobalt(II) that the reaction proceeds as the forward reaction
chloride chloride (to the right in the equation), producing hydrogen
blue solid pink solid and carbon monoxide. The process is carried out at
a temperature of 750°C,
750°C, at a pressure of 3000 kPa
You will learn more about copper(II) sulfate in (30 atmospheres) with a catalyst of nickel. These
Chapter 8 (p. 123).
123). Both examples shown above can conditions enable the maximum amount of hydrogen
be used as a chemical test for the presence of water. to be produced at an economic cost.
In summary, heating a hydrated compound The carbon monoxide produced is then allowed
will remove
compound.
compound the water
. Adding andwater
some formto
theananhydrous
anhydrous to reduce some of the unreacted steam to produce
more hydrogen gas.
compound will produce the hydrated
hydrate d compound.
109
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
carbon + steam hydrogen + carbon dioxide ammonia decomposes. The concentrations of nitrogen,
monoxide hydrogen and ammonia in the reaction vessel do not
change, provided that the reaction vessel is a closed
CO(g) + H2O(g) H2(g) + CO2(g)
system: one in which none of the gases can enter or
Other ways of producing hydrogen for the Haber leave. This situation is called a chemical equilibrium.
process do exist, usually using hydrocarbons, but Because the processes continue to happen, the
110
7.6 Industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid – the Contact process
Relationships such as these were initially observed A catalyst is used in almost all industrial
by Henri Le Chatelier, a French scientist, in 1888 processes to produce the product more quickly,
(Figure 7.18). He noticed that if the pressure was and in the Haber process an iron catalyst is used.
increased in reactions involving gases, the reaction The catalyst increases the rate of both the forward
which produced the fewest molecules of gas was and reverse reactions to the same extent, so the
favoured. If you look at the reaction for the Haber position is not affected: its use simply means the
process,
the youofwill
number see that,ofgoing
molecules fromfrom
gas goes left four
to right, product is produced more
The concentration quickly.is often increased
of nitrogen
to two. This is why the Haber process is carried as this will also favour the forward reaction,
out at high pressures. We say that the position of increasing the yield of ammonia.
equilibrium has been moved to the right by using It should be noted, however
however,, that the
t he high
the higher pressure. Le Chatelier also noticed that pressure used is very expensive and is a major
reactions which were exothermic produced more safety concern so alternative, less expensive routes
products if the temperature was low. Using a lower involving biotechnology are currently being sought.
temperature favours the exothermic process. In Worldwide, in excess of 17175
5 million tonnes of
the Haber process, this would move the position ammonia are produced by the Haber process
of equilibrium to the right. Indeed, if the Haber each year.
process is carried out at room temperature, you
get a higher percentage of ammonia. However, in
practice the rate of the reaction is lowered too
Test yourself
much and the ammonia is not produced quickly 9 What problems do the builders of a chemical
enough for the process to be economical. An plant designed to produce ammonia have
to consider when they start to build such a
optimum temperature is used to t o produce enough plant?
ammonia at an acceptable rate. 10 What problems are associated with building
a plant which uses such high pressures as
those required in the Haber process?
111
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The sulfur dioxide can also be obtained by sulfurr trioxide + water → sulfu
sulfu sulfuric
ric acid
roasting sulfide ores such as zinc sulfide in air. SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)
The sulfur dioxide and oxygen gases are then
heated to a temperature of approximately 450°
450°CC The manufacture of sulfuric acid requires several
and fed into a reaction vessel, where they are safety considerations. These are: ensuring sulfur
passed over a catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide (V 2O5). dust explosions are prevented by wetting down the
sulfur as it is handled in the process; and carefully
This oxygen
and catalyses
to the reaction
produce between
sulfur sulfur
tr ioxide
trioxide dioxide
(sulfur(VI) managing and neutralising acid spray and leaks if
oxide, SO3). they occur.
sulfur dioxide + oxygen
oxygen sulfur trioxide
Key definition
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) The equation for the production of sulfur trioxide in the
Δ H = −197 kJ/mol Contact process is 2SO2 + O2 2SO 3
This reaction is reversible and so the ideas The typical conditions used in the Contact process are
450°C, 200 kPa and vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
of Le Chatelier described in section 7.5 can
be used to increase the proportion of sulfur Burning sulfur or sulfide ores in air is the source of
trioxide in the equilibrium mixture. The forward sulfur dioxide and air is the source of oxygen in the
Contact process.
reaction is exothermic and so would be favoured
by low temperatures. The temperature
tempera ture of 450°C
450°C
is an optimum temperature which produces
sufficient sulfur trioxide at an economical Test yourself
rate. 11 Produce a flow diagram to show the different
Since the reaction from left to right is also processes which occur during the production
accompanied by a decrease in the number of of sulfuric acid by the Contact process.
molecules of gas, it will be favoured by a high Write balanced chemical equations showing
pressure. In reality, the process is run at
a t 200 kPa the processes which occur at the different
stages, giving the essential raw materials and
(2 atmospheres)
atmospheres) of pressure. Under these conditions used.
conditions, about 96 % of the sulfur dioxide and 12 Both the following reactions are reversible:
oxygen are converted into sulfur trioxide. The (i) X 2(g) + O2(g) 2XO(g)
energy produced by this reaction is used to heat (ii) 2XO(g) + O 2(g) 2XO 2(g)
the incoming gases, thereby saving money. Suggest a reason why an increase in pressure:
a does not favour reaction (i)
The sulfur trioxide produced can be reacted with b increases the amount of XO2 produced in
water to produce sulfuric acid. reaction (ii).
112
7.6 Industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid – the Contact process
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 7 you should be able to: ✓ State that a catalys
catalystt increase
increasess the rate of a
✓ Identify a chemical and physical
physical change.
change. reaction and is unchanged at the end of the
✓ Describe and explain the effect of changes reaction.
in concentration, pressure, surface area and
temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate ✓ Explain that a catalyst
catalyst lowers the activation
activation
of a reaction. energy, Ea, of a reaction which means
m eans that more
✓ Describe and evaluate different methods of
of the collisions are successful.
investigating rates of a reaction.
✓ Interpret data and graphs obtained
obtained from rate ✓ Use the symbol to show a reversible reaction.
experiments. ✓ Explain when a chemical
chemical equilibrium occurs.
✓ Describe the effects of changing
changing the
the conditions
conditions for
✓ Describe the collision theory in terms of a reversible reaction for hydrated and anhydrous
the number of particles per unit volume compounds.
and frequency of the collisions between
bet ween the
particles. ✓ Predict and explain how changing the conditions
conditions
✓ Explain that increasing the concentration
concentration of a for a reversible reaction will alter the position of
solution, or the pressure of a gas, increases equilibrium.
the number of particles per unit volume, which ✓ State the
the equation for the Haber process
process and the
sources of the nitrogen and hydrogen needed.
✓
leads to that
Explain more frequent collisions
increasing between
the temperature
temperature them.
leads to ✓ State and explain the typical conditions
conditions used in
the particles having more kinetic energy, making the Haber process.
them move faster and collide more frequently
causing more of the collisions to be successful.
113
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 Explain the following statements. g How long did it take forfor 60 cm3 of gas to
a A car exhaust pipe will rust much
much faster if be produced when the experiment was
the car is in constant use. [2]]
[2 carried
carr ied out using 0.5 g of the manganese(IV)
b Vegetables cook
cook faster when they are oxide? [1]
chopped up. [1]]
[1 h Write a balanced chemical
chemical equation for
c Industrial processes become more the decomposi
decomposition
tion of hydrogen perox
peroxide.
ide. [1[1]]
economically viable if a catalyst can be 3 A flask containing dilute hydrochloric acid
found for the reactions involved. [2]]
[2 was placed on a digital balance. An excess of
d In fireworks it is usual
usual for the ingredients
ingredients limestone chippings was added to this acid,
ac id, a
to be powdered. [2]]
[2 plug of cotton wool was placed in the neck of the
e To
Tomatoes
matoes ripen faster in a greenhouse. [2]]
[2 flask and the initial mass was recorded. The mass
f The reaction between zinc and dilute of the apparatus was recorded every two minutes.
hydrochloric acid is slower than the reaction At the end of the experiment, the loss in mass of
between zinc and concentrated hydrochloric the apparatus was calculated and the following
acid. [2] results were obtained.
2 A student performed two exper
experiments
iments to
Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
establish how effective manganese(IV) oxide was
as a catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen Loss in 0 2.1 3.0 3.1 3. 6 3 . 8 4 . 0 4 . 0 4 . 0
peroxide. The results below were obtained mass/g
by carrying out these experiments with two a Plot the results of the exper
experiment.
iment. [3]]
[3
different quantities of manganese(IV) oxide. b Which ofof the results would appear to be
The volume of the gas produced was recorded incorrect? Explain your answer. [2]]
[2
against time. c Write a balanced chemical equation to
Time/s 0 30 60 90 120 15 0 180 210 represent the reaction taking place. [1]
d Why did
did the mass of the flask and its
Volume for 0 29 55 79 9 8 118 13 3 14 6
0.3 g/cm3 contentss decre
content decrease?
ase? [1]
[1]
e Why was the plug of cottcotton
on wool used? [1]]
[1
Volume for 0 45 84 118 14 5 162 174 182
0.5 g/cm3
f How does the rate of reaction change
change
during this reaction? Explain this using
a Draw a diagram of the apparatus you could particle theory. [2]
[2]
use to carr
carryy out these exper
experiments.
iments. [3]
[3] g How long did the reaction last? [1]
b Plot a graph of the result
results.
s. [3]]
[3 h How long
long did it take for
for half of the
c Is the manganese(IV) oxide
oxide acting as a reaction
reac tion to occur? [1]
[1]
catalyst in this reaction? Explain your 4 a What is a cat
catalyst?
alyst? [2]]
[2
answer. [2] b List the properties of catalyst
catalysts.
s. [3]]
[3
d i At which stage does the reaction c Name the catalyst used in the following
following
proceed
procee d most quickly? [1]
[1] processes:
ii How can you tell this from your graph? [1]]
[1 i the Haber proces
processs [1]
iii In terms of particles, explain why the ii the hydrogenation of unsaturated fats. [1]
reaction is quickest at the point you d Which series of metallic elements in the
have chosen in i. [2] Periodic Table (p. 135)
135) do the catalyst
catalystss
e Why does
does the slope
slope of the graph become you have named in c bel belong
ong to? [1]]
[1
less steep as the reaction proceeds? [2]]
[2 e What are the conditions used in the
f What volume of gas has been produced industrial processes named in c? [2]
when using 0.3 g of manganese(IV)
manganese(I V) oxide
after
af ter 50 s? [1]
114
Exam-style questions
0
10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000
Pressure/kPa
115
8 Acids, bases and salts
FOCUS POINTS
★ What
★ What are acids
are the and bases,
solubility and how do they behave?
rules?
★ How can we prepare soluble salts?
In this chapter, you will look at acids and bases, their properties and their reactions. You will look
at the use of indicators to tell whether a solution is acidic or alkaline, and you will be introduced to
indicators other than universal indicator solution, which you have probably already met.
The reactions we will look at in this chapter produce ionic solids called salts. Salts are very
important to our lives: for example, ammonium nitrate is the most-used fertiliser on our planet and
magnesium sulfate is used in medicines. This chapter will guide you through different methods of
making salts and which reactants you would use. For example, how do you make ammonium nitrate?
Which reactants will you need and which of the different methods you will read about should you use?
By the end of this chapter you should be able to answer these questions. You will also become more
confident in writing chemical equations and using these equations to work out the quantities of
materials you need to start with and how much of the product you should make.
8.1
8.1 Acids and alkalis
alk alis around us. What properties do these substances
All the substances shown in Figure 8.1 contain an have which make you think that they are acids or
acid of one sort or another. Acids are certainly all contain acids?
▲ Figure 8.1 What do all these foods and drinks have in common?
116
8.1 Acids and alkalis
Some common alkaline substances are shown in Methyl orange, thymolphthalein and blue and
Figure 8.2. red litmus are all indicators used in titrations
(see p. 128). Table 8.1 shows the colours they turn
in acids and alkalis.
▼ Table 8.1 Indicators and their colours in acid and alkaline
solution
It would be too dangerous to taste a liquid to find ▲ Figure 8.3 Indicators tell you if a substance is acid or
out if it was acidic. Chemists use substances called alkaline
indicators
to acids or which
alkalis.change colour when
Many indicators arethey
dyesare added
which
have been extracted from natural sources, such as
litmus.
117
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Neutral
Strong Slightly Slightly Strong The Brønsted–Lowry
Brønsted–Lowry theo
theory
ry
acid acidic alkaline alkali
This theory defined:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 » an acid as an H+ ion (or proton) donor
» a base as an H+ ion (or proton) acceptor.
Lemon Milk Blood Lime Oven cleaner,
Dilute
juice Water, water dilute sodium
hydroxide Key definitions
salt Acids are proton donors.
hydrochloric Bleach,
acid Orange juice, solution washing Bases are proton acceptors.
vinegar soda, aqueous
(ethanoic Toothpaste ammonia
acid)
The theory explains why a pure acid behaves
a The pH scale differently from its aqueous solution, since for an
acid to behave as an H+ ion donor it must have
another substance present to accept the H+ ion.
So the water, in the aqueous acid solution, is
behaving as a Brønsted–Lowry base and accepting
an H+ ion. Generally:
HA(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + A−(aq)
acid base
If a substance can behave both as a proton
b Universal indicator in solution, showing the colour range
acceptor (base) and a proton donor (acid) then
▲ Figure 8.4
it is called amphoteric, for example,
e xample, aluminium
Using universal indicator allows us to determine oxide, Al2O3 and zinc oxide, ZnO.
how concentrated one acid solution is compared to
another. The redder the colour,
colour, the more acidic
ac idic the The relative strengths
s trengths of acids
solution is. Solutions which are very acidic contain and bases
higher concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+(aq)).
The relative strength of an acid is found by
Another way in which the pH of a substance can
comparing one acid with another. The strength
be measured is by using
us ing a pH meter (Figure 8.5).
8.5). The
of any acid depends upon how many molecules
pH electrode is placed into the solution and a pH
dissociate (or ionise) when the acid is dissolved
reading is given on the digital
digit al display.
in
by water.
water. The relative
comparing relat
one ive
basestrength of a base
with another and isisfound
again
dependent upon the dissociation of the base in
aqueous solution.
118
8.1 Acids and alkalis
A
in strong
aqueousacid is an acid
solution. that is completely
Hydrochloric acid is adissociated
strong acid: acid, found
found in softindrinks;
droranges and lemons;
inks; sulfurous acid carbonic acid,
(acid rain)
HCl(aq)→H (aq) + Cl (aq).
+ −
(Figure 8.6)
8.6) and ascorbic
a scorbic acid (vitamin
(vit amin C).
119
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Neutralisation
Neutralisation reactions Test yourself
A common situation involving neutralisation of
an acid is when you suffer from indigestion. This 1 Complete the following balanced chemical
equations.
is caused by acid in your stomach irritating the a CH3COOH + NaOH →
stomach lining or throat. Normally it is treated by b H2SO4 + KOH →
taking an indigestion remedy containing a substance c NH3 + HBr →
In each case, name the acid and the base.
which willlaboratory,
In the react with if
and neutralise
you the acid. a
wish to neutralise
2 Explain the terms ‘concentrated’ and ‘strength’
common acid such as hydrochloric acid you can use as applied to acids.
an alkali such as sodium hydroxide. If the pH of
the acid is measured when some sodium hydroxide 3 Explain what part water plays in the acidity of a
solution is added to it, the pH increases. If equal solution.
volumes of the same concentration of hydrochloric 4 a Write a chemical equation to represent the
acid and sodium hydroxide are added to one neutralisation of sulfuric acid by sodium
hydroxide.
another,, the resulting solution
another solut ion is found to have a b Reduce this to an ionic equation.
7. The acid has undergone a neutralisation
pH of 7. c Account for any difference you see between
reaction and a neutral solution has been formed. the ionic equation you have written and the
one shown on the left for the reaction of
hydrochloric + sodium → sodium + water
water hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
acid hyd roxide chloride
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Key definition
8.2 Formation of salts
A neutralisation reaction occurs between an acid and a In the example on this page, sodium chloride was
base to produce water; H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l) . produced as part of the neutralisation reaction.
Compounds formed in this way are known as salts.
As we have shown, when both hydrochloric acid A salt is a compound that has been formed when all
and sodium hydroxide dissolve in water, the ions the hydrogen ions of an acid have been replaced by
separate completely. We may therefore write: metal ions or by the ammonium ion (NH+4).
Salts can be classified as those which are soluble
H+(aq)Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq)OH−(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l) in water or those which are insoluble in water. The
You will notice that certain ions are unchanged general solubility rules for salts are:
on either side of the equation. They are called » all sodium,
sodium, potassium and ammonium
ammonium salts are
spectator ions and are usually taken out of the soluble
equation. The equation now becomes: » all nitrates are soluble
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l) » all chlorides are soluble, except lead and silver
» all sulfates are soluble, except barium, calcium
This type of equation is known as an ionic equation. and lead
The reaction between any acid and any alkali » all carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble,
in aqueous solution produces water and can be except sodium, potassium and ammonium
ammonium..
summarised by this ionic equation. It shows the ion
which causes acidity (H+(aq)
aq))) reacting
react ing with the ion If the acid being neutralised is hydrochloric acid,
−
which causes alkalinity (OH (aq)) to produce neutral salts called chlorides are formed. Other types of
water (H2O(l)
O(l)).
). Aqueous solutions
solut ions of acids
ac ids contain salts can be formed with other acids. A summary of
+
H ions and aqueous solutions
solut ions of alkalis contain the different types of salt along with the acid they
–
OH ions. are formed f rom is shown in Table 8.2.
120
8.3 Methods of preparing soluble salts
▼ Table 8.2 Types of salt and the acids they are formed from Excess magnesium ribbon is added to dilute
hydrochloric acid. By using an excess
e xcess of magnesium
Ac i d Type of salt E xample
ribbon we are making sure that all of the acid has
Carb
Carbon
onic
ic acid Carb
Carbon
ona
ates So
Sodi
diu
um ca
carb
rbon
ona
ate (N
(Na2CO 3) reacted and some magnesium is left at the end of
Ethanoic aci
acid Ethanoates Sodium eth
Sod ethanoate the reaction. During this addition an effervescence
(CH3COONa) is observed due to the production of hydrogen
Hydrochloric Chlo
Chlori
ride
dess Pota
Potass
ssiu
ium
m chl
chlor
orid
ide
e (K
(KCl
Cl)) gas. In this reaction the hydrogen ions from the
acid hydrochloric acid gain electrons from the metal
Nitric acid Nitrates Potassium nitrate (KNO3) atoms as the reaction proceeds.
Sulfuric acid Sulfates Sodium sulfate (Na2SO 4) hydrogen ions + electrons → hydrogen gas
(from metal)
Types of oxides 2H+ + 2e− → H2(g)
There are three different types of oxides. Non-metal
oxides, such as sulfur dioxide, SO2, and carbon magnesium + hydrochloric → magnesium + hydrog
hydrogen
en
dioxide are acidic. In aqueous solution they produce acid chloride
aqueous hydrogen ions, H+(aq). Metal oxides, Mg(s))
Mg(s + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H 2(g)
however, are basic oxides. If these oxides are soluble
they will dissolve in water to produce aqueous
hydroxide ions, OH−(aq). For example, copper(II)
oxide, CuO and calcium oxide, CaO.
The third type of oxides, and the rarest, are those
described as amphoteric oxides. These oxides
react with both acids and alkalis to produce salts.
Examples of amphoteric oxides are zinc oxide,
ZnO, and aluminium oxide, Al 2O3.
Acid + metal ▲ Figure 8.7 The excess magnesium is filtered in this way
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen The excess magnesium is removed by filtration
This method can only be used with the less (Figure 8.7).
reactive metals such as aluminium. It would be The magnesium chloride solution is evaporated
very dangerous to use a reactive metal, such as slowly to form a saturated solution of the salt
sodium, in this type of reaction. The metals usually (Figure 8.8).
used in this method of salt preparation are the The hot concentrated magnesium chloride
MAZIT metals, that is, magnesium, aluminium, solution produced is tested by dipping a cold glass
zinc, iron and t in. A typical experimental method rod into it. If salt crystals form at the end of the
is given below.
be low. rod the solution is ready to crystallise and is left
121
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
to cool. Any crystals produced on cooling are The excess copper(II) carbonate can be filtered
filtered and dried between clean tissues. off and the copper(II) nitrate solution is evaporated
slowly to form a saturated solution of the salt.
The hot concentrated copper(II) nitrate solution
produced is tested by dipping a cold glass
gla ss rod into
it. If salt crystals form at the end of the rod the
solution is ready to crystallise and is left to cool.
Any crystals produced on cooling are filtered and
dried between clean tissues.
Acid + carbonate
c arbonate Key definitions
Alkalis are soluble bases. Aqueous solutions of alkalis
acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide contain OH– ions.
This method can be used with any metal carbonate
and any acid, providing the salt
s alt produced is soluble. A base is a substance which neutralises an acid,
The typical experimental procedure is similar to that producing a salt and water as the only products.
carried out for an acid and a metal. For example, If the base is soluble, the term ‘alkali’ can be used,
copper(II) carbonate would be added in excess to but there are several bases which are insoluble. It
dilute nitric acid. Effervescence would be observed is also a substance which accepts a hydrogen ion
due to the production of carbon dioxide. (see p. 118).
118). In general, most metal oxides and
copper(II) + nitric → copper(II) + carbon + water hydroxides (as well as ammonia solution) are bases.
carbonate acid nitrate dioxide Some examples of soluble and insoluble bases are
shown in Table 8.3.
8.3. Salts can be formed
forme d by this
CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H 2O(l)
method only if the base is soluble.
Metal carbonates contain carbonate ions, CO32−. In ▼ Table 8.3 Examples of soluble
soluble and insoluble
insoluble bases
this reaction the carbonate ions react with the
hydrogen ions in the acid. Soluble bases (alkalis) I n s o l u b l e b a s es
carbonate + hydrogen → carbon + water Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Iron(III ) oxide (Fe2O3)
ions ions dioxide Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Copper (II ) oxide (CuO)
CO2−(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO (g) + H O(l) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ) Lead(II ) oxide (PbO)
3 2 2 2
When excess carbonate has been added, you will Ammonia solution (NH3(aq)) Magnesium oxide (MgO)
see it collect at the bottom of the beaker and the
effervescence will stop.
122
8.3 Methods of preparing soluble salts
123
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
8.4 Preparing insoluble It should be noted that even salts like barium
sulfate dissolve to a very small extent. For example,
salts 1 dm3 of water will
w ill dissolve 2.2 × 10−3 g of barium
The methods described above can be used to sulfate at 25°C. This substance and substances like
make a salt that is soluble in water. If a salt that it are said to be sparingly soluble.
is insoluble in water needs to be prepared, a
different technique is needed.
An insoluble salt, such as barium sulfate,
8.5 Testing for different
can be made by precipitation. In thissalts
case,
solutions of the two chosen soluble are
mixed (Figure 8.12). To produce barium sulfate,
salts
barium chloride and sodium sulfate can be used. Sometimes we want to analyse a salt and find out
The barium sulfate precipitate can be filtered what is in it. There are simple chemical tests which
off, washed with distilled water and dried. The allow us to identify the anion part of the salt.
reaction that has occurred is:
Testing for a sulfate (SO42−)
barium + sodium → barium + sodium
You have seen that barium sulfate is an insoluble
chloride sulfate sulfate chloride
salt (p. 120).
120). Therefore, if you take
t ake a solution
solut ion of
BaCl2(aq) + Na 2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s
(s)) + 2NaCl(aq) a suspected sulfate and add it to a solution of a
soluble barium salt (such as barium chloride
chlor ide)) then a
The ionic equation for this reaction is: white precipitate of barium sulfate will be produced.
Ba2+(aq) + SO2−(aq) → BaSO (s)
4 4
barium ion + sulfate ion → barium sulfate
Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s (s))
124
8.5 Testing for different salts
125
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
b Write ionic equations to help you explain what ▲ Figure 8.1 5 Hydrate crystals
8 .15 crystal s (left to right): cobalt
is happening during the testing process. nitrate, calcium nitrate and nickel sulfate (top) and
manganese sulfate, copper sulfate and chromium
potassium sulfate (bottom)
126
8.6 Water of crystallisation
Going further
Calculation of water of crystallisation
Sometimes it is necessary to work out the percentage,
by mass, of water of crystallisation in a hydrated salt.
Worked example
Calculate the percentage by mass of water in the salt
hydrate MgSO4 .7H2 O. (Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Mg = 24; S = 32)
Mr for MgSO 4 .7H2O
= 24 + 32 + (4 × 16) + (7 × 18) = 246
The mass of water as a fraction of the total mass of hydrate
= 126
246
▲ Figure 8.16 Anhydrous copper(II ) sulfate is a white The percentage of water present
powder which turns blue when water is added to it
= 126 × 100
Because the colour change only takes place in the 246
= 51.
51.2%
2%
presence of water,
the presence the reaction is used to test for
of water.
These processes give a simple example of a
reversible reaction: Test yourself
CuSO4(s) + 5H 2O(l) CuSO4.5H2O(s) 8 Calculate the percentage by mass of water in
the following salt hydrates:
a CuSO4.5H2O b Na2CO3.10H2O
c Na2S2O3.5H2O.
( Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Na = 23; S = 32; Cu = 63.5)
Practical skills
Preparation of potassium nitrate The apparatus below can be used to prepare
For safe experiments/demonstrations which potassium nitrate
n itrate crystals.
are related to this chapter, please refer to the
Safety
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills Burette
filler
Workbook, which is also part of this series.
Stand
Safety
l Eye protection must be worn. Pipette
l Take care using indicator solution as it can
stain skin a nd clothing.
clothing.
Conical
flask
127
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
5 on
Whytheisburette?
the swirling of the flask important?
6 How could youyou tell
tell that the solution has
become saturated as it is evaporated?
7 In step 5, why is it important to not evaporate
evaporate
all the water away?
8 How can the crystals be dried?
128
8.6 Water of crystallisation
Dilute
hydrochloric
acid
Burette
129
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Malkali = 1 mole
130
8.6 Water of crystallisation
Revision checklist
Test yourself
After studying Chapter 8 you should be able to:
9 24.2 cm3 of a solution containing 0.20 mol/dm 3
✓ Describe the chemical properties of acids and
of hydrochloric acid just neutralised 25.0 cm 3
of a potassium hydroxide solution. What is bases.
the concentration of this potassium hydroxide ✓ State that an
an alkali is a soluble base.
solution? ✓ Explain the difference between a concentrat
concentrated
ed
10 22.4 cm3 of a solution containing 0.10 mol/dm 3
and dilute acid.
of sulfuric acid just neutralised 25.0 cm3 ✓ Describe the use of indicators to determine
determine the
the
of a sodium hydroxide solution. What is
the concentration of this sodium hydroxide presence of an acid or alkali and to determine
solution? their strengths.
131
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Exam-style questi
questions
ons c Give the indicator
indicator suitable
suitable for the initial
reaction between the hydroxides and the
1 Explain, with the aid of
of examples, what you
you dilute acid
acidss shown. [1]]
[1
understand by the following terms: d Give balanced chemical
chemical equations for the
a strong acid [2]]
[2 reactions taking place in the scheme. [3]]
[3
b weak acid [2]]
[2 e Give an
an ionic equation for the production
c strong alkal
alkalii [2]]
[2 of the white precipitate D. [1]
d weak base. [2]]
[2
2 a Copy out
out and complete the table, which covers 4 In a titrat
titration
ion involving
involving 24. 0 cm3 potassium
24.0
the different methods of preparing salts. hydroxide solution against a solution of
concentration 1 mol/d
mol/dm m3 of sulfuric acid,
Method of Name of salt Two substances used
28.0 cm3 of the acid was found to just
preparation prepared in the preparation
neutralise the alkali
al kali completely.
Acid + alkali Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and
a Give a word
word and balanced chemical
sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
equation for the reaction. [2]]
[2
Acid
Acid + me
meta
tall . . . . . . . . . . . . [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . an
and b Identify a suitable indicator
indicator for the
dilute hydrochloric
acid [1]]
[1 titration and state the colour change
you would obser
observe.
ve. [1]]
[1
Acid + insoluble Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and
base sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
c Calculate the concentration of the alkali
in mol/dm3. [3]
Acid
Acid + carbo
carbonat
nate
e Cop
Copper
per . . . . . [1
[1] .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. and
a[2]
nd d Describe a chemical test which you could
use to identify the type of salt produced
Precipitation Lead iodide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
during the reaction. [2]]
[2
b Give word and balanced chemical equations 5 For each of the following, explain the term given
for each reaction shown in your table. Also and give an example:
write ionic
ionic equations where appropriate. [1515]] a neutralisation [2]
3 Consider the following scheme. b titrat
titration
ion [3]]
[3
c solubl
solublee salt [2]]
[2
Sodium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide d insolubl
insolublee salt. [2]]
[2
Dilute Dilute
sulfuric nitric 6 Copper(II)
Copper(II) sulfate crystals exist as the
acid acid
ydrate,, CuSO .5H O. It is a salt hydrate
pentahydrate
pentah hydrate..
4
strongly,, the water of
2
If it is heated quite strongly
Solution A Solution B
+ +
crystallisation is driven off and the anhydrous
Water Liquid C
salt remains.
a Explain the meaning
meaning ofof the terms shown
shown
Mixed in italic
italics.
s. [4]]
[4
b Describe the experexperiment
iment you would carr
carryy
White precipitate D out to collect a sample of the water given
+ off when the salt hydrate was heated
Solution E strongly.. Your description
strongly descript ion should include
a diagram of the apparatus used and a
a Give the names and formulae
formulae of substances chemical equation to represent the
A to E. [5] process taking place. [4]]
[4
b Describe a test which could be used to c Describe a chemical test you you could carr
carryy
identify the presence of water. [1] out to show that the colourless liquid
given off was water. [2]]
[2
132
Exam-style questions
moles
crystal.of water present in a hydrated
i Use the information given to calculate
the percentage, by mass, of water of
crystallisation in a sample of hydrated
magnesium
magnesi um sulfa
sulfate.
te. [3]]
[3
Mass of crucible
cr ucible = 14
14.20
.20 g
Mass of crucible + hydrated MgSO4
= 16.66 g
Mass after
af ter heating = 15.
15.40
40 g
ii Calculate the number
number ofof moles
moles of water
of crystallisation driven off during the
experiment as well as
moles of anhydrous theremaining.
salt number of [2[2]]
(Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Mg = 24; S = 32)
iii Using the information you havehave obtained
in ii, write down, in the form
MgSO4. xH2O, the formula of hydrated
magnesium
magnesi um sulfa
sulfate.
te. [1]]
[1
133
9 The Periodic Table
FOCUS POINTS
★ How
★ Whatcan
arethe
thePeriodic
trends inTable help
tiesusand
properties
proper to understand
vity forthe
reactivity
reacti way chemical
different groupselements react?Table?
in the Periodic Table?
In this chapter, we will look at the way in which all the chemical elements have been organised into
a table that can help to predict their properties and their chemical reactions. Chemists began to try
to organise the elements around 150 years ago but found it very difficult and, as new elements were
discovered, they had to revise their attempts. Eventually the format of the Periodic Table which we
see today was produced and, as new elements were discovered, they fitted in perfectly.
The aim of this chapter is to help you to use the Periodic Table to understand chemistry more easily.
For example, if you know some of the properties of sodium, the Periodic Table can help you to predict
the properties of francium.
By the end of this chapter you will have learned the trends in properties of four groups of elements
and you should understand how useful the Periodic Table is to your study of chemistry.
Going further
Mendeleev arranged all the 63 known elements in found to fit easily into the classification. For example,
order of increasing atomic weight but in such a way Mendeleev predicted the properties of the missing
that elements with similar properties were in the element ‘eka-silicon’ (†). He predicted
predic ted the colour,
same vertical column. He called the vertical columns density and melting point as well as its atomic weight.
groups and the horizontal rows periods (Figure 9.2).
In 1886 the element we now know as germanium
If necessary, he left gaps in the table.
was discovered in Germany by Clemens Winkler; its
As a scientific idea, Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was properties were almost exactly those Mendeleev had
tested by making predictions about elements that were predicted. In all, Mendeleev predicted the atomic weight
unknown at that time but could possibly fill the gaps. of ten new elements, of which seven were eventually
Three of these gaps are shown by the symbols * and † in discovered – the other three, atomic weights 45, 146 and
Figure 9.2. As new elements were discovered, they were 175, do not exist!
134
9.1 Development of the Periodic Table
Period Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 H
2 Li Be B C N O F
3 Na Mg
Mg Al Si P S Cl
K Ca * Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
4
Cu Zn * † As Se Br
VIII
Period Group 1 2
H He
1 I II 1
Hydrogen
III IV V VI VII 4
Helium
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li 7
Be 9
B
11
C
12
N 14
O
16
F
19
Ne20
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na23
Mg 24 27
Al Si28 31
P S
32
Cl
35.5
Ar40
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K39
Ca40
Sc45
Ti48
V51
Cr
52
Mn 55
Fe56
Co59
Ni
59
Cu
63.5
Zn65
Ga70
Ge
73
As
75
Se79
Br80
Kr
84
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb85
Sr88
Y89
Zr91
Nb Mo
93 96 99
Tc Ru101
Rh
103
Pd106
Ag108
Cd
112
In
115
Sn119 122
Sb Te128
I
127
Xe
131
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs
133
Ba137
Hf
178.5
Ta
181
W184
Re186
Os
190
Ir
192
Pt
195
Au197
Hg201
Tl
204
Pb207
Bi
209
Po
209
At
210
Rn
222
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr
223
Ra226
Rf
261
Db
262
Sg
263
Bh
262
Hs
269
Mt
268 281
Ds
272
Rg
285
Cn Nh
286
Fl
285
Mc
289
Lv
292
Ts
294
Og
294
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Organesson
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La
139
Ce
140
Pr141
Nd
144
Pm
147
Sm 150
Eu152
Gd157
Tb
159
Dy
162
Ho165
Er
167
Tm169
Yb173
Lu
175
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac
227
Th
232
Pa231
U238
Np237
Pu
244
Am Cm
243 247
Bk247
Cf
251
Es
252
Fm Md No
257 258 259
Lr
260
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Key
Reactive metals Metalloids
Transition metals Non-metals
Poor metals Noble gases
135
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
▲ Figure 9.4 Transition elements have a wide range of uses, both as elements and as alloys
The horizontal rows are called periods and these are The Periodic Table can be divided into two as
numbered 1–7 going down the Periodic Table. shown by the bold line that starts beneath boron, in
Between Groups II and III is the block of Figure 9.3. The elements to the left of this line are
elements known as the transition elements metals (fewer than three-quarters) and those on the
(Figure 9.4
9.4).
). right are non-metals (fewer than one-quarter). The
136
9.3 Group I – the alkali metals
elements which lie on this dividing line are known Group I because it has only one electron in its
as metalloids (Figure 9.5). The metalloids behave in outer shell but we can also say that it is in Period 3
some ways as metals and in others as non-metals. of the Periodic Table as it has electrons in the
If you look at the properties of the elements first three shells.
across a period of the Periodic Table, you will notice
certain trends. For example, there is: ▼ Table 9.1 Electro
9.1 Electronic
nic configuration of the first three
elements of Group I
»
a gradual
» an change
increase in thefrom metal
number of to non-metal
electrons in the Electronic
El em en t Symbol Proton number configuration
outer electron shell of the element
» a change in the structure of the element, Lithium Li 3 2,1
from giant metallic in the case of metals (e.g. Sodium Na 11 2,8,1
magnesium, p. 50, Figure 3.34), through giant Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1
covalent (e.g. diamond, p. 46, Figure 3.29),
to simple molecular (e.g. chlorine, p. 39, ▼ Table 9.2 Electro
Electronic
nic configurati
configuration
on of the first three
Figure 3.13). elements of Group II
Electronic
El em en t Symbol Proton number configuration
Ber y llium Be 4 2,2
Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2
Calcium Ca 20 2 , 8 , 8, 2
Electronic
El em en t Symbol Proton number configuration
Fluorine F 9 2,7
Ch l o r i n e Cl 17 2,8,7
▲ Figure 9.5 The metalloid silicon is used to make silicon Bromine Br 35 2,8,18,7
‘chips’
The metallic character of the elements in a group
increases as you move down the group. This is
9.2 Electronic configuration because electrons become easier to lose as the outer
and the Periodic Table shell electrons become further from the nucleus.
There is less attraction between the nucleus and
The number of electrons in the outer electron shell the outer shell electrons because of the increased
is discussed in Chapter 2 (p. 26). This corresponds
distance between them.
with the number of the group in the Periodic Table
in which the element is found. For example, the
elements shown in Table 9.19.1 have one electron
elec tron in 9.3 Group I – the alkali
their outer electron shell and they are all found in
Group I. The elements
element s in Group 0, however, are an metals
exception to this rule, as they have two or eight Group I consists of the five metals lithium,
electrons in their outer electron shell. The outer sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium, and the
electrons are mainly responsible for the chemical radioactive element francium. Lithium, sodium and
properties of any element and, therefore, elements potassium are commonly available for use in school.
in the same
(Tables group
9.2 and have
9.3). Thesimilar
numberchemical properties
of occupied shells They
underare
oil all
to very reactive
prevent them metals
comingand
intothey are stored
contact with
is equal to the period number in which that element water or air. These three metals have the following
is found. For example, we know that sodium is in properties.
137
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
b An alkaline
alkaline solution
solution is produced
produced when potassium reacts
with water
▲ Figure 9.
9.7
7
138
9.3 Group I – the alkali metals
139
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Going further
2,8,8,1
140
9.4 Group VII – the halogens
Halogen C olour
Chlorine Pale yellow-green gas
Bromine Red-brown liquid
Iodine Gr e y - b l a ck s o l i d
141
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Displacement
Displacement reactions ▼ Table 9.5 Electronic configuration of
of chlorine and bromine
gas. You will learn more about the stable nature of The iodide ion has been oxidised because it has
these gases in the next section. For example, when lost electrons. The oxidation number has increased.
chlorine reacts, it gains a single electron and forms Chlorine has been reduced because it has gained
a negative ion (Figure 9.14). electrons. The oxidation number has decreased.
142
9.4 Group V II – the halogens
Going further
Uses of the halogens
l Fluorine is used in the form of fluorides in drinking
water and toothpaste because it reduces tooth decay
by hardening the enamel on teeth.
l Chlorine is used to make PVC plastic as well as
household bleaches. It is also used to kill bacteria
and viruses in drinking water (Chapter 11, p. 174).
l Bromine is used to make disinfectant
disinfectants,
s, medicines
and fire retardants.
l Iodine is used in medicines and disinfectant
disinfectants,
s, and
also as a photographic chemical.
▲ Figure 9.15 The halogens have many varied uses – fluoride in toothpaste
toothpas te to help reduce dental decay, iodine as a
photographic chemical,
chemical, chlorine in household bleach to kill bacteria, and bromine as a fire retardant
143
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Practical skills
Safety
l Eye protection must be worn. Upper organic
layer
Displacement reactions can be used to determine
the reactivity of the Group VII elements, the
halogens. In this experiment, a student
student uses Lower water
(aqueous) layer
these reactions to determine an order of
reactivity for iodine, chlorine and bromine, and
predicts the reactivity
reactivit y of the other two halogens,
fluorine and astatine. ▲ Figure 9.16 The tube on the left shows the results of
chlorine water being added to sodium bromide, and on
If a more reactive halogen reacts with a
compound of a less reactive halogen, the less the rightiodide
sodium the result of bromine water being added to
reactive halogen will be displaced and it will
form the halogen molecule, while the more The results obtained are:
reactive halogen becomes a halide ion. Colour in organic
To observe the presence of the different halogens Halogen Colour in water solvent
in solution, the student used an organic solvent as Chlorine Colourless Pale green
the halogens produce more vivid colours in this Bromine Orange Orange
solvent compared with
wit h water.
water. Iodine Br o w n Violet
To show the colour of the halogens in the organic
solvent solutions, the student separately placed The colours of the halogens in water can be used
three halogens in test tubes and added a small to identify if a reaction has occurred when a
amount of the organic solvent. The tubes were solution of a halogen,
ha logen, for example, chlorine
chlori ne water,
water,
then fitted with a ru bber bung and shaken. is mixed with a solution of a sodium halide, for
example, sodium iodide solution. The table below
shows the results of six of these.
Sample data
Chlo
Chlori
rine
ne wa
wate
terr Brom
Bromin
ine
e wa
wate
terr Iodi
Iodine
ne wa
wate
terr
Colour af ter shaking w ith sodium iodide solution Br o w n Br o w n
Colour of each layer with the organic solvent added Up p e r V iolet V iolet
L o we r Br o w n Br o w n
Colour af ter shaking w ith sodium bromide solution Or a ng e Br o w n
Colour of each layer with the organic solvent added Up p e r Or a ng e V iolet
L o we r Pale orange Br o w n
Colour af ter shaking w ith sodium chloride solution Orange Br o w n
Colour of each layer with the organic solvent added Up p e r Orange V iolet
L o we r Pale orange Br o w n
144
9.6 Transition elements
that other elements attempt to attain these electronic » They form a(Figure
compounds range of
range brightly
9.18)
9.18).. coloured
coloured
configurations during chemical reactions
react ions (Chapter
(Chapter 3,
p. 31, and p. 38). You have probably seen this in your » They are harder
harder and stronger than the metals in
study of the elements of Groups I, II and VII. Groups I and II.
» They have much higher
higher densities
densities than the metals
▼ Table 9.6 Electro
Electronic
nic configuration of helium, neon and
argon in Groups I and II.
» They have high
high melting points
points (except for
Electronic mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature).
Element Symbol Proton number configuration » They are good conductors
conductors of heat and electr icity.
Helium He 2 2 » They show catalytic activity
activ ity (Chapter 7,
7, p. 106)
106)
Neon Ne 10 2,8 as elements
element s and compounds. For example, iron is
A r gon Ar 18 2 , 8, 8 used in the industrial production of ammonia gas
(Haber process, Chapter 7, p. 109).
» They do not react
react (corrode)
(corrode) so quickly with
Although unreactive,
example, is theytohave
the gas used manybulbs
f ill light
fill uses. to
Argon, for
prevent oxygen and/or water.
145
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
a Copper is used in many situations which involve good heat b These gates are made of iron. Iron can easily be moulded
and electrical conduction. It is also used in medallions and into different shapes
bracelets
d This bucket has been coated with zinc to prevent the steel
of the bucket corroding
146
9.7 The position of hydrogen
a Some solutions of coloured transition element compounds b The coloured compounds of transitio
transition
n elements can be
seen in these pottery glazes
▲ Figure 9.18
properties of elements.
✓ Use the Periodic Table to help you to give the charges
Test yourself
6 Look at the photographs in Figure 9.
9.17
17 and ✓ on ions andthe
Describe to trends
write chemical and ionic equations.
in the properties and
state which key properties are important when
considering the particular use of the metal.
reactions of the Group I and Group VII elements.
7 Which groups in the Periodic Table
Table contain: ✓ Describe the Group VIII elements as unreactive,
a only metals? monoatomic gases and explain why they are
b only non-metals? unreactive.
c both metals and non-metals?
✓ Identify trends in the different
different groups
groups if you are
given information.
9.7 The
T he position of hydrogen ✓ Describe the physical appearance
appearance of the
the Group I
Hydrogen is often placed by itself in the Periodic and VII elements.
Table. This is because the properties of hydrogen are ✓ Describe halogen-halide displacement reactions.
unique. However,
However, useful comparisons can be made ✓ Give the properties of the transition
transition metals.
metals.
with the other elements. It is often shown at the ✓ Understand that transition metal ions
ions have
top of either Group I or Group VII, but it cannot fit
easily into the trends shown by either group; see variable oxidation numbers.
Table 9.7.
147
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 The diagram below shows
shows part of the Periodic 3 ‘By using displacement reactions,
reactions, it is possible to
Table. deduce the order of reactivity of the halogens.’
I II III IV V VI VI
VII 0 Discuss this statement with reference to the
H He elements bromine, iodine and chlorine only
only.. [4[4]]
Li Be B O 4 Use the information given in the table below
Si P Cl Ar to answer the questions concerning the
Ca Zn Ga Se Br elements Q, R, S, T and X.
Proton Mass Electronic
Using only the symbols of the elements shown
Element number number configuration
above, give the symbol
sy mbol for an element which:
a is a pale yellow-green coloured toxic gas [1] Q 3 7 2,1
b is stored under oil [1] R 20 40 2, 8 , 8 , 2
c has five electrons in its outer electron S 18 40 2, 8 , 8
energy shell [1] T 8 18 2, 6
d is the most reactive Group II element [1]
X 19 39 2,8,8,1
e is the most reactive halogen [1]
f is the only liquid shown [1]]
[1 a Identify the element that has 22
22 neutrons
g is a transition element [1] in each atom. [1]]
[1
h is a gas with two electrons in its outer b Identify the element that is a noble gas. [1]
shell. [1] c Identify the two elements that form ions
2 Three members of the halogens 35.5 80
halogens are 17Cl, 35Br and with the same electronic configuration
127
53 I.
as argon. [2]]
[2
a i Give the electronic configuration of an d Identify the two elements that are
are in the
atom of chlor
chlorine.
ine. [1]]
[1 same group of the Periodic Table and which
ii Explain why the relative atomic
atomic mass ofof group this is. [2]]
[2
chlorine
chlor ine is not a whole number. [1]]
[1 e Place the elements in the table into the
iii Identify how many protons there are in periods in which they belong. [3]]
[3
an atom of bromine. [1]]
[1
iv Identify how many neutrons there are are f Identify the most reactive metal element
in an atom of iodine. [1]]
[1 in the tabl
table.
e. [1]
[1]
v Explain the order of reactiv
reactivity
ity of these
elements. [5] g Identify which of the elements isis calcium. [1]
b When potassium is allowed
allowed to burn in a gas 5 a Consider the chemical
chemical propertie
propertiess and physical
jar of chlorine, in
in a fume cupboard, clouds
clouds properties of the halogens chlorine, bromine
of white smoke are produced. and iodine. Using these properties, predict
i Explain why this reaction is carrie
carried
d out the following about the other two halogens,
in a fume cupboard. [1] fluorine and astat
astatine.
ine. [2]]
[2
ii State what the white smoke consist
consistss of. [1]
iii Give a word and
and balanced chemical Proper ty Fluorine A s t a t in e
equation for this reaction. [2]]
[2 State at room temperature
iv Describe what you would
would expect to see and pressure
when potassium is allowed to burn safely Colour
in a gas jar of bromine vapour. Write a
Reactivity with sodium metal
word and balanced chemical equation
for this reaction. [3]]
[3
148
Exam-style questions
149
10 Metals
FOCUS POINTS
★ What are the physical
general physical andaffect
chemical
★ How do their properties
proper ties theirproper
properties
uses? ties of metals?
★ What is an alloy and how does it differ from a pure metal?
★ In what ways does the
the reactivity of metals affect their reactions
reactions and extraction?
extraction?
In this chapter, you will look at the extraction, properties and chemical reactions of metals. Some
of these metallic elements are the most important elements in the world. They are used in the
building of roads, bridges, factories, in the movement of electricity and as catalysts. With all these
metals available to use, what properties make some better than others for a particular job?
We will look at the way in which we are able to modify the properties of metals to make them have
different and better properties and how we try to protect metallic objects from corrosion to extend
their useful life. Why is this important?
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to predict the chemical properties of a metal to decide
which metal would be best for a particular job.
Proper ty Metal No n - m e t a l
Thermal Go o d Poor
conductivity
Electrical Go o d Poor
conductivity a Sodium burning in air/oxygen
Malleabilit y Go o d Poor – usually
soft or brittle
Duc tilit y Go o d Poor – usually
soft or brittle
Melting point Usually high Usually low
Boiling point Usually high Usually low
150
10.2 Metal reactions
c Gold is used in leaf form on this giant Buddha as it is ▲ Figure 10.2 Effervescence occurs
occurs when magnesium
magnesium is
unreactive put into acid
▲ Figure 10.
10.1
1
Sodium is soft
soft and reacts violently with both Key definition
air and water.
water. Iron also reacts with air and water The reactivity series is the order of the reactivity of
but much more slowly, forming rust. Gold, however, the following elements: potassium,
p otassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen,
remains totally unchanged after many hundreds of copper, silver, gold.
years. Sodium is said to be more reactive than iron
and, in turn, iron is said to be more reactive than gold.
With air/oxygen
10.2 Metal reactions Many metals react directly with oxygen to form
By carrying out reactions in the laboratory with other oxides. For example, magnesium burns brightly
br ightly in
metals and with air, water and dilute acid, it is possible oxygen to form the white powder magnesium oxide.
to produce an order of reactivity of the metals. magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
produced
hydrogen.by measuring
This is knownthe
as arate of evolution
reactivity of.
series magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
151
10 METALS
Rea
eact
ctiv
iviity se
seri
ries
es Rea
eact
ctiion wi
witth di
dilu
lutte aci
cid
d Reac
acttio
ion
n wi
with air/oxy
xyg
gen React
ctio
ion
n wi
with wa
wate
terr Ease
Ease of ext
xtra
ract
ctio
ion
n
Potassium (K) Produce H2 with Burn very brightly and Produce H2 with decreasing Difficult to
Sodium (Na) decreasing vigour vigorously vigour with cold water extract
In
Calcium (Ca) Burn to form an oxide React with steam with Easier to c
Magnesium (Mg) with decreasing vigour decreasing vigour extract r
e
a
s
Aluminium (Al*) in
g
[Carbon (C)] r
e
a
c
Zinc (Zn) ti
v
it
Iron (Fe) y
o
f
[Hydrogen (H)] m
React slowly to form the Do not react with cold e
oxide water or steam a t
Copper (Cu) Do not react with dilute l
acids Found as
Silver (Ag) Do not react the element
(uncombined)
Gold (Au)
* Because aluminium reacts so readily with the oxygen in the air, a protective oxide layer is formed on its surface. This often
prevents any further reaction and disguises aluminium’s true reactivity. This gives us the use of a light and strong metal.
152
10.3 Reactivity of metals and their uses
Test yourself
1 Write balanced chemical equations for the
reactions between:
a iron and dilute hydrochloric acid
b potassium and water
c zinc and oxygen
a This wood-burning stove is made of iron d calcium and water.
2 Make a list of six things you have in your house
made from copper or iron.
Give a use for each of the other unreactiv
unreactivee
metals shown in the reactivity series.
153
10 METALS
Displacementt reactions
Displacemen
Metals compete with each other for other anions, The ionic equation for this reaction is:
in solution. This type of reaction is known as a zinc + copper ions → zinc ions + copper
displacement reaction. As in the previous type of
competitive
comp etitive reaction, the reactivity series can be Zn(s)) + Cu 2+(aq)
Zn(s → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
used to predict which of the metals will ‘win’.
In a displacement reaction, a more reactive This is also a redox reaction involving the transfer
metal will displace a less reactive metal from a of two electrons from the zinc metal to the copper
solution of its salt. Zinc is above copper in the ions. The zinc is oxidised to zinc ions in aqueous
reactivity series. Figure 10.6 shows what happens solution, while the copper ions are reduced. (See
when a piece of zinc metal is left to stand in a Chapter 5, p. 71, for a discussion of oxidation
ox idation
solution of copper(II) nitrate. The copper(II) and reduction in terms
t erms of electron
elec tron transfer.)
transfer.) It
nitrate slowly loses its blue colour as the zinc is possible to confirm the reactivity series for
continues to displace the copper from the solution metals using competition reactions of the types
and eventually becomes colourless zinc nitrate. discussed in this section.
zinc + copper(II) nitrate → zinc nitrate + copper
154
10.3 Reactivity of metals and their uses
Practical skills
Using displacement reactions to determine Small pieces of metals can be placed into the
the order of reactivity dimples and then, using a dropping pipette, a
For safe experiments/demonstrations which solution containing another metal ion can be put
are related to this chapter, please refer to the over the metal.
solutions as theyIt are
is usual to use metal nitrate
all soluble.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills
Workbook, which is also part of this series. Af ter the metal solution has been added to the
After
metal, you must ensure that the metal is below
Safety the surface of the solution and leave time for
● Eye protection must be worn. the reaction to occur: usually 2 or 3 minutes is
In a displacement reaction a more reactive metal adequate.
will displace a less reactive metal from a solution 1 Why is it important that
that the metal
metal is under
under the
of its salt. It is possible to carry out displacement surface of the solution?
reactions using a dimple tile (Figure 10.7). 2 What would be observed if a reaction
occurred?
Sample data
Five metals and nitrate solutions of those metals
were reacted together using the method above.
The five metals were tin, magnesium, zinc,
copper and iron. The results obtained were
collected in the table below. A tick (✓) indicates
a colour change was observed, a cross (x)
indicates no colour change was observed.
Nitrates
C o p p er Z in c T in Magnesium Iron
Co p p e r - x x x x
Zinc ✓ - ✓ x ✓
Tin ✓ x - x x
Magnesium ✓ ✓ ✓ - ✓
Iron ✓ x ✓ x -
3 Using the information in the table, state which of the metals was the most reactive.
4 Using the information in the table, state which of the metals was the least reactive.
5 Arra
Arrange
nge the five metals in order
order of increasi
increasing
ng reactivity.
6 a Write a word, balanced chemical and ionic equation for
for the reaction
reaction between magnesiu
magnesiumm metal
and copper(II) nitrate.
b What would you observe when thi
thiss reaction
reaction occurs.?
155
10 METALS
Nitrates
A B C D E
A — ✓ ✓ ✓
B x — x x x
a Iron(III ) hydroxide is b Copper(II ) hydroxide
C x ✓ — ✓ x precipitated is precipitated
D x ✓ x — x ▲ Figure 10.8
E ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ —
The ionic equation for this reaction is:
✓ = metal displaced x = no reaction
Put the five metals A–E in order of their reactivity iron(III) ions + hydroxide ions → iron(III) hydroxide
using the data above.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH−(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
Table 10.3 shows the effects of adding a few drops
of sodium hydroxide solution to solutions containing
10.4 Identifying metal ions various metal ions, and of adding an excess. The
When an alkali dissolves in water
wate r, it produces colours of the insoluble metal hydroxides can be used
hydroxide ions. It is known that most metal to identify the metal
met al cations present in solution.
solution.
hydroxides are insoluble. So if hydroxide ions from In some cases, the precipitate dissolves
dissolves in excess
e xcess
a solution of an alkali are added to a solution of hydroxide, owing to the amphoteric nature of the metal
a metal salt, an insoluble, often coloured, metal hydroxide.. This amphoteric nature can also
hydroxide al so be used to
hydroxide is precipitated
precipit ated from
f rom solution (Figure 10
10.8
.8).
). help identify metals
met als such as aluminium and zinc.
156
10.5 Extraction of metals
157
10 METALS
concentrated,
compound
compound, , andwith onlyhave
so they 1% ortoless
1% of the
t he copper
be concentrated
concentrate d
before the metal can be extracted. The method used
to extract the metal from its ore depends on the
position of the metal in the reactivity series.
▲ Figure 10.9 Chalcopyr
Chalcopyrite,
ite, an ore of copper (top) and
galena, an ore of lead (bottom)
Chemical name of
Me t al Name of ore compound in ore Formul a Usual method of extraction
Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium oxide Al2O3.2H2O Electrolysis of oxide dissolved in
molten cryolite
Copper C o p p e r p y r i te s Copper iron sulfide CuFeS2 The sulfide ore is roasted in air
Iron Hematite Iron(III ) oxide Fe2O3 Heat oxide with carbon
Sodium Rock salt Sodium chloride NaCl Electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride
Zinc Zinc blende Zinc sulfide ZnS Sulfide is roasted in air and the
oxide produced is heated with
carbon
Because reactive metals, such as sodium, hold Electrolysis of the molten, purified ore is the
on to the element(s
el ement(s)) they have combined with, method used in these cases. During this process, the
they are usually difficult to extract. For example, metal is produced at the cathode while a non-metal
sodium chloride (as rock salt) is an ionic compound is produced at the anode. As you might expect,
with the Na+ and Cl− ions strongly bonded to extraction of metal by electrolysis is expensive. In
one another. The separation of these ions and order to keep costs low, many metal smelters using
the subsequent isolation of the sodium metal is electrolysis are situated in regions where there is
thereforee difficult.
therefor hydroelectric power.
158
10.5 Extraction of metals
Extraction of iron
Iron is extracted mainl
mainlyy from its oxides, hematite
(Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4), in a blast furnace Hopper
(Figures 10.11 and 10.12). These ores contain at
least 60% iron. The blast furnace is a steel tower,
approximately 50 m high, lined withw ith heat-resistant
heat-resist ant 50 rows of
Height water-cooled
bricks. It is loaded with the ‘charge’ of iron ore approximately copper coolers
(usually hematite), carbon in the form of coke 90m
90 m 650 C in the lining
(made by heating coal) and limestone (calcium Heat-resistant of the furnace
brick Hot air
carbonate). 1000 C
blown
A blast of hot air is sent in near the bottom of 50m through
the furnace through
t hrough holes which makes the ‘charge’ 1100 C
tuyère
glow,, as the coke burns in the preheated air.
glow
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Slag notch Molten slag
Molten iron Tap hole
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) Firebrick pad
CaCO3(s
(s)) → CaO(s
CaO (s)) + CO2(g)
CO2(g) + C(s
C(s)) → 2CO(g)
159
10 METALS
Fe2O3(s
(s)) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
CaO(s))
CaO(s + SiO2(s
(s)) → CaSiO3(s) ▲ Figure 10.13 Slag is used in road foundations
foundations
The slag trickles to the bottom of the furnace, but The extraction
ex traction of iron is a continuous process and
because it is less dense than the molten iron, it is much cheaper to run than an electrolytic method.
floats on top of it.
Generally, metallic oxides, such as calcium oxide
(CaO),
(CaO ), are basic whereas
wherea s non-metallic oxides,
ox ides, such
2
as silicon(IV)
Certain
Cert oxidesuch
ain oxides, (SiOas
a), are acidic.
s carbon monoxide (CO),
(CO),
are neutral and others,
other s, such as zinc oxide (ZnO)
(ZnO),, are
amphoteric.
The molten iron, as well as the molten slag, may
be tapped off (run off) at regular intervals.
The waste gases, mainly nitrogen and oxides of
carbon, escape from the top of the furnace. They are
used in a heat
he at exchange process to heat incoming
air and so help to reduce the energy costs of the
process. Slag is the other waste material. It is
used by builders and road makers (Figure 10.13) for
foundations.
▲
Figure 10.14 Redcar steelworks at Teesside, UK
Test yourself
9 How does the method used for extrac
extracting
ting a metal 10 ‘It is true to say that almost all the reactions by
from its ore depend on the metal’s position in the which a metal is extracted from its ore are reduction
reactivity series? reactions.' Discuss this statement with respect to
the extraction of iron and aluminium.
Going further
Metal waste
Recycling
(Figure has become
10.15). commonplace
Why should in recent
we really want years
to recycle longer.
a Also, recyclingproblem
huge environmental
env ironmental metals prevents the 6).
creation
(Figure 10.16).
10.1 of
However,
metals? Certainly, if we extract fewer metals from the one of the main considerations is that it saves money.
Earth then the existing reserves will last that much
160
10.6 Metal corrosion
Key definition
Rusting of iron and steel to form hydrated iron( II ) oxide
requires both water and oxygen.
161
10 METALS
Layer of
olive oil Very
Rusty (prevents air rusty
iron dissolving in iron nails
nails the water)
Oiling/greasing
The iron and steel in the moving parts of machinery
are coated with oil to prevent them from coming
into contact with air or moisture. This is the
most common way of protecting moving parts of
machinery, but the protective film must be renewed.
Coating with plastic
The exteriors of refrigerators, freezers and many
▲ Figure 10.1
10.188 Painting keeps the air and water away from other items are coated with plastic, such as PVC, to
the steel used to build a ship prevent the steel
stee l structure
struc ture rusting
rust ing (Figure 10.20
10.20).
).
162
10.6 Metal corrosion
Galvanising
Some steel beams, used in the construction of
bridges and buildings, are galvanised; steel waste
collection bins are also galvanised. This involves
dipping the object into molten zinc. The thin
layer of the more reactive zinc metal coating the
steel object slowly corrodes and loses electrons
to the iron, thereby protecting it. This process
continues even when much of the layer of zinc
has been scratched away, so the iron continues to
be protected (Figure 10.21).
Sacrificial protection
Bars of zinc are attached to the hulls of ships
and to oil rigs (as shown in Figure 10.22a). Zinc is
above iron in the reactivity series and will react
in preference to it and so is corroded. It forms
positive ions more easily
eas ily than the iron.
Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)
As long as some of the zinc bars remain in
contact with the iron structure, the structure will
be protected from rusting. When the zinc runs
out, it must be renewed. Gas and water pipes
made of iron and steel are connected by a wire to
blocks of magnesium to obtain the same result. In
both cases, as the more reactive metal corrodes,
it loses electrons to the iron and so protects it
▲ Figure 10.20 A coating of plastic stops metal objects
(Figure 10.22b
10.22b).
).
coming into contact with oxygen or water
163
10 METALS
Ship’s hull
made of steel
(mainly iron)
Zinc bar
Water
2e zinc (Zn) Zn 2
Iron (Fe)
Hull
b The zinc
zinc is sacrificed
sacrificed to protect the steel. Electrons
Electrons
a Bars of zinc on the hull of a ship released from the dissolving zinc cause reduction to occur
at the surface of the hull
▲ Figure 10.22
Sacrificial protection
Corrosion
Rusting is the most common form of corrosion but
this term is confined to iron and steel. Corrosion
is the general name given to the process which
takes place when metals and alloys are chemically
attacked by oxygen, water or any other substances
found in their immediate environment.
environment. The metals
metal s
in the reactivity
reactivit y series will
w ill corrode to a greater
greater or
lesser extent. Generally, the higher the metal is in
the reactivity
reactiv ity series,
ser ies, the more rapidly it will corrode.
If sodium and potassium were not stored under oil,
they would corrode very rapidly indeed. Magnesium,
calcium and aluminium are usually covered by a thin
coating of oxide after initial reaction with
w ith oxygen
in the air. Freshly produced copper is pink in colour
(Figure 5.15a on p. 78).
78). However, on exposure
e xposure to
air, it soon turns brown due to the formation of
copper(II)
copper (II) oxide on the surface of the metal.
In more exposed environments, copper roofs and
pipes quickly become covered in verdigris. Verdigris
is green in colour (Figure 10.23) and is composed
of copper salts formed on copper
copper.. The composition
of verdigris varies depending on the atmospheric ▲ Figure 10.23 Verdigris soon covers copper roofs in
exposed environments
conditions, buthydroxide
and copper(II) includes mixed
(CuCO3copper(II)
.Cu(OH)2). carbonate
Gold and platinum are unreactive and do not
corrode, even after thousands of years.
164
10.7 Alloys
10.7 Alloys
The majority of the metallic substances used today
are alloys. Alloys are mixtures of a metal with other
elements. It is generally found that alloying produces
a metallic substance that has more useful properties
than the original pure metal it was made from. For
example, the alloy brass is made from copper and
zinc. The alloy is harder a Bronze is often used in sculpture
sculpturess
than either of the metalsand
it ismore
madecorrosion
from. resistant
Steel is a mixture of the metal iron and the
non-metal carbon. Of all the alloys we use, steel is
perhaps the most important. Many steel alloys have
been produced; they contain iron, varying amounts
of carbon, and other metals. For example, nickel and
chromium are the added metals when stainless steel
is produced. The chromium prevents the steel from
rusting while the nickel makes it harder.
Key definition
Alloys can be harder or stronger than the pure metals
Alloys to order
Just as the properties of iron can be changed by b A polarised light micrograph of brass showing the distinct
alloying, so the same can be done with other useful grain structure of this alloy
metals. Metallurgists have designed alloys to suit a ▲ Figure 10.24
wide variety of different uses. Many thousands of
165
10 METALS
In Figure 10.25,
10.25, you can see that by mixing
together metals which have different sized atoms
to form the alloy, the metal no longer has a
repeating structure. A metal is malleable and
ductile because its layers are able to move over
one another. In an alloy, the different sized atoms
mean that
other, the layers
causing cantonohave
the alloy longer
lessslide over each
malleability
and ductility.
▲ Figure 10.25 Alloy structure. The dark circles represent
atoms of a metal; the pale circles are the larger atoms
of a different metal added to make the alloy. The
different size of these atoms gives the alloy different
physical properties from those of the pure metal
Al l o y Composition Us e
Br a s s 65% copper, 35% zinc Jeweller y, machine bearings, electrical connec tions,
door furniture
Bronze 90 % copper, 10 % tin Castings, machine par ts
Cupro-nickel 30 % copper, 70 % nickel Turbine blades
Cupro-nickel 75% copper, 25% nickel Coinage metal
Dural
Duralum
umin
in 95% al
95% alum
umin
iniu
ium,
m, 4% co
coppe
pperr, 1% ma
magn
gnes
esiu
ium,
m, Aircraft construction, bicycle parts
manganese and iron
Magnalium 70% aluminium, 30% magnesium Aircr af t construc tion
Pew
ewtter 30 % lead, 70% tin, a small amount of antimony Pla
lattes, or na
nament s and dr in
inking mugs
Solder 70% lead, 3 0% tin Connecting electrical w iring
Test yourself
15 ‘Many metals are more useful to us when mixed
with some other elements.' Discuss this statement
with respect to stainless steel.
166
10.7 Alloys
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 10 you should be able to: ✓ Describe displacement experiments which
✓ State the general properties of metals. could be carried out to find the order of
✓ Describe the chemical reactions of of metals
metals with reactivity of metals.
acids, water/steam
water/steam and oxygen. ✓ Explain why aluminium is so unreactive.
unreactive.
✓ Give some common uses of metals metals and explain ✓ Describe how iron is extracted from its ore,
why a particular metal is used in that way. hematite.
✓ Explain what an an alloy is and why its properties
properties are ✓ Describe methods
methods for preventing the corrosion
corrosion
different to the pure metals it contains. of metals.
✓ State and explain the order of the reactivity series ✓ Explain how zinc
zinc is able to
to sacrificially
sacrificially protect
protect
and use it to predict the chemical reactions of the iron.
metals. ✓ Explain why alloys are often harder and
✓ State that unreactive metals
metals occur uncombined stronger than the metals they are composed of.
(not as compounds) and describe how the method
used to extract reactive metals from their ores
depends on their position in the reactivity series.
167
10 METALS
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 Use the following list of metals to answer the a Give the name and formulae
formulae of the
questions a to i: iron, calcium, potassium,
potass ium, gold, substances A to F. [6]
aluminium,, magnesium, sodium, zinc, platinum.
aluminium b Give balanced chemical
chemical equations for the
a Identify the metals that are found native. [1] reactions in which:
b Identify which of of the metals is found
found in
in i black solid A was formed [1]]
[1
nature as the ore: ii white powder C and brown–pink solid B
i rock sal
saltt [1]]
[1 were forme
formed d [1]]
[1
ii baux
bauxite.
ite. [1]]
[1 iii colourless solution D was forme
formed. d. [1]]
[1
c Identify the metal that has a carbonate c ‘The reaction
reaction between black solid A and
found in nature call
called
ed chalk
chalk.. [1] magnesium is a redox reaction.
react ion.’’ With reference
d Identify which of the metals will not react to this reaction, explain what you understand
with oxygen to form an oxide. [1] by this statement. [3]]
[3
e Identify which of the metals will react d Write anode and cathode reactions for
violently
viol ently wit
withh cold wate
water.
r. [1]]
[1 the processes which take place during the
f Choose one of the metalmetalss in your answer electrolysis of molten D. [2]
to e and give a balanced chemical equation e Suggest a use for:
for the reaction which takes place. [1] i brown–pink solid B [1]
g Identif
Identifyy which of the metals has has a protective ii silvery metal E [1]
oxide coating on its surface. [1] iii green gas F. [1]
h Identify which of the metals reacts very 3 Explain the following:
slowly with cold water but extremely a Metals, such as gold and silver
silver,, occur
vigorously
vigorou sly wit
withh steam. [1]]
[1 native in the Earth’s crust. [2]]
[2
i Identify which of the metals is used to b The parts of shipwrecks
shipwrecks made of iron iron rust
galvanise iron. [1]]
[1 more slowly in deep water. [2]]
[2
2 c Zinc bars areare attached to the structure of oil
Copper rigs to prevent them from rusting. [2]]
[2
↓ d Copper roofs quickly
quickly become covered
covered with
heat in air (oxygen) a green coating when exposed to the
↓ atmosphere. [2]
Black solid A e Recycling metals can save money. [2]]
[2
↓ 4 Iron is extr
extracted
acted from its ores hematite and
heat with powdered magnesium magnetite. Usually it is extracted from hematite
↓ (iron(III) oxide).
oxide). The ore is mixed with limestone
Brown–pink solid B + and coke, and reduced to the metal in a blast
white powder C furnace. The following is a brief outline of the
↓ reactions involved.
dilute hydrochloric acid
↓ coke + oxygen → gas X
Brown–pink solid B +
gas X + coke → gas Y
colourless solution D + water
↓ iron(III) oxide + gas Y → iron + gas X
filter and evaporate filtrate to dryness
↓
a Name the gases X and Y. [2]
Solid D
b Give a chemical test to identify gas X. [2]
↓
electrolysis of molten D c Write balanced
↓
reactions shownchemical
above. equations for
for the [3
[3]]
Silvery metal E + green gas F
168
Exam-style questions
169
11 Chemistry of the environment
FOCUS POINTS
★ What is the
★ What are thedifference
problemsbetween pure water
and advantages andsubstances
of the water frominnatural sources?
water from natural sources?
★ How is water purified for domestic use?
★ Why do we use fertilisers?
fertilisers?
★ Where do the pollutants in our air come from?
★ How can we reduce the problems of these pollutants?
In this chapter, you will learn about the most plentiful liquid on this planet, water, and the most
important gaseous mixture we know, the air (or atmosphere). The importance of water and air is not
in doubt. Without either of these, life would not be possible on Earth! Also, we consider the problems
with the pollution we have created worldwide, including excessive use of fertilisers, fossil fuels and
plastics, and the greenhouse effect and the associated global warming. You will also learn about
some possible solutions to the problems. By the end of this chapter, you will be able to provide a
possible answer to this question:
How can we guard our planet against the problems we have and those we continue to create?
11.1 Water
Water is the commonest compound on this planet. constituents in all living organisms. For example,
More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered your bones contain 72% water, your kidneys are
with sea, and the land masses are dotted with about 82% water and your blood is about 90% water
rivers and lakes (Figure 11.1a). It is vital to our (Figure 11.1b).
existence and survival because it is one of the main
170
11.1 Water
Going further
Water circulates around the Earth via the water cycle (Figure 11.2). The driving force for the water cycle is the Sun.
Clouds
Rain
Lakes
Evaporation Transpiration
Percolation
Run off
Rivers
The sea
Water has many other important uses besides Pure water is a neutral, colourless liquid which
sustaining life. These include: (at 1 atmosphere pressure) boils at 100°C and
In the home: freezes at 0°C (Figure 11.3). If you try boiling tap
» cooking
water, you will find that it does not boil at exactly
100°C.
100 °C. This is because it is a very
ver y good solvent
» cleaning
and dissolves many substances. It is the presence
» drinking.
of these impurities that causes a change in the
In industry: boiling point compared to pure water. Distilled
» as a solvent water is therefore used in many experiments in the
» as a coolant laboratory because it is very pure and does not
» for cleaning contain many of these impurities, which may affect
» as a chemical reactant. the outcome of the experiments.
171
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
a Anhydrous copper(II ) sulfate goes blue when water is b Cobalt(II ) chloride paper turns pink when water is
added to it dropped on to it
▲ Figure 11.4 Tests for the presence of water
172
11.1 Water
Key definition
Pollution is a modification that takes place to the
environment, water
such as releasing or air, caused
substances into by
ourhuman
water influence
or air.
173
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
1
Water passed through screen Covered
storage
2 tank
Water Aluminium sulfate added
in
Pump
Sulfur
Screen dioxide
added
3
Coarse To
sand filter homes
and
Sodium
factories
hydroxide
4 5 added
Sedimentation Fine sand 6
tank filter Chlorine added
174
11.2 Artificial fertilisers
175
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Going further
The vital importance of nitrogen to both plants and animals can be summarised by the nitrogen cycle (Figure 11.12).
Nitrogen fixation*
Animals eat plants
Fertilisers produced
by the Haber process
FE FE
R TI RTI
L I SE R LI SE R
▲ Figur e 11.
Figure 12 The nitrogen cycle
11.12
*Nitrogen fixation is the direct use of atmospheri
atmosphericc nitrogen in the formation of impor
important
tant compounds of nitrogen.
Bacteria present in the root nodules of certain plants are able to take nitrogen directly from the atmosphere to form
essential protein molecules.
If farm crops are harvested from the land rather the decay, however, the latter process is not efficient
than left to decay, the soil becomes deficient in this enough to produce nitrates on the scale required.
important element. The nitrogen is removed in the
Farmers often need to add substances containing
harvested crops rather than remaining as the plants
these nitrates. Such substances include farmyard
decay. In addition, nitrates can be washed from the
manure and artificial fertilisers. One of the most
soil by the action of rain (leaching). For the soil to
commonly used artificial fertilisers is ammonium
remain fertile for the next crop, the nitrates need to
nitrate which, as you saw earlier, is made from
be replaced. The natural process is by decay or by the
ammonia gas and nitric acid, both nitrogen-containing
action of lightning on atmospheric nitrogen. Without
compounds.
Worked example
Using relative atomic masses and the formula of a fertiliser,
it is possible to calculate the percentage of each of the
essential elements in a fertiliser.
What is the percentage of nitrogen in the fertiliser
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO 4)?
( Ar: H = 1; N = 14; O = 16; S = 32)
The formula mass of ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO 4) is:
(2 × 14) + 2(4
2 (4 × 1) + 32 + (4 × 16)
16) = 132
The % nitrogen in ammonium sulfate is:
▲ Figu re 11.
Figure 11 Fertilisers have been used to help create
11.11 ((2 × 14)/132) × 100 = 21.2%
some of the best fruit and vegetables on sale
176
11.3 The air
ai r
Problems with fertilisers and about 75% of the mass of the atmosphere is
If artificial
artific ial fertilisers of all kinds are not used found in the layer nearest the Earth called the
correctly, problems
problems can arise. If too much fertiliser
fert iliser troposphere (Figure 11.15). Beyond this layer,
is applied to the land, rainrain washes the fertiliser
fert iliser off the atmosphere reaches into space but becomes
the land and into rivers and streams. This is known as extremely thin. Nearly all atmospheric water
leaching. This leaching leads to eutrophication: the vapour (or moisture) is found in the troposphere,
process
algae tothat occurs
multiply whenand
rapidly fer tiliser
fertiliser
causingis leached,
the watercausing
to which
oceans,also contains
rivers the liquid water in the
and lakes.
turn green. As the algae die and decay, oxygen is
removed from the water, leaving insufficient amounts
for fish and other organisms to survive (Figure 11.13).
In extreme cases, no normal aquatic life can survive.
There are also worries about the effect
ef fect of agricultural
fertilisers, especially nitrates such as ammonium
nitrate, on the public water supply.
▲ Figur e 11.
Figure 14 The lighter blue shows the extent of the
11.14
atmosphere around the Earth – approximately 100 km
Thermosphere
80
▲ Figu re 11.
Figure 13 Over-use of fertilisers has led to
11.13 Ionosphere
70
eutrophication Mesosphere
60
Test yourself k
m
/ 50
e
d
1 Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each tiu
of the three fertilisers ammonium nitrate ltA 40 Stratosphere Ozone layer
(NH4NO3), ammonium phosphate ((NH 4)3PO 4) 30
and urea (CO(NH2)2). ( Ar: H = 1; C = 12; N = 14;
O = 16; P = 31) 20
▲ Figure
Figu re 11.15 The Earth’s atmosphere
11.15
▼ Table 11.2 Composition of the atmosphere Figure 11.16 shows how carbon dioxide is
produced by the combustion of fossil fuels such as
Component %
methane found in natural gas. It is also produced
Nitrogen 7 8 .0 8 by all living organisms. Animals take in oxygen and
O x yg e n 20.95 breathe out carbon dioxide.
A r gon 0.93 Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants through
their leaves and used together with water, taken in
Carbon dioxide 0. 0 4 through their roots, to synthesise glucose (a sugar).
sugar).
Neon 0. 0 0 2 This is the process of photosynthesis .
Helium 0. 0 0 0 5 It takes place only in sunlight and only
only in green
Kr y pton 0. 0 0 0 1 leaves, as they contain chlorophyll (the green
Xenon plus tiny amount s of other gases 0.00 0 01 pigment) which catalyses the process.
sunlight
Note that air contained approximately 0.03%
0.03% by carbon + wat
carbon water
er
→ glucose
glucose + oxyg
oxygen
en
chlorophyll
volume of carbon dioxide for many years. This value
v alue dioxide
has remained almost constant for a long period of
time and is maintained via the processes found in 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12 O6 + 6O2
the carbon cycle (Figure 11.16).
However, scientists have recently detected an The carbon cycle has continued in this manner for
increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the millions of years. However, scientists have detected
Respiration Photosynthesis
Test yourself
Animals take in oxygen, 4 Draw a pie chart to show the data given in
eat plants and breathe Table 11.2.
out CO2
5 Is air a compound or a mixture? Explain your
answer.
6 Which of the following statements about the air
Plants give out oxygen are true and which are false?
Burned as fuels a Nitrogen constitutes nearly 79% of the
producing CO2 Death and decay Decay atmosphere.
b Air is a mixture of elements.
c Carbon dioxide is not a constituent
Carbon compounds
in oil, gas, coal of the air.
and carbonates d Neon is present in the air.
▲ Figure
Figu re 11.16 The carbon cycle
11.16
178
11.4 Atmospheric pollution
Sulfur
SO2 dioxide, The
fuelscombustion of fossil
which contain sulfur Acid rain R emoving spetrol.
low-sulfur ulfur frUsing
om peflue
trol gas
to produce
compounds desulfurisation units (see p. 182) at
coal-burning
coal-burnin g power
po wer stations
involved in the production of photochemical smogs air pollutant. It is formed in the atmosphere by
(Figure 11.1
11.18)
8) which occur worldwide in major cities,
c ities, the reaction between gaseous pollutants, nitrogen
especially in the summer. Photochemical smog is oxides and hydrocarbons.
the most widely known and perhaps most serious
CO2
H2O
N2
a A catalytic converter
CO
HC
NOx
Going further
The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in
the petrol
from petroland the both
tanks evaporation of hydrocarbons
contribute to the formation
of photochemical smog. This can cause severe
respiratory problems. However adding oxygenates,
such as ethanol, to petrol reduces its production.
Catalytic converters also help remove unburned
hydrocarbons but in doing so more carbon dioxide is
produced!
▲ Figu re 11.
Figure 18 The haze is caused by a photochemical
11.18 Test yourself
smog, which is due to pollution caused mainly by cars 7 Catalytic
Cataly tic converter
converterss remove harmful gases
without catalyst exhaust systems CO and NO. They do this by converting them
into less harmful chemicals. Give the names
and formulas of the chemicals they are
converted to.
180
11.4 Atmospheric pollution
Going further
These particulates have been associated with a
variety of lung complaints in both adults and children.
It has been found, however, that adding oxygenates,
such as ethanol, to fuels reduces the amount of
particulates produced by vehicles. The oxygenates
provide extra oxygen to the burning process in the ▲ Figure 11.20 Sulfur dioxide is a major pollutant produced
11.20
engine and so reduce the amount of incomplete by industry
combustion taking place. Rainwater is naturally acidic since it dissolves
carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere as it falls.
Natural rainwater has a pH of about 5. 5.7
7. However, the
acidity is enhanced by sulfur dioxide gas dissolving in
rainwater to form the weak acid, sulfurous acid (H 2SO3).
A further reaction occurs in which the sulfurous acid
is oxidised to sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Solutions of these
acids are the principal
pr incipal contributors
contributors to acid rain. It
should be noted that the reduction of nitrogen(IV) oxide
by the use of catalytic exhaust
e xhaust systems is important
important
since the NO2 produced in the atmosphere dissolves in
rainwater and produces, eventually, nitric acid which
adds to acid rain. In recent years, espec
especially
ially in central
Europe, the pH of rainwater has fallen to between pH 3
and pH 4.8. This increase
increase in acidity has led to extensive
e xtensive
damage to forests (Figure 11.21), lakes and marine life.
▲ Figu re 11.
Figure 19 Particulates produced by diesel engines are
11.19
a real health problem worldwide
In addition to the fuels used in motor vehicles
producing quantities of sulfur dioxide when they
combust in engines, heavy
heav y industry
industr y (Figure 11.20
11.20))
and power stations are also major sources of sulfur
dioxide, formed by the combustion of coal, oil and
gas, which also contain small amounts of sulfur. ▲ Figure 11.21 This forest has been devastated by acid r ain
11.21
181
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Practical skills
Acid rain Experiment B
For safe experiments/demonstrations which The student was then given some powdered
are related to this chapter, please refer to the calcium carbonate to add to each sample. The
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills results are shown in
i n the table below.
below. The student
st udent
Workbook, which is also part of this series. was asked to collect samples of any gas prod
produced
uced
and test any gas produced using limewater.
Safety
Observation upon adding Observation after
● Eye protection must be worn.
Sample calcium carbonate powder adding limewater
Experiment A Playing Small amount of bubbles No result
A student tests the rainwater
rai nwater collected from the Fields but not sufficient to test
school playing field using universal indicator A Lots of bubbles of a gas Limewater turns
solution. They then tested rainwater from three produced milky white
other places, A, B and C. B Small amount of bubbles No result
but not sufficient to test
1 What apparatus
apparatus would
would be requi
required
red for
this experiment? C Small amount of bubbles No result
The results of the tests are shown in the but not sufficient to test
182
11.4 Atmospheric pollution
183
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Alternative
f u el Is the alternative sustainable? Advantages Disadv antages
Biodiesel Yes it is! It is made from waste plant Produces less CO, C xHy, SO 2 and NO emissions are higher
material and animal oils and fats. particulates than diesel fuel. than from standard
diesel fuel.
Ethanol This is open to debate since large Less CO, SO2 and NO x are produced It is very flammable.
amounts of energy and land are than from petrol. Replanting sugar cane
needed to cultivate sugar cane for creates a cycle as it absorbs CO2 from
fermentation. the atmosphere.
Hydrogen Hydrogen is sustainable only if the Water is the only product of production. It is very, very flammable.
electricity needed to produce it, from Hence there is no pollution. Also a high-pressure fuel
the electrolysis of acidified water, is tank is needed to store it
from a renewable resource such as as a liquid.
solar power or wind. The car shown in
Figure 11.24 is powered by hydrogen.
» Be more energy efficient. This will reduce the » Increase the use of renewable
renewable energy sources
sources
amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. such as solar, wind and tidal.
In homes, for example, this means making them » Significantly reduce livestock farming to cut
well insulated and turning off lights when not down the amount of methane released into the
needed. We also need to consider whether the atmosphere.
journey
journey we
we are
are about
about to
to take
take by car or
or plane
plane is
is
essential. Only by being conscientious will we make
inroads into the global warming situation. Going further
Some uses of the gases from the air
Our everyday life would not be the same without the
gases we obtain from the air. For example:
● Oxyg
Oxygen
en is used in hospitals by patients with
breathing difficulties as well as in the manufacture
of steel.
● Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of fertili
fertilisers
sers
(see p. 175) as well as in food packaging to keep
● food fresh.
Inert gases, such as argon, are used to fill the
space between the panes of modern double-glazing
units, while neon is used in advertising
adver tising signs.
▲ Figure 11.24 A hydrogen-powered vehicle
184
11.4 Atmospheric pollution
Test yourself
8 In 1960, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the and calcium hydroxide slurry in the FGD unit of a
atmosphere was close to 0.03% and in 2010 it was power station.
close to 0.04%. Suggest an explanation for this 10 Write down one problem that can be caused by each
increase. of these air pollutants:
9 Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the a nitrogen dioxide
reaction which takes place between sulfur dioxide b particulates.
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 11 you should be able to: ✔ State the
the adverse effect of these air pollutants.
✔ Name the gases in the atmosphere and state the
approximate
approximat e percentage proportions of each gas. ✔ Describe how the greenhouse
greenhouse gases,
gases, such
✔ Descr
Describe
ibe chemical tests for the presence of water. as carbon dioxide and methane, cause global
✔ Descr
Describe
ibe how to test
test for the purity of water. warming, which leads to climate change.
✔ Explain why distilled
distilled water
water is used in practical ✔ Explain how oxides
oxides of nitrogen form
form in car
chemistry rather than tap water. engines and describe their removal by catalytic
c atalytic
✔ State that ammonium
ammonium salts and nitrates
nitrates can converters.
be used as fertilisers, including ammonium
phosphate and potassium nitrate. ✔ State and explain strategies
strategies to reduce
reduce the effects
✔ Describe the use of NPK fertilisers
fertilisers to provide
provide of these various environmental issues.
improved plant growth and provide larger yields of ✔ Describe photosynthesis
photosynthesis as the reaction
reaction between
between
crops to feed the world’s growing population. carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose in
✔ State the compositi
compositionon of clean, dry air.
air. the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from
✔ State the
the source of
of these air
air pollutants: carbon light .
dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur dioxide and particulates.
185
11 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 The apparatus shown below was used to estimate
the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere.
100 cm 3 of air is pushed Across hot Into this
out of this syringe copper syringe
Heat
Air is passed backwards and forwards The volume of air gets smaller
across the copper, which turns black and smaller
A volume of dry air (200 cm3) was passed g Would you expec
expectt the copper to have
have
backwards and forwards over heated copper until increased or decreased in mass during the
no further change in volume took place. The experiment?
exper iment? Explain your answer. [2]]
[2
apparatus was then allowed to cool down to room 2 a Oxygen has an atomic number
number of 8 and mass
temperature and the final volume reading was number 16.
16. Give the electronic
elec tronic configuration
then taken. Some typical results are shown below. of the oxygen atom. [1]
b How many electrons, neutrons and protons
protons
Volume of gas before = 200 cm3
are there in the oxygen atom? [3]]
[3
Volume of gas after = 157 cm3 c Oxygen molecules
molecules are
are diatomic. Explain the
During the exper
experiment,
iment, the copper slowly turned meaning of this term. [3]]
[3
black.
a Explain why the apparatus was allowed to cool
cool d Sketch a diagram of
of the oxygen molecule
back to room temperature before the final showing the outer shell of electrons
e lectrons only.
volume reading was taken. [2]]
[2 What type of bonding does the molecule
b Using the information given above,
above, calculate contain? [5]
the percentage volume reduction which has
taken place. [3]]
[3 3 Explain the following statement
statements.
s.
c Explain briefly why there is a change
change in a Air is a mixture of elements and
volume. [2] compounds. [2]]
[2
d Identify which observat
observation
ion given above b The percentage of carbon dioxide
dioxide in the
supports your explanation in c. atmosphere does not significantly vary from
e Give a balanced chemical equation for any 0.04%. [2]
reaction which has occurred. [4]]
[4 c Power stations are thought
thought to be a major
f Give the name of the main
main residual gas at the cause of acid rain. [3]]
[3
end of the exper
experiment.
iment. [1]
186
Exam-style questions
187
12 Organic chemistry 1
FOCUS POINTS
★ What is a the
homologous series?
★ What are similarities
similarities and differences
differences between saturated and unsaturated
unsaturated hydrocarbons?
hydrocarbons?
★ What are polymers and why are they useful?
★ How do plastic
plasticss cause environmental challenges?
You will have seen earlier in Chapter 6 that important substances, called hydrocarbons, are
obtained from petroleum. These hydrocarbons are mainly used as fuels of different types. In this
chapter you will study two families, or homologous series, of these hydrocarbons, the alkanes and
alkenes. You will examine their different structures and different physical and chemical properties.
You will see that it is possible to produce alkenes from alkanes in a process called cracking. Finally,
you will learn about a very important set of materials that are made from alkenes called polymers,
better known as plastics, and the problems that are created by overuse of these polymers.
You will notice from Figure 12.2 and Table 12.1 that
the compounds have a similar structure and similar
name endings. They also behave chemically in a
similar way. A family with these factors in common
▲ Figure 12.1 Living things contain organic compounds is called a homologous series.
188
12.11 Alkanes
12.
Methane
H
H H
H C H
C
Ethane
H H
H C C H
H H
H H
Butane
where n is the number of carbon atoms present.
H H H H
As you go up a homologous series, in order of
H C C C C H increasing number of carbon atoms, the physical
H H H H properties of the compounds gradually change.
For example, the melting and boiling points of the
alkanes shown in Table 12.1
12.1 gradually increase.
This is due to an increase in the intermolecular
Going further forces as the size and mass of the molecule
increases (Chapter 3, p. 43). As you can see from
Pentane Figure 12.2 and Table 12.1
12.1,, the increase
incre ase in size
s ize and
H H H
mass of the molecule is due to the addition of a
H H
CH2 group as you descend the homologous series.
H C C C C C H
189
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
190
12.2 The chemical behaviour of alkanes
Test yourself
3 Draw the displayed formulae for the isomers
of C5H12.
For further
furth er insight into isomerism, see p. 195 and
Chapter 13, p. 207.
12.2 The chemical behaviour b Central heating systems can be run on propane
191
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
Going further
Chloromethane is used extensively in the chemical severe problem since the lethal dose was only slightly
industry. For example, chloromethane is used to higher than that required to anaesthetise the patient. In
make silicones. Silicones are used in building and 1956, halothane was discovered by chemists working
construction. Theyglass,
such as concrete, are able to bond
granite, and seal
plastics andmaterials
steel (see at
andICI. This iswhich
fluorine a compound containing
has been chlorine,
used as an bromine
anaesthetic
Figure 12.7). This enables them to work better and last in recent years. Its formula is CF 3CHBrCl. However,
longer. There are dangers associated with substances even this is not the perfect anaesthetic since evidence
containing chloromethane. It is a harmful substance and suggests that prolonged exposure to this substance
should be treated with caution. may cause liver damage. The search continues for even
better anaesthetics.
A group of compounds called the chlorofluorocarbons
chlorofluorocarbo ns
(CFCs) were discovered in the 1930s. Because
Becaus e of
their inertness they had many uses,
uses , especially
as a propellant in aerosol
aero sol cans. CFC-12
CFC-12 or
dichlorodifluoromethane, CF2 Cl 2, was one of the
most popular CFCs in use in aerosols. Scientists
Scientis ts
believe that CFCs released from aerosols are
destroying the ozone layer
lay er and steps are being taken to
reduce this threat.
The ozone hole problem
Our atmosphere protects us from harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun. This damaging radiation is
absorbed by the relatively thin ozone layer found in the
stratosphere (Figure 12.8).
192
12.2 The chemical behaviour of alkanes
remain without further reaction until they reach agreements are adhered to then the ozone layer will
the stratosphere and the ozone layer. In the recover by 2050.
stratosphere, the high-energy ultraviolet radiation
causes a chlorine atom to split off from the CFC 80
Thermosphere
molecule. This chlorine atom, or free radical, then
reacts with the ozone. 70
Cl(g) + O3(g) → OCl(g) + O 2(g) Mesosphere Ionosphere
60
This is not the only problem with CFCs. They are also
m
significant greenhouse
g reenhouse gases
ga ses (Chapter 11, p. 183).
183). /k 50
e
The ozone depletion and greenhouse effects have d
tiu
become such serious problems that an international lt 40 Ozone layer
A
agreement known as the Montreal Protocol Stratosphere
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was 30
agreed in
i n 1987.
20
Research into replacements has taken place
since then, producing better alternatives called 10 Troposphere
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These have
lower ozone-depletion
ozone-depletion effects and are not effective 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 6 2 2 6 0
greenhouse gases. The protocols of the 1980s have 1 1
193
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
C C
C C
Methane – another greenhouse gas H H
H H
Methane, the first member of the alkanes, occurs
naturally. Cows produce it in huge quantities when ▲ Figure 12.9 The bonding in ethene, the simplest alkene
Test yourself ▼ Table 12.2 The first three alkenes and their physical
P r o p e ne C 3 H6 −18 5 − 47 Ga s
12.3 Alkenes
Alkenes form another homologous series of Butene C 4H 8 −18 4 −6 Ga s
hydrocarbons of the general formula C nH2n where
194
12.3 Alkenes
Ethene
H H Going further
C C
H H The different isomers shown in Figure 12.11 have
different melting and boiling points due to their
Propene different structures. All the alkene molecules with
four or more carbon atoms possess isomers.
H H H
H C C C Test yourself
H
H 8 Draw the displayed formulae for the
isomers of C5H10.
Butene
H H H
H
H C C C C
H
H H
Where do we get alkenes from?
Very few alkenes are found in nature. Most of
▲ Figure 12.10 Displayed formula and shape of the first
12.10
three alkenes the alkenes used by the petrochemical industry
are obtained by breaking up larger, less useful
The structural formula of ethene is CH2=CH2 and alkane molecules obtained from the fractional
f ractional
distillation of petroleum. This is usually done by a
the structural formula of propene is CH2=CHCH3. process called catalytic cracking. In this process
the alkane molecules to be ‘cracked’ (split up) are
Structural isomerism in alke
alkenes
nes passed over a mixture of aluminium and chromium
You saw when studying the alkanes that oxides heated to 550°C.
sometimes it is possible to write more than one
dodecane decane + ethene
displayed or structural formula to represent a
molecular formula (p. 190).
190). These are known asas C12H26(g) C10H22(g) + C2H4(g)
structural isomers. Butene and the higher alkenes (found
(found in kerosene
kerosene)) shorter alkane alkene
also show structural isomerism. For example,
there are three different compounds with the Another possibility is:
molecular formula C4H8. The displayed formulae of C12H26(g) → C8H18(g) + C4H8(g)
two of these substances along with their names
and structural
struc tural formulae are shown in Figure
F igure 12.11
12.11.. In these reactions, hydrogen may also be formed
The structural
str uctural formulae of the isomers but-1-ene
but-1-ene during cracking. The amount of hydrogen produced
produced
and but-2-ene
but-2-ene give an unambiguo
unambiguousus description
descr iption depends on the conditions used.
use d. Since smaller
of the way the atoms are arranged, including the hydrocarbons are generally in greater demand than
location of the C=C double bond or functional the larger ones, cracking is used to match demand
group. The structural formulae are CH3CH2CH=CH2 (Table 12.3).
(but-1-ene)
(but- 1-ene) and CH3CH=CHCH3 (but-2-ene).
H H H H H H H H
H C C C C H C C C C H
H H H H H
CH CH CH=CH CH CH=CHCH
3 2 2 3 3
But-1-ene But-2-ene
▲ Figure
Figur e 12.11 But-
12.11 But-1-ene
1-ene and but-2-ene: isomers
isome rs of C 4H8
195
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
C C + H H H C C H
196
12.4 The chemical behaviour of alkenes
H H H H H H
H H
H C C H C C Br Br H C C H
C C + H OH
H H H OH
H H Br Br
Test yourself
Halogenation – a test for 11 What is meant by the term ‘addition
‘addition reaction’?
unsaturated compounds 12 How would you test the difference between
The addition reaction between bromine dissolved in ethane and ethene?
an organic solvent, or water, and alkenes is used as
a chemical test for the presence of a double bond 13 Write the displayed formula for pentene.
between two carbon atoms. When a few drops of this 14 Which of the following organic chemicals are
bromine solution are shaken with the t he hydrocarbon, alkanes and which are alkenes?
if it is an alkene (su
(such
ch as ethene)
e thene),, a reaction
react ion takes • Propene, C3H6
place in which bromine joins to the alkene double • Octane, C8H18
bond. This results in the bromine solution losing • Nonane, C9H20
• Butene, C4H8
its red/brown colour. If an alkane, such as hexane, State why you have chosen your answers.
is shaken with a bromine solution of this type, no
197
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
Practical skills
Alkanes and alkenes Some statements in the student’s account have
For safe experiments/demonstrations which been underlined by the teacher.
are related to this chapter, please refer to the An swer these questions
Answer ques tions to identify how the
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills experiment could be improved.
Workbook, which is also part of this series.
1 Wh
Which
ich major safety precaution
precaution did they forget
forget
Safety to mention at the start of the experiment?
● Eye protection must be worn. 2 Do you
you thi
think
nk the teacher
teacher would have added
a few drops from a measuring cylinder?
A student wrote the following account of an Explain your answer.
experiment carried out by the teacher to test 3 What would be the actua
actuall colour of the
which of two liquid hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons was an al kane aqueous bromine solution?
and which was an alkene. 4 How would the teacher have shaken the test
To a few drops of each liquid in separate test tubes?
tubes, they added a few drops of red aqueous 5 Would you expect only one one layer
layer in the
bromine solution from a measuring cylinder. solution after adding the aqueous bromine
They then corked the test tubes and shook them a solution? Explain your answer.
6 Has the student got the identification of the
little. In one test tube the solution went colourless alkane and
a nd the alkene correct? Explain
Explain your
showing this hydrocarbon to to be an alkane, while
there was no change in colour of the other, so this answer.
must be the alkene.
al kene.
198
12.5 Polymers
Poly(ethene), like many other addition polymers Other alkene molecules can also produce substances
has many useful properties including: being tough, like poly(ethene); for example, propene produces
easy to mould and an excellent
e xcellent insulator.
insulator. One of poly(propene)
poly(pro pene),, which is used to make ropes and
the drawbacks however,
however, as you will
w ill see later in this packaging.
section, is that it is not affected
affec ted by the weather and In theory, any molecule that contains a carbon-
does not corrode, and therefore has disposal problems. to-carbon double covalent bond can form an addition
It can be found as a substitute for natural polymer. For example, ethene, CH=CH2, will undergo
materials in plastic bags, sandwich boxes, washing- an addition reaction
reac tion to form
for m poly(ethene).
poly(ethene).
up bowls, wrapping film, milk-bottle crates and The actual structure of the polymer can only
washing-up liquid bottles (Figure 12.16). be shown/represented
shown/represented by drawing
draw ing the monomer as
shown in Figure 12.17. In this figure, you will see
that the double bond has been replaced by a single
bond and there are two extension bonds drawn
on either side, which show that the polymer chain
extends in both those directions.
H H H H
C C C C
H H H H
Ethene Repeat unit in
(monomer) the polymer
▲ re 12.17 Addition polymerisation of ethene
Figure
Figu
Going further
Other addition polymers
Many other addition polymers have been produced.
Often the plastics are produced with particular
properties in mind, such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride or
poly(chloroethene) and PTFE (poly(tetrafluoroethene)).
Both of these plastics have monomer units similar
to ethene.
H H F F
C C C C
a Model of chloroethene, the PVC monomer
H Cl F F
and is particularly
(Figure 12.19). good for making pipes for plumbing
b Model of part of a PVC polymer chain
▲ Figure
Figu re 12.18
199
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
F F F F
n C C C C
▲ Figure
Figur e 12.19 These pipes are made from PVC F F F F n
PVC is the most versatile plastic and is the second most Monomer Polymer chain
widely used, after poly(ethene). Worldwide more than
27 million tonnes are produced annually. The properties of some addition polymers along with
If we start from tetrafluoroethene (Figure 12.20a), the their uses are given in Table 12.4.
polymer we make, PTFE, has some slightly unusual
properties:
a Model of tetrafluoroethene, the PTFE monomer b Model of part of a PTFE polymer chain
▲ Figure 12.20
Plastic Monomer P r o p e r t ie s Us e s
Poly (ethene) CH2=CH 2 Tough, durable Carrier bags, bowl s buckets, packaging
Poly (p
(prope
pen
ne) CH3CH=CH2 Tough, durable Ropes, packaging
P VC CH2= CHCl Strong, hard (less flexible than Pipes, electrical insulation, guttering
poly(ethene))
P TFE CF2=CF 2 Non-stick surface, withstands high Non-stick frying pans, soles of irons
temperatures
Polyst yrene CH2=CHC6H5 Ligh
Light,
t, po
poor
or co
cond
ndu
uct
ctor
or of he
heat
at Insu
Insula
lati
tion
on,, pac
packa
kagi
ging
ng (e
(esp
spec
ecia
iall
llyy as
as foa
foam)
m)
Per s pex CH2=C(CO2CH3)CH 3 Transparent Used as a glass substitute
200
12.5 Polymers
been usedHowever,
quarries. as landfill
However , allin,
overforthe
example, disused
world these sites are
getting very much harder to find and it is becoming
more and more expensive to dispose of the waste.
Also the older landfill
landf ill sites are now beginning
to produce gases, including methane (which is
a greenhouse gas), which contribute to global
warming. The alternatives to dumping plastic waste
are certainly more economical and more more satisfactory
satisfac tory
but also create
c reate their problems.
» Incineration schemes have been developed to
use the heat generated from burning waste
for heating purposes (Figure 12.22). However,
problems with the combustion process (which can ▲ Figure 12.22 A plastic incineration plant
201
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
Test yourself
15 Draw the structure of the repeat unit
unit of
the
CH3addition polymer
—CH2CH=CH formed from
2.
16 Draw the displayed formula of the monomer
from which the addition polymer below has
been produced.
C6H 5 H C6H 5 H C6H 5 H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 12 you should be able to: ✔ State that a structural formula is a description
✔ Draw and interpret the displayed
displayed formula of of the way the atoms in a molecule are arranged,
a molecule to show all of the atoms and all including CH2=CH 2.
of the bonds. ✔ Define structur
structural
al isomers as compounds with the
✔ Write and interpret general formulae to show the same molecular formula, but different structural
ratio of atoms in the molecules of the compounds formulae, including C 4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and
in a homologous series. CH3CH(CH3)CH3, and C4H8 as CH3CH2CH=CH2 and
✔ Identif
Identifyy a function
functional
al group as an atom or group CH3CH=CHCH 3.
of atoms that determine the chemical properties ✔ Describe a homologous series as compounds
compounds
of a homologous series. that have the same functional group, the same
general formula, differ from one member to the
next by a –CH2– unit , show a trend in physical
properties and have similar chemical properties.
202
12.5 Polymers
✔ State that
that a saturated
saturated compound has molecules in ✔ Describe the manufacture ofof alkenes
alkenes and
which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds. hydrogen by the cracking of larger
l arger alkanes using a
✔ State that an
an unsaturated compound has high temperature, 550°C, and a catalyst.
molecules in which one or more carbon–carbon ✔ Describe the reasons
reasons for the
the cracking of
of larger
bonds are double bonds or triple bonds. alkanes.
✔ Distinguish between saturated
saturated and unsaturated
✔ Name and
and draw the structural and
and displayed hydrocarbons using aqueous bromine.
formulae of unbranched alkanes and alkenes and
the products of their reactions containing up to ✔ State that
that in an
an addition reaction, only one
four carbon atoms per molecule. product is formed.
✔ Describe the properties of alkenes inin terms of
✔ State the type of compound present given the addition reactions with bromine, hydrogen and
chemical name ending in -ane, -ene, or from a steam, and draw the structural or displayed
molecular,, structural or displayed formula.
molecular formulae of the products.
✔ State that
that the bonding in alkanes is single
single covalent
and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. ✔ Define polymers
polymers as large molecules built
built up from
✔ Describe the properties of alkanes as being many small units called monomers.
generally unreactive, except in terms of ✔ Describe the formation
formation of poly(ethene
poly(ethene)) as an
combustion and substitution by chlorine. example of addition polymerisation.
203
12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 Explain the following statements. b Alkanes can be converted into substances
a Ethene is called an
an unsaturated which are used as solvents. To do this the
hydrocarbon. [2] alkane is reacted with a halogen, such as
b The cracking of larger alkanes into simple chlorine, in the presence of ultraviolet light.
alkanes and alkenes is important to the
petrochemical industry. [3]]
[3 i Give a word
equation forand
the balanced chemical
reaction between
methane and chlorine. [4]]
[4
c The conversion
conversion of ethene to ethanol is
is an
example of an addition reaction. [2]]
[2
ii Identify the type of reaction taking
place. [1]
2 The following question is about some of the 4 Ethene, C2H4, is the starting material for making
reactions of ethene. plastic carrier bags.
Gas B H H H H
n C C C C
Hydrogen + H H H H n
catalyst A
Burn in
a Identify the type of chemical change taking
ETHENE air Gas C + water place in the diagram above. [1]]
[1
Bromine
b Identify the product
product formed
formed by this
reaction. [1]
Steam +
catalyst D
c i The alkene, ethene, is made by cracking
large alkane molecules. Describe a simple
Liquid F chemical test to show that ethene is
Liquid E present. [2]
204
Exam-style questions
i Give the meaning of the term ‘element’. [2 [2]] 6 a Identify which of the following
following formulae
ii Identify the name given to the type of represent alkanes, which are alkenes, and
compound that contains the elements which represent neither.
neit her.
carbon and hydrogen only. [1]]
[1 CH3 C12H24
iii When the plastic bag burns, heat energy
energy is
C6H12 C20H42
given out. Give the name used to describe
reactions that give out heat energy. [1] C5H12 C2H4
iv The plastic bag will probably
probably give off a C6H6 C8H18
toxic gas when it is burned in a limited C9H20 C3H7 [3]]
[3
supply of air.
air. Give the name and formula
of this gas. [2]]
[2 b Draw the displayed formulae
formulae for all the
possible isomers which have the
molecular formula C6H14. [10]
205
13 Organic chemistry 2
FOCUS POINTS
★ What are the structures and formula
formulae
★ What are the uses of ethanol and howecan
of the homologous
it be series,, alcohols and carbox
series
manufactured? carboxylic
ylic acids?
★ How does ethanoic acid react with metals, bases and carbonate
carbonates?
s?
★ How do condensation polymers
polymer s differ from addition polymers and why is this reaction important in the
production of polyamides and polyesters?
★ Why can proteins
proteins be described as a type of polymer?
polymer?
In Chapter 12, we discussed the organic compounds obtained from petroleum, the alkanes, and
how they are converted into another homologous series of hydrocarbons called the alkenes. In this
chapter you will learn that if you replace one of the hydrogen atoms on an alkane molecule with a
group such as –OH, the hydroxyl group, then you get a new homologous series called the alcohols.
Also if you replace one of the hydrogen atoms on an alkane molecule with a –COOH group then
you get a homologous series called the carboxylic acids. You will see that whichever group you
have attached, it will bring with it a new set of physical and chemical properties. These groups are
known as functional groups and it is this group of atoms that is responsible for the characteristic
reactions of the organic compound. You will also study the formation and uses of another type of
polymer known as condensation polymers. Finally, you will learn about the natural condensation
polymers, proteins.
13.1 Functional groups ▼ Table 13.1 The functional groups present in some
homologous series of organic compounds
You saw in Chapter 12 that the functional
funct ional group
Class of compound Functional group
of an organic molecule is an atom or group of
atoms that determine the chemical properties of a Alcohols R–OH
homologous series. It is not surprising,
surpr ising, therefore, Carbox y lic acids R– COOH
that there are so many organic molecules given that Esters R– COOR
there are many functional groups that can replace Amines R–NH2
an H atom of basic hydrocarbon molecules.
Table 13.1 shows
shows some examples
e xamples of functional
func tional Amides R– CONH2
groups. In the table, R represents an alkyl group or
a hydrogen atom. An alkyl group has the
t he general
formula based on the alkanes, C nH2n+1. When n = 1, 13.2 Alcohols (R–OH)
R = CH3; when n = 2, R = C2H5, and so on. The alcohols form another homologous series with
the general formula C nH2n+1OH (or R–OH, where R
represents an alkyl group). All the alcohols possess
an –OH as
a s the functional group. Table 13.2 shows
shows
the names and condensed formulae of the first
four members along with their melting and boiling
points.
206
13.2 Alcohols (R–OH)
The alcohols are named by reference to the Alcohols have high boiling points and relatively
relat ively low
corresponding alkane (see Chapter 12, p. 190), volatility. Alcohol molecules are like water molecules
always ensuring that the hydrocarbon chain is (H–OH) in that they are polar (see Chapter
C hapter 11,
11,
numbered from the end that gives the lowest p. 173).
number to the position
posit ion of the –OH group. If the
–OH group is positioned at the end of the alcohol,
for example in CH3CH2CH2OH, then the position
Going further
of this group is shown by numbering the carbon Alcohol molecules are polar because of the presence
atom it is attached
at tached to asa s ‘1’. So this molecule
is called propan-
propan-1-ol,
1-ol, or propanol for short.
short . If of the –OH
oxygen group,
creates in which
(within this the hydrogen
group) attached
a small to
difference
the –OH group is attached to the second carbon in charge (Figure 13.3). Other organic molecules that
atom, CH3CH(OH)CH3, then this molecule is called are polar are carboxylic acids such as ethanoic acid
(p. 211).
propan-2-ol.
propan- 2-ol. The displayed formulae of these
δ+
two isomers of propanol are shown in Figure 13.2 H
along with those for two isomers of butanol.
δ– δ+ δ–
O H O
H H H H H H
H H
H C C C O H C C
H C C C H
H Hydrogen H
H H
H H H H O H bond
C C
Propan-1-ol H H H
H H
Propan-2-ol
a Propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol ▲ Figure 13.3 Polar –OH groups in ethanol molecules
lead to hydrogen bonding and an attraction between
H H H H H H H H neighbouring molecules
H C C C C OH H C C C C H Because of the presence of the polar –OH groups,
there is a relatively strong polar attraction between
H H H H H OH H H alcohol molecules. This polar attraction between
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol the charges δ + and δ − in neighbouring molecules
b Butanol-1-ol and butan-2-ol is called a hydrogen bond. This means that the
molecules have a much stronger attraction for each
▲ Figure 13.2 Displayed formulae of alcohols other than molecules of the corresponding alkane
of similar relative molecular mass, Mr. For example,
ethanol has an Mr value of 46 and is a liquid at room
temperature with a boiling point of 78°C, while
propane (CH3CH2CH3) has an Mr of 44 and is a gas at
room temperature with a boiling point of −42°C.
207
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
Combustion
The combustion of ethanol is an important property
of ethanol. Ethanol burns quite readily with a clean,
hot flame.
ethanol + oxygen → carbon + water + (ΔH )
dioxide
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + (Δ H ) ▲ Figure 13.5 Potassium manganate(VII ) turns from
purple to colourless
As methylated spirit, it is used in in domestic burners
for heating and cooking. Methylated spirit is ethanol
with small amounts of poisonous substances, such
Test yourself
as methanol,
countries, likeadded
Brazilto stop
and thepeople drinking
US, already useit.ethanol
Some 4 Why does ethanol make such a good solvent?
208
13.2 Alcohols (R–OH)
Going further
chemical. It belongs
called steroids to acontains
and also family ofan
chemicals
alcohol group
(Figure 13.6). Cholesterol is found in almost all of
the tissues in the body, including nerve cells. Levels
of cholesterol above normal (above 6.5 mmol/l) are
associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
Cholesterol hardens and blocks off arteries by building
up layers of solid material (atheroma) inside the
arteries (Figure 13.7). This is particularly serious if
the arteries that supply the heart or brain are blocked.
Simple tests are now available to monitor cholesterol a This artery is being blocked
blocked by atheroma, which may be
levels. People with high levels can be treated and can related to high levels of cholesterol in the blood
follow special low-fat and low-cholesterol diets.
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
Cholesterol
Manufacture of ethanol
Biotechnology involves making use of micro-
The is
out best temperature
25–35°C. This isfor this process
because to be carr
the enzymes in ied
yeast which catalyse this process will be denatur
denatured
ed
organisms or their components, such as enzymes,
organisms enz ymes, at temperatures much above this, for example,
for the benefit
benef it of humans to produce, for example, at 40°C.
foods such as yoghurt and bread. One of the oldest
biotechnologies is that of fermentation. It involves glucose yeast
ethanol + carbon dioxide
a series of biochemical reactions brought about by
micro-organisms or enzymes. C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g)
209
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
to be separated from the mixture by fractional As discussed earlier, ethanol is a very useful
distillation. The process then is repeated with chemical and used in many ways. It can be
another batch of reagents. Batch processes are manufactured by two processes: fermentation of
used where small amounts of a substance are glucose and hydration of ethene. A summary of the
required. The percentage yield by this process is methods of manufacture
manufac ture are shown in Table 13.3.
approximately 15%. Figure 13.8 shows a simple ▼ Table 13.3 Summary of the two methods that are used to
apparatus for obtaining ethanol from glucose in make ethanol
the laboratory.
Fermentation H yd r a t i o n
Conditions 37°C and so less 300°C, 6000 kPa
employed energy needed uses a catalyst of
compared to the phosphoric acid
hydration method
Proces
esssing Manufac tu
tured in Manufactured by a
batches continuous process
Sust
Sustai
aina
nabi
bilit
lityy Sustai
Sustaina
nabl
ble
e Finite source–ethene
source – the is non-renewable
glucose is
renewable
Pur ifification Fr ac
actional Becomes pure
distillation during production
Percentage Low
Low – abo
bout
ut 15% Hig
igh
h – ab
abou
outt 96%
yield
▲ Figure 13.8 Fermenting glucose and yeast to produce
ethanol. The bag is inflated during the experiment by CO 2
C C + H OH H C C H Test yourself
H H H OH 5 Why should being a continuous process be
an advantage for a process for making ethanol?
For a further discussion of this reaction, see
Chapter 12, p. 197.
210
13.3 Carboxylic acids
211
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
whereas the mineral acids, such as hydrochloric Ethanoic acid also undergoes further typical
acid, are called strong acids, ethanoic
e thanoic acid is a reactions of acids with indicators turning, for
weak acid
ac id (Chapter 8, p. 118).
118). Even though it is example, methyl orange to red.
a weak acid, it will still react with bases to form
salts. For example, the salt sodium ethanoate
(CH3COONa) is formed when ethanoic acid reacts Going further
with dilute sodium hydroxide.
ethanoic acid + sodium → sodium + water Some interesting
We come carboxylic
across carboxylic acids inacids
our everyday life.
hydroxide Aspirin is a frequently used painkiller. It is also able
to reduce inflammation and fever, and a low dose
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) taken on a daily basis by people over the age of 50 may
prevent heart attacks.
Ethanoic acid also undergoes typical reactions of
acids with metals and carbonates. In the case of Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is an essential
vitamin. Vitamin C is required by the body in very
the metal magnesium, the metal salt magnesium small amounts and it is obtained from foods. It is
ethanoate ((CH3COO)2Mg) and hydrogen are found in citrus fruits and brightly coloured vegetables,
produced. such as peppers and broccoli. Vitamin C prevents the
disease scurvy.
ethanoic acid + magnesium → magnesium + hydrogen
ethanoate
2CH COOH(aq) + Mg(s) → (CH COO) Mg(aq) + H (g)
3 3 2 2
Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates such as Test yourself
6 Describe the reaction that takes place between
sodium, producing the salt sodium ethanoate ethanoic acid and:
(CH3COONa), carbon dioxide and water. a calcium
b potassium carbonate
ethanoic acid + sodium → sodium + carbon + water c potassium hydroxide.
carbonate ethanoate dioxide In each case, write a word equation as well as a
balanced chemical equation.
2CH3COOH(
COOH(aq)
aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2 + H2O(g)
13.4 Esters
Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol, in the Members of the ‘ester’ family have strong and
presence of a few drops of concentrated sulfuric pleasant smells. They have the general formula
acid acting–asana ester
catalyst, to produce ethyl nH2n+1COOC xH2 x+1. Esters are named after the acid
Cand
ethanoate . alcohol from which they are derived:
conc » name – alcohol part first, acid part second,
ethanoic + ethanol
ethyl ethanoate + water
acid H 2SO4 e.g. propyl ethanoate
» formula – acid part first, alcohol part second,
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H 2O(l) e.g. CH3COOC 3H7
This reaction is called esterification. Table 13.6
13.6 shows the actual
ac tual arrangement of the
atoms in some of the members of this family.
212
13.4 Esters
H O C C H
H H
O C C C H
H H H
O C H
H H H
Test yourself
7 Which of the following organic chemicals are • Pentene, C5H10
carboxylic acids or alcohols? • Hexanol, C6H13OH
• Hexanoic acid, C5H11COOH State why you have chosen your answers.
• Butanol, C4H9OH
• Octane, C8H18 8 Write word and balanced chemical equations for
• Nonane, C9H20 the esterification of propanoic acid with ethanol.
• Methanoic acid, HCOOH
213
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
Practical skills
For safe experiments/demonstrations which Some statements in the student’s account have
are related to this chapter, please refer to the been underlined by the teacher.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical
P ractical Skills
An swer these questions
Answer ques tions to identify how the
Workbook, which is also part of this series.
account of the experiments could be improved.
Safety 1 In both cases, what
what strengt
strengthh of ethanoic acid,
acid,
● Eye protection must be worn. dilute or concentrated, and volume of acid,
5 cm3 or 50 cm3, would be used?
A student wrote the following account of two 2 In both experi
experiments,
ments, what is the more
experiments they observed their teacher carrying scientifically correct word to use rather
out about the properties of carboxylic acids. than ‘bubbling’?
1 Some ethanoic acid was poured into a test 3 What was
was the gas that
that gave
gave a squeaky
tube. A small piece of magnesium ribbon pop?
was added to the acid. Bubbling took place. 4 In experiment
experiment 2, how is the sodium
The test tube was corked and the gas carbonate added?
produced was tested using a lit wooden splint. 5 In experiment
experiment 2, how should the shaking
It gave a squeaky ‘pop’. The gas must be take place? Explain your answer.
oxygen. 6 In experiment 2, what was the gas that
2 Some ethanoic acid was poured into a test gave a milky colour with limewater?
tube. Some sodium carbonate was added to 7 Are there any other suggestions that you
the acid. Bubbling took place. The test tube could make to improve the account?
was corked and after about 10 seconds the
cork was removed and the gas was poured into
a test tube containing limewater. This test tube
was corked and shaken. The limewater went
slightly milky. The gas must be hydrogen.
polymers
In Chapter 12 (p. 198),
198), you studied the different
dif ferent
called 1,6-diaminohexane and hexanedioic acid.
Hexanedioic acid 1,6-diaminohexane
addition polymers produced from alkenes. Not allal l HOOC(CH2)4COOH H2N(CH2)6NH2
polymers are formed by addition reactions though.
Some are produced as a result of a different type H2N(CH2)6CONH(CH2)4COOH H2O
of reaction.
react ion. In 1935,
1935, Wallace Carothers discovered
a different sort of plastic when he developed Amide link
the thermoplastic, nylon. Nylon is made by
reacting two different chemicals together, unlike The polymer chain is made up from the two
poly(ethene) which is made only from monomer starting molecules arranged alternately
units of ethene. Poly(ethene)
Poly(ethene),, formed by addition (Figure 13.11
13.11)) due to these molecules reacting
reac ting
polymerisation, can be represented by: and therefore linking up. Each time a reaction
takes place, the other product of the reaction,
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–
a molecule of water, is lost.
where A = monomer.
214
13.5 Condensation polymers
▲ Figur e 13.1
Figure 1 A nylon polymer chain is made up from the
13.11
two molecules arranged alternately just like the two
different coloured poppet beads in the photo
C C N N Ester link
H H
This ester link is the same linkage as in fats.
When nylon is made in industry, it forms as a solid Generally, polyesters have the structure:
which is melted and forced through small holes O O O O
(Figure 13.12
13.12).
). The long filaments
fil aments cool and solid
C C O O C C O O
nylon fibres are produced which are stretched
to align the polymer molecules, and then dried. Like nylon, PET can be turned into yarn, which can
The resulting yarn can be woven into fabric then be woven. PET clothing is generally softer
to make shirts, ties, sheets and parachutes or than that made from nylon but both are hard
turned into ropes or racket strings for tennis and wearing. Because an ester link is formed during
badminton rackets. the polymerisation, PET is known as a polyester.
215
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
When this polymer is being used to make bottles, Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
for example, it is usually called PET
PET.. An interesting
interest ing Similar to nylon (see p. 215), proteins are
feature of PET is that it can be converted back into polyamides as they contain the –CONH– group,
its monomers and so can be recycled. which is called the amide or, in the case of
proteins, the peptide link. Proteins are formed
forme d by
Test yourself condensation polymerisation.
C C N N C C N N C H 2N C COOH H 2N C COOH
H H H H H CH 3
H 2N C C N C COOH H 2O
H O
216
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 13 you should be able to: ✔ Describe the formation
formation of ethanoic acid by the
✔ Write the
the general formulae for the homologous oxidation of ethanol with acidified potassium
series alcohols and carboxylic acids. manganate( VII ) as well as by bacterial oxidation
during vinegar production.
✔ Name and
and draw the structural and
and displayed ✔ Describe the reaction ofof a carboxylic acid with
formulae of unbranched alcohols, including an alcohol to give an ester.
propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol, butan-1-ol and ✔ Name and draw the displayed formulae of the
butan-2ol, and carboxylic acids, as well as the unbranched esters which can be made from
products of their reactions containing up to four unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, each
carbon atoms per molecule. containing up to four carbon atoms.
✔ Deduce the structure or repeat
repeat unit of a
✔ State the type of compound present given the condensation polymer from given monomers.
chemical name ending in -ol or -oic acid or from a ✔ Describe the
the differences
differences between condensation
condensation
molecular,, structural or displayed formula.
molecular and addition polymerisation.
✔ Describe the manufacture of ethanol
ethanol by ✔ Describe and draw the structure of nylon (a
fermentation of glucose and the catalytic addition polyamide) and PET (a polyester).
of steam to ethene. ✔ Describe proteins
proteins as natural
natural polyamides.
polyamides.
✔ Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the ✔ Draw the general structure of a natural
two methods for manufacturing ethanol. polyamide.
✔ Describe the
the combustion
combustion of alcohols. ✔ Describe and draw the structure of proteins.
✔ State the uses of ethanol as a solvent and a fuel.
✔ Describe the reactions of
of carboxylic acids
acids with
metals, bases and carbonates including names
and formulae of the salts produced.
218
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons 3 a Copy the following table and
and complete
complete it by
giving the displayed formulae for ethanol and
ethanoic acid.
1 a The functional group of the homologous
series alcohols is –OH. Explain what is Ethane Ethanol Ethanoic acid
meant by the terms in italics.
italics . [4]]
[4 H H
series
ser ies of alcohol
alcohols.
s. [1]]
[1 H H
c Butan-
Butan-1-ol
1-ol is used as a solvent for paints. It
It [4]]
[4
can be made by the hydration of but-1-ene.
but-1-ene.
b Describe a simple chemical test that
i Give an equation for the reaction that
could be used to distinguish ethanol from
takess place to produce butan
take butan--1-ol. [3]]
[3
ethanoic
ethan oic acid. [3]]
[3
ii Identify the reaction conditions for this
reaction to take place. [3]]
[3 c i Identify the class of compound
d Butan-
Butan-1-ol
1-ol will undergo bacterial oxidation produced when ethanol reacts with
if left in the air. Give the name of the ethanoicc acid.
ethanoi [1]]
[1
organic substance formed by this ii What catalyst is required for
for this
oxidation process and give its formula. [2 [2]] reaction? [1]
2 A piece of cheese contains
contains protein.
protein. Proteins
Proteins iii Give a word and balanced chemical
are natural polymers made up of amino acids. equation for this reaction. [4]]
[4
There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids.
The displayed formulae of two amino acids are
shown below. 4 a Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Describe what
Glycine Alanine you understand by the term weak acid. [1]
H H
b Ethanoic acid will react with sodium
sodium
H 2N C COOH H 2N C COOH carbonate. Write a word and balanced
H CH3 chemical equation for the reaction. [4]]
[4
c Ethanoic acid will react with metals such
a Identify the type of of polymerisation as magnesium. Write a word and balanced
involved in protein format
formation.
ion. [1]]
[1 chemical equation for the reaction. [4]]
[4
b Give the molecular formulae of the two d Ethanoic acid will react with bases such as
amino acid
acidss shown. [2]]
[2 sodium hydroxide.
c Sketch a displayed
displayed formula
formula to represent the
product formed by the reaction between i What
‘base’?do you understand by the term [2]
the amino acid
acidss shown above. [2]]
[2 ii Give another examp
example
le of a base. [1]]
[1
iii Write a word and balanced chemical
equation for the reaction. [4]]
[4
219
13 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2
5 a Identify which carboxylic acids and alcohols 6 a Identify the polymerisation process
process that is
you use to make the following esters: used to make both nylon and PET. [1]]
[1
i butyl methanoate [2]]
[2 b Give the starting materials
materials for making:
ii ethyl methanoate [2]]
[2 i nylon [2]]
[2
iii propyl propanoat
propanoate.
e. [2]]
[2 ii PET. [2]
b Identif
Identifyy which
which esters would be made
made using c Give the name and formula
formula of the small
small
the followingacid
i ethanoic carboxylic acids
and butan
butan- and alcohols:[1]
-1-ol molecule
tions produced
reactions
reac to produceduring
both the polymerisation
nylon and PET. [2
[2]]
ii metha
methanoic
noic acid and metha
methanol
nol [1] d Give the name of the chemical link
link that holds
iii propanoic acid and butan
butan--1-ol. [1] together:
c Sketch the displayed formulae of of the i nyl
nylonon [1]]
[1
following esters: ii PE
PET.T. [1]]
[1
i ethyl ethanoate [2]]
[2
ii propyl ethano
ethanoate.
ate. [2]]
[2
220
Experimental techniques
14 and chemical analysis
FOCUS POINTS
★ What apparatus is most commonly used in experimen
experimental
tal techniques?
★ What is qualitative chemical analysis?
★ How can we identify elements and ions?
This chapter shows how to safely and accurately use different experimental techniques, apparatus
and materials. This will aid your ability to plan experiments and investigations.
You will also learn that there are specific criteria for purity of substances. Finally, you will learn about
the branch of chemistry that deals with the identification of elements, ions or grouping of elements as
ions present in a sample, which is called qualitative chemical analysis, or qualitative analysis for short.
The various tests you will study would allow you to carry out a wide range of qualitative analysis.
14.1 Apparatus
ment inused
measurement
measure for y
chemistr
chemistry
volume and it is easier to use.
» How do you use the piece of apparatus correctly?
Before you use a piece of apparatus, be sure you
Scientists f ind out about the nature
nature of materials know how to use it properly
properly.. You need to be safe
by carrying
carry ing out experiments in a laboratory. Many in your working habits and also to ensure you use
of these experiments
exper iments require apparatus, such
such as good techniques, for example, measuring volume
that you have used in your study of chemistry to of solutions carefully, so that you make and
date. A knowledge and understanding of the use of record measurements accurately. If necessary, ask
this scientific apparatus is required for successful
successful your teacher before you use a particular piece of
experimentation and investigations. In an experiment, apparatus if it is unfamiliar to you.
you will first have to decide on the measurements to
be made and then collect together the apparatus and
materials required. The quantities you will need to
Measurement of time
measure most
temperature,
temperature oftenvolume
, mass, in a chemistry laboratory
of liquids as well aswill
wgases,
ill be
and time.
There will be advantages and disadvantages of
each method or piece of apparatus, so when you
choose which to use, you will have to use your
knowledge of the apparatus to decide if it will be
suitable. You will have to decide:
dec ide:
» What apparatus should
should you use to measure each
of these? For example, it sounds silly but you
would not use a thermometer to measure the ▲ Figure 14.1 This stopwatch can be used to measure the
timing of a particular reaction rate! time passed in a chemical reaction. The reading is 6.3 s
» Which piece of apparatus is most suitable for the
Experiments involving rates of reaction will require
task
largeingas
hand? For to
syringe ex ample,
example,
measureyou
outwould
10 cmnot
3 ofuse a
liquid: the use of an accurate stopwatch – one that
you would use a small measuring cylinder because measures to a hundredth of a second. The units of
time are hours (h), minutes (min) and seconds (s).
221
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
20˚
10˚
Eye level low – ▲ Figure 14.5 The apparatus shown in the photograph
temperature read 16.5°C
(left to right: volumetric pipette, measuring cylinder
cyl inder and
burette) are generally used in different experiments to
▲ Figure 14.3 Eye should be level with the liquid meniscus measure volume accurately
222
14.1 Apparatus used for measurement in chemistry
Different experiments involving liquids will require also be possible to read the burette to the nearest
one or other or all the various measuring apparatus 0.05 cm3 if the bottom of the meniscus is between
available for measuring
mea suring volume. Figure 14.5 shows divisions.
three of the most commonl
commonlyy used measuring
measur ing
apparatus. 50
Acid-base titration
Meniscus
example, in an For
acid-alkali 20
be the titrant. a furthertitration, theofacid
discussion would
titrations,
see Chapter 8, p. 128.
A measuring cylinder (sometimes called a ▲ Figure 14.6 The volume level in this measuring cylinder
should be read on the dotted line. The reading here is 36 cm 3
mixing or graduated cylinder) is a common piece of
laboratory equipment used to measure the volume
of a liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical shape. Each Measurement of volume of gases
marked line on the graduated cylinder shows the The volume of a gas can be measured with a gas
amount of liquid that has been measured.
mea sured. syringe. This is used to measure the amount of gas
The volume of a liquid is a measure of the collected in experiments. They have a maximum
amount of space that it takes up. The units of volume of 100 cm3.
decimet res (dm3) and
volume are litres (l), cubic decimetres
cubic centimetres (cm3).
3 3
1 litre = 1 dm = 1000 cm
However, some of the manufacturers
However, manufac turers of apparatus
used for measuring
mea suring volume use millilitres (ml).
(ml). This
is not a problem, however, 3
however, since 1 cm = 1 ml.
When reading the volume using one of these
pieces of apparatus, it is important to ensure that
the apparatus is vertical and that your eye is level
with the meniscus of the liquid being measured,
as shown in Figure 14.6.
14.6. The precision
prec ision of the
measurement will vary depending on the apparatus
used. For example, if the smallest scale division on
0.1 cm3, the precision of any volume
a burette is 0.1 ▲ Figure 14.7 A gas syringe
measured with the burette will be 0.1 cm 3. It may
223
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
˚C ˚C ˚C
20 40 60 80
55 55 55
50 50 50
40 40 40
Reaction 35 35 35
producing gas 30 30 30
25 25 25
Test yourself
1 a i Copy and complete the following about the 14.2 Separating mixtures
units of volume measurement. Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed
1 dm3 = cm3
with unwanted material. To obtain these useful
ii What are the readings on the following
measuring cylinders? substances, chemists often have to separate them
from the impurities. Chemists have developed many
60 6 60 30
different methods of separation, particularly for
50 25
separating compounds from complex mixtures. Which
40 7 40 20 separation method they use depends on what is in
30 15
the mixture
present. and depends
It also the properties of thethe
on whether substances
substances
20 5 20 10
224
14.2 Separating mixtures
Key definitions
A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute.
A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent.
Filtration
When you pour a cup of tea through a tea strainer,
st rainer,
you are carrying out a filtering process. Filtration ▲ Figure 14.9 It is important when filtering not to overfill
is a common separation technique used in the filter paper
chemistry laboratories throughout the world. It
Key definitions
is used when a solid needs to be separated from
Residue is a substance that remains after evaporation,
a liquid. For example, sand can be separated from distillation, filtration or any similar process.
a mixture with water by filtering through filter
paper as shown in Figure 14.
14.9.
9. Filtrate is a liquid or solution that has passed through a
filter.
tooThe filter
small paper
to be contains
se en,
seen, holes
are large that, to
enough although
allow
the molecules of water through but not the sand
particles. It acts like a sieve. The sand gets trapped
in the filter paper and the water passes through
it. The sand is called the residue and the water is
called the filtrate.
225
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Going further
Decanting
Vegetables do not dissolve in water. When you have
boiled some vegetables, it is easy to separate them
from the water by pouring it off. This process is called
decanting
. This
separate an technique
insoluble solid,iswhich
used quite often toat the
has settled
bottom of a flask, from a liquid.
Centrifuging
Another way to separate a solid from a liquid is to use
a centrifuge. This technique is sometimes used instead
of filtration. It is usually used when the solid particles
are so small that they spread out (disperse) throughout
the liquid and remain in suspension. They do not settle
to the bottom of the container, as heavier particles
would do, under the force of gravity. The technique of
centrifuging or centrifugation involves the suspension
being spun round very fast in a centrifuge so that the
solid gets flung to the bottom of the tube (Figure 14.10).
Insoluble solids
are thrown to
the bottom
separation
from blood is used extensively
plasma (Figure 14. to).separate
14.11
11). cablood
se, thecells
In this case, so lid
solid
particles (the blood cells) are flung to the bottom of the
tube, allowing the liquid plasma to be decanted.
226
14.2 Separating mixtures
Evaporation
If a solid has dissolved in a liquid, it cannot be
separated by filtering or centrifuging. Instead, the
solution can be heated so that the liquid evaporates
completely and leaves the solid behind. For example,
e xample,
the simplest way to obtain salt from its solution is
by slow evaporation, as shown in Figure 14.12.
Simple distillation
If we want to obtain the solvent from a solution, then
the process of distillation can be carried out. The
apparatus used
us ed in this process is shown in Figure 14.14.
14.14.
Crystallisation
In many parts of the world, salt is obtained from Thermometer
Flask
Key definition
A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum Distillate
concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a
specified temperature. ▲ Figure 14.1
14.144 Water can be obtained from salt water by
distillation
227
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Water can be obtained from salt water using this Immiscible liquids
method. The solution is heated in the flask until If two liquids are immiscible, they can be separated
it boils. The steam rises into the Liebig condenser, using a separating funnel. The mixture is poured
where it condenses back into water. The salt is left into the funnel and the layers allowed to separate.
behind in the flask. The lower layer can then be run off by opening the
tap as shown in Figure 14.17.
Going further
In hot and arid countries, such as Saudi Arabia, this
sort of technique is used on a much larger scale to
obtain pure water for drinking (Figure 14.15). This
process is carried out in a desalination plant.
Thermometer
Cooling
Condenser
water in
Cooling
water out
Fractionating column
with short lengths
of glass rod inside
(increases surface area)
Flask Flask
Liquid
▲ Figure 14.1 9 Gases from the air are extrac ted in this
14.19
mixture Distillate fractional distillation plant
Heat Support
Going further
Separating solid/solid mixtures
You saw in Chapter 2 (see p. 19, Figure 2.9) that it was
possible to separate iron from sulfur using a magnet. In
that case, we were using one of the physical properties
of iron, that is, the fact that it is magnetic. In a similar
way, it is possible to separate scrap iron from other
metals by using a large electromagnet like the one
shown in Figure 14.20.
229
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
230
14.2 Separating mixtures
Worked example
Several different dyes were spotted on chromatography
paper and set up for chromatography. The chromatogram
produced is shown below.
a Chromatographic
Chromatographic separation of black ink
Chromatography
paper
A B C D
Black ink Which of the dyes are pure substances and which are
spot on the mixtures?
Before pencil baseline
The single spots show they are a single dye. So dyes B and C
are single dyes.
Watch glass
Solvent front
The dyes that have produced multiple spots are mixtures.
So dyes A and D are mixtures of dyes.
Beaker
Solvent soaks
up the paper
Solvent
During
Going further
Paper chromatography of the products
Dye R
of starch hydrolysis
This technique can be used to identify the products
of a reaction. For example, starch can be broken up
Dye Q using enzymes in water solution or water in dilute
acid. This type of reaction is called hydrolysis.
Dye P
However, the different methods produce different
products, as shown in Figure 14.24.
After
Starch
b The black ink separates into three dyes: P,
P, Q and R
-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-O-
▲ Figure 14.23
cid hydrolysis Enzyme hydrolysis
As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes
are carried with
w ith it and begin to separate. They
separate because the substances have different
dif ferent
solubilities in the solvent and are absorbed to
different degrees by the chromatography paper. Glucose Maltose
As a result, they are separated gradually as the
▲ Figure 14.24 Summary of starch hydrolysis
solvent moves up the paper. The chromatogram in
Figure 14.23b shows how the ink contains three The products of these reactions can be identified
using chromatography. The chromatography paper is
dyes, P,
P, Q and
an d R. ‘spotted’ with the samples as well as pure glucose and
Chromatography is used extensively in medical maltose. When this is developed after some hours in
research and forensic science laboratories to the solvent, the spots may be identified (Figure 14.25).
separate a variety of mixtures.
231
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
233
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
▼ Table 14.1 Deductions that can be made from a ▼ Table 14.2 Characteristic flame colours of some metal ions
substance’s appearance or smell
Me t al Fl ame colour
Observation on
Group I ((1
1+ ion) L i th i u m Red
substance Indication
Sodium Yellow
Bl a c k p o w d e r Carbon, or contains O2− ions (as in
CuO), or S2− ions (as in CuS) Potassium Lil ac
2+
Pale gree
Pale green
n crys
crystals
tals Cont
Contai
ains
ns Fe ions (as in iron(II) salts) Group II ((2
2+ ion) Calcium Or ange-red
Dark
Dark gree
greenn crysta
crystals
ls Con
Contai ns Ni2+ ions (as in nickel (II)
tains Barium Light green
salts)
O th e r s Copper (as Cu2+) Blue-green
Blue or blue-green Contains Cu2+ ions (as in copper(II)
crystals salts)
A flame colour is obtained as a result of the
Yellow-brown Contains Fe3+ ions (as in iron(III) salts) electrons in the particular ions being excited when
crystals
they absorb energy from the flame which is then
Smel
Smelll of
of am
ammo
mon
nia Conta
Con NH4+ ions (as in ammonium
taiins NH emitted as visible light. The different electronic
salts) configurations of the different ions, therefore, give
rise to the different colours.
Flame colours
If a wooden splint, which has been soaked in an Tests for aqueous cations
aqueous metal ion solution, is held in a colourless Effect of adding dilute sodium hydroxide
Bunsen flame, the flame colour can become coloured solution
(Figure 14.27
14.27).
). Certain metal ions may be detected
det ected Aqueous sodium hydroxide can be used to identify
in their compounds by observing their flame colours salts of Al 3+, Ca2+, Cr3+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ and Zn2+
(Table 14.2). when present in aqueous solutions. All metal
cations form insoluble hydroxides when sodium
hydroxide solution is added to them. The T he colour of
the precipitate and its behaviour in excess sodium
hydroxide solution will help identify the metal
present (Table 14.3).
▼ Table 14.3 Effect of adding sodium hydroxide solution to
solutions containing
containing various metal ions
234
14.3 Qualitative analysis
In the case of ammonium salts containing the ▼ Table 14.4 Effect of adding aqueous ammonia to
ammonium ion, NH4+, ammonia gas is produced on solutions containing
containing various metal ions
warming. The ammonium cation does not form an Cation
insoluble hydroxide. However, it forms ammonia Added dropwise To excess present
and water upon heating. Whit
White
e pre
preccipi
pita
tatte Preciipi
Prec pita
tatte is
is ins
insol
olu
ubl
ble
e Al 3+
in excess
2+
No
veryprecipitate or
slight white No change Ca
precipitate
Green precipitate Precipitate is insoluble Cr3+
in excess
Light blue preci
precipitat
pitate
e Precipitate
Precipitate is
is solub
soluble
le Cu2+
in excess, giving a dark
blue solution
Green precipitate Precipitate is insoluble Fe2+
in excess, turns brown
near the surface on
standing
Red-brown Precipitate is insoluble Fe3+
precipitate in excess
Whit
White
e pr
prec
eciipi
pita
tatte Preciipi
Prec pita
tatte is so
sollubl
ble
e Zn2+
in excess, giving a
colourless solution
235
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
236
14.3 Qualitative analysis
Practical skills
Testing a compound shows the tests the student did on compound A
For safe experiments/demonstrations which and the observations made.
are related to this chapter, please refer to the Complete the table below by giving the possible
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical
P ractical Skills conclusions to tests (a), (b), (c) and (d). Suggest
Workbook, which is also part of this series. both the test and observation that lead to the
conclusion in test (d).
Safety
l Eye protection must be worn. 1 What is the name and formula for
for compound
compound A?
A?
2 It was suggested by the teacher that the
A student was given small
sma ll qua ntities of a final test (d) should be carried out in a fume
compound labelled A. After putting on their eye cupboard. Explain why this procedure should
protection, the student carried out a variety
variet y of be carried out in a fume cupboard.
tests to help them identify compound A. Table 14.7
237
14 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 14 you should be able to: ✔ Describe and explain methods
methods of separation and and
✔ Name appropriate
appropriate apparatus for for the measurement purification.
of time, temperature, mass and volume. ✔ Suggest suitable separation and purification
purification
✔ Suggest advantages
advantages and
and disadvantages
disadvantages of techniques.
experimental methods and apparatus. ✔ Identify substances
substances and assess their purity using
✔ Know the terms
terms ‘solvent’, ‘solute’, ‘solution’, melting point and boiling point information.
‘saturated solution’, ‘residue’ and ‘filtrate’. ✔ Describe tests using aqueous
aqueous sodium
sodium hydroxide
hydroxide
✔ Describe an acid–base titration
titration and know how to and aqueous ammonia to identify aqueous cations
identify the end-point of a titration. mentioned in this chapter in Tables 14.3 and 14.4.
✔ Describe how paper chromatography
chromatography is used to ✔ Describe the use of a flame test toto identify the
the
separate mixtures of soluble substances. cations mentioned in this chapter in Table 14.2.
✔ Describe tests to identify the anions mentioned
mentioned in
✔ Describe the use of locating agents when this chapter in Table 14.5.
separating mixtures. ✔ Describe tests to
to identify
identify the gases
gases mentioned in
this chapter in Table 14.6.
✔ Interpret simple chromatograms.
238
Exam-style questions
Exam-style questi
questions
ons
1 a Which of the following: a What do you understand
understand by the term:
cm3, kilograms, hours, degrees Celsius, dm3, i locat
locating
ing agent? [2]]
[2
minutes, seconds, grams ii Rf value? [2]]
[2
are units of: b The samples
samples were thought to be amino acids.
i titime
me [1]]
[1
ii temper
temperature
ature [1]]
[1 Use your
locating
locat research
ing agent skills
used for to findacids.
amino out the normal
[1]]
[1
iii volu
volume
me [1]]
[1 c The table below shows Rf values for several
iv mas
mass?
s? [1]]
[1 amino acids thought to be at the crime
b In experiments, you will require the use of scene and for three samples.
accurate measuring instruments. State the
precision you would expect from the following Amino acid Rf value
240
Theory past paper questions
3 a The table gives some chemical properties of e A student electrolyses aqueous copper(II)
transition elements and their compounds, and sulfate using the apparatus shown.
of Group I elements and their compounds. power supply
transition Group I
chemical property elements elements
ability to act as catalysts y es no + –
carbon electrodes
exist as coloured
y es no
compounds aqueous
copper(II) sulfate
i What is meant by the term catalyst? [2]
ii Give one other chemical property shown
by transition
by Group I eleme nts. which is not shown
elements
elements. [1]]
[1 Oxygen gas forms at the positive electrode
(anode).
b Give two physical properties shown by i Write an ionic half-equation for the
transition elements which are not shown by reaction at the negative electrode
Group I elements. (cathode).
(cathode ). Include state symbols. [3]]
[3
1 ii Describe what the student observes at
2 [2] the negative electrode. [1]
c The energy level diagram
diagram shows the energy iii Give two other observations which the
profile for the reaction between zinc and student makes during the electrolysis.
dilute sulfuric acid. 1
2 [2]
iv What difference would the student
observe at the positive electrode if the
energy Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)
aqueous copper(II)
by concentrated sulfatecopper(II)
aqueous were replaced
chloride? [1]
[Total: 18]
progress of reaction
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q5 May/
i Complete the diagram by adding the June 2018
2018))
formulae of the products. Include state
4 The table shows the structures of four
symbols. [3]
hydrocarbons.
ii Draw an arrow on the diagram to represent
the activ
activation
ation energy. [1] P Q R S
iii Is the reaction endothermic or CH3 –CH 3 CH2=CH 2 CH2=CH–CH3 CH2=CH–CH2–CH 3
exothermic?
exoth ermic? Exp
Explain
lain your answer. [1]]
[1
d The reaction between zinc and dilute sulfuric a Why are compounds P, Q, R and S known as
acid can be catalysed by the addition of hydrocarbons? [2]
aqueous copper(II) sulfate. b Compound P is saturated. What is meant by
On the diagram, add the energy profile for the term saturated ?
saturated [1]
the catalysed reaction. [1]
241
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
242
Theory past paper questions
243
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
In your answer, include: d Give the name of the salt formed when zinc
– the position of the protons,
protons, neutrons and reacts with hydrochloric acid. [1]
electrons in the atom e Which one of the following pH values could
– the number
number of protons, neutrons and be the pH of dilute hydrochloric acid? Draw a
electrons present in the atom. [5]]
[5 circle around the correct
correc t answer.
b Complete the sentence about isotopes using pH 1 pH 7 pH 9 pH 13 [1]]
[1
words from the list. [Total: 6]
atomic compound element ions (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q8 May/
molecular nucleons June 2018)
Isotopes are atoms of the same
which have the same number 10 This question is about subatomic particles.
particle s.
but different numbers of [3]]
[3 a Define the terms:
c Give one medical use of radioactive isotopes. proton number
number
[1] nucleon number [3]]
[3
d Which one of the following isotopes is used as b Why is the 11 H hydrogen atom the only atom
a source of energy? to have an identical proton number and
Draw a circl
circlee around the correc
correctt answer. [1]]
[1 nucleon number? [1]]
[1
127
53
I
235
92
U
131
54
Xe
66
30
Z c Complete the table to show
show the number
number
of protons, neutrons and electrons in the
[Total: 10]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q6 May/ atoms and ions given. [6]
June 2018) number of number of number of
protons neutrons electrons
9 When zinc reacts with hydrochloric
hydrochloric acid,
hydrogen gas is produced.
19
F 9
The graph shows how the volume of hydrogen gas 26
Mg 12
produced changes with time when an excess of 31
P 3-
zinc is reacted with 0.2 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
80
87
Sr2+
244
Theory past paper questions
i Write the ionic half-equation for the – the names of the two starting organic
reaction occurring at the zinc rod. [2]]
[2 chemicals,
ii Write the ionic half-equation for the – the essential reaction conditions needed,
reaction occurring at the copper rod. [2[2]] – a chemical equation for the reaction. [5[5]]
iii The copper rod was replaced by an iron rod. [Total: 19]
Suggest the change, if any, in the (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 41 Q6 May/
intensity of the
bulb and give light emitted
a reason for yourfrom the
answer. June 2017
2017))
change: 13 a The electronic structures of five atoms, A, B,
reason: [2]]
[2 C, D and E, are shown.
[Total: 6]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q4c
May/June 2017
2017))
12 The alkenes and alkanes are both examples of
homologous series which are hydrocarbons. A B C D E
245
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
Answer these questions using the information Describe what happens to the volume of
from the table. substance X in the syringe when the pressure
is increased. The temperature remains
i Which positive ion is present in the highest
highest
constant. Explain your answer in terms of
concentration? [1]
2–. particles. [2]
ii State the name of the ion SO3 [1]
iii Calculate the mass of silicate ions present c Substance Z is diamond. Diamond is used in
3 jewellery.
in
mass250ofcm of this
silicate sample.
ions = mg [1] Give one other use of diamond. [1]]
[1
d Substance Y undergoes physical and chemical
iv Calculate the mass of solid formed
formed when all changes.
the water is evaporated from the 1000 cm 3 Which two of the following are physical
sample. changes? Explain your answer.
mass of solid forme
formedd= mg [1
[1]] A Substance Y dissolves easily in water.
wat er.
v Name the compound containing Ca ions 2+
B An aqueous solution of substance Y gives
–
and HCO3 ions
ions.. [1]]
[1 a white precipitate with acidified aqueous
b Describe a test for sodium ions. silver nitrate.
test C Substance Y melts at 801°C.
result [2] D Substance Y reacts with concentrated
c The formulae
formulae of some chlorides are given. sulfuric acid. [3]]
[3
aluminium chloride, AlCl3 [Total: 11]
calcium chloride, CaCl 2 (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q3 May/
sodium chloride, NaCl June 2017
2017))
Deduce the formula
formula for magnesium chloride. [1] 16 Chlorine is an element
e lement in Group VII of the
d Molten calcium chloride
chloride can be electrolysed Periodic Table.
using inert electrodes. a Chlorine is a diatomic
diatomic molecule.
Predict the products of this electrolysis at Explain what is meant by the term diatomic. [1]
the negative electrode (cathode) b Aqueous chlorine reacts with aqueous
the positive electrode (an
(anode)
ode) [2]]
[2 potassium bromide.
[Total: 10] Cl 2 + 2KBr → Br2 + 2KCl
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q2 May/ i How does this equation show that chlorine
June 2017
2017)) is more reac
reactive
tive than bromine? [1]]
[1
15 The diagram
diagram shows part of the structures
struc tures of three ii Aqueous potassium bromide
bromide and aqueous
substances, X, Y and Z, at room temperature and potassium chloride are both colourless.
pressure Predict the colour change when aqueous
O chlorine reacts with aqueous potassium
C
C
O
O
O
Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– bromide. [1]
O O
C
Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ iii Complete the chemical equation for the
C O
reaction of aqueous bromine with aqueous
C
O
Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–
O O
potassium iodide.
X Y Z
Br2 + 2KI → ....... + ........ [2]
a Describe substances X, Y and Z in terms of c Describe a test for iodide ions.
– their bonding, test
– the arrangement of their particle
particles,
s,
result [2]
– the motion of their particle
particles.
s. [5]]
[5
d Chlorine is used to make the polymer PVC.
PVC.
b A closed gas
gas syringe contains substance X.
i The monomer used to make PVC is
X made by the thermal decomposition of
dichloroethane.
end blocked CH2Cl–CH2Cl CH2=CHCl + HCl
→
gas syringe
246
Theory past paper questions
[5]
[5]
[Total: 12] S(g) + 2F2(g)
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q1 May/
May/ energy
June 2016)
18 Period 3 contains the elements
el ements sodium to argon.
This question asks about the chemistry of each
of the Period 3 elements or their compounds.
a Sodium nitrate is a white
white crystalline solid.
When heated
reaction it melts and the following
occurs. [3]]
[3
ii During the reaction the amount
amount of energy
2NaNO3(l) → 2NaNO2(l) + O2(g) given out is 780 kJ / mol.
247
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
The F–F bond energy is 160 kJ / mol. i The chemical process taking place on the
Use this information to determine the surface of the object is
bond energy, in kJ / mol, of one S–F bond Cu 2+(aq) + 2e – → Cu(s)
in SF4.
Explain whether this process is oxidation
F
or reduc
reduction.
tion. [1]]
[1
F F
S +
F F
F S F ii Explain why the concentration
concentration of copper
F ions in the electrolyte remains constant
throughout step 1. [2]
kJ / mol [3]]
[3
b Give two changes which would be needed in
g Chlorine and compounds of chlorine
chlorine are
order to coat nickel onto the object in step 2.
important in water treatment and in
[2]]
[2
laboratory testing for water.
c Copper
Copper,, nickel
nickel and silver are transition elements.
i Chlorine isis added to water to make the
Typical
Typical physical properties of transition elements
water safe to drink.
are a high density and a high melting point.
Explain why adding chlorine makes water
Give three different properties of transition
safe to drink
drink.. [1]]
[1
metalss which are not typical
metal ty pical of other metal
metals.
s.[3
[3]]
ii A compound
compound of chlorine
chlorine is used in the
[Total: 8]
laboratory to test for the presence of
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q4 May/
water.
June 2016)
Name the compound of chlorine used in
this test and describe the colour change 20 PPetroleum
etroleum is a source of many important chemicals.
chemical s.
seen in a positive result of this test. a Name two industrial processes which must take
place to produce alkenes from petrole
petroleum.
um. [2[2]]
name of compound
b Ethene, CH2=CH2, and propene, CH2=CHCH3,
colour change from can both be converted into polymers.
to [3] i What type of polymerisation takes place
h Argon is an unreactive noble gas. when ethen
ethenee forms a polymer? [1]]
[1
Explain why argon is unreactive. [1] ii What is the empirical formula
formula of the
[Total: 26] polymer forme
formedd from ethen
ethene?e? [1]]
[1
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 41 41 Q2a to iii Propene has the structural formula CH2=CHCH3.
hi May/June 2016) Draw two repeat units of the polymer
19 Electroplating steel objects with silver involves made from propene. [2]]
[2
a three-step process. c Ethene will react with steam to form ethanol.
step 1 A coating of copper is applied to the object. Propene will react with steam to form two
step 2 A coating of nickel is applied to the object. isomers, both of which are alcohols.
step 3 The coating of silver is applied to the Suggest the structures of these alcohols. [2[2]]
object. d Esters are organic
organic chemicals noted for their
a A diagram
diagram of the apparatus used for step 1 is characteristic smells. Ethanoic acid and
shown. methanol will react to form an ester.
+ – i Name the catalyst needed to form an ester
from ethanoic acid and methanol. [1]
ii Name the ester formed when ethanoic
acid reacts with methanol. [1]
copper (anode) iii Draw the structure of the ester formed
when ethanoic acid reacts with methanol.
steel object (cathode)
Show all bonds. [2]]
[2
248
Theory past paper questions
21 The structures
str uctures of some substances containing
conta ining a Which material
material is the most suitable for making
chlorine are shown. the bicycle frame?
A B C Explain your answer using information from
Cl the table
table.. [3]]
[3
Cl Cl Cl– K+ Cl– K+
C b Aluminium is extracted from aluminium
aluminium oxide
K+ Cl– K+ Cl–
Cl
Cl
Cl by electrolysis.
Cl– K+ Cl– K+ i State the name of the main ore of aluminium.[1]
D E ii Suggest why aluminium is extrac
extracted
ted by
Cl H F
electrolysis and not by reduction with
Cl Cl Cl
Cl C C C F
carbon. [1]
Al Al
iii Molten aluminium
aluminium oxide is electrolysed
H H F Cl Cl Cl
using graphite electrodes.
a Answer the following
following questions about these Predict the products of this electrolysis at
substances. the positive electrode (anode
anode),),
i Which subst
substance
ance is a diatomic molecu
molecule?
le? [1
[1]
ii Which substance represents part of an ionic ionic the negative electrode (cathode).
(cathode).
structure? [1] [2]
[2]
iii Which substance is an element? [Total: 7]
Explain
Exp lain your answer. [2]]
[2 (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 31 Q2a and b
iv Determine the simplest
simplest formula for May/June 2016)
substance D. [1] 23 The table shows some properties of the Group I
b The symbols for two isotopes of chlorine
chlorine are metals.
shown.
35 37 melting boiling
17Cl 17Cl
metal densit y in g /cm3 point / °C point / °C
i How do these two isotopes differ in their lithium 0 .5 3 181 13 42
atomic str
structur
ucture?
e? [1]]
[1
sodium 98 8 83
ii Determine the number of neutrons present
35
in one atom of the isotope 17Cl [1] potassium 0 .8 6 63 760
249
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
hydrogen C C H H H H H H
C
nitrogen 1 14 1 × 14 = 14 H H
H H
ox ygen 1 16 1 × 16 = 16
sodium S T U
H H H H H H H H H
relative molecular mass [2]]
[2
H C C C O H H C C H H C C C O O H
d Three dye mixtures, J, K and L, were spotted
H H H H H H H H H
onto a piece of chromatography paper.
paper. Three
pure dyes, X, Y and Z, were also spotted onto a i Which two of these compounds are alcohols?
the same piece of paper. Explain
Ex plain your answer. [2]]
[2
The diagram shows the results of this ii Which two of these compounds are
chromatography. saturated
satur ated hydrocar
hydrocarbons?
bons? [1]]
[1
b Methanol and ethanol are alcohols in the same
homologous series.
Complete the following sentence about a
homologous series using words from the list.
alcohols chemical compounds elements
functional mixtures physical
A homologous series is is a family of similar
with similar
properties due to the same
group. [3]
J K L X Y Z
c Ethene is an alkene.
i Draw the structure of ethene showing all
i Suggest why the base
base line
line was drawn
drawn in
in
atoms and all bonds. [1]]
[1
pencil and not in ink. [1]]
[1
ii Describe how aqueous bromine
bromine is used
ii Which dye mixture, J, K or L, contains
to show that ethene is an unsaturated
a dye which did not move during this compound. [2]
chromatography? [1]
iii Ethene is manufactured by cracking. State
iii Which dye mixture, J, K or L, contains both
the conditions needed for cracking. [1]
dye X and dye Y? [1]
iv Complete the chemical equation for the
iv Which dye mixture, J, K or L, does not
cracking of hexadecane, C16H34, to form
contain dye Z? [1]
propene and one other hydrocar
hydrocarbon.
bon. [1]]
[1
[Total: 12]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q3 May/ C16H34 → C3H6 + ............
June 2016) [Total: 11]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q4 May/
June 2016)
250
Theory past paper questions
N2 + 3H2 A B C
energy
2NH3 N
N
Cu Cu Cu Cu
N N N
Cu Cu Cu Cu
Cu Cu Cu Cu
N
N N
N
Cu Cu Cu Cu
N
d The graph shows how
how the percentage yield of
ammonia changes with temperature when the D E
251
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
Complete the chemical equation for this Describe how the volume of iodine gas
reaction. [2] changes wit
with
h pressure
pressure.. [1]]
[1
....C + ..... → 2CO c i Complete the word equation to show the
c In the hotter parts of the furnace, carbon halogen and halide compound which react
reacts with the iron(III) oxide present in the to form the products iodine and potassium
iron ore. bromide. [2]
3C + Fe2O3 → 3CO + 2Fe
How does this equation show that carbon is ........
...........
.......
.......
.......
.......
... + .......
..........
.......
.......
.......
.......
..... iodine + potassium
bromide
.........................
oxidised? [1]
d Limestone is
is added to the blast furnace. The ii Explain, in terms of the reactivity
reactivit y of the
limestone is converted into calcium oxide and halogens, why aqueous iodine does not
carbon dioxide. The reaction is endothermic. react with aqueous potassium chloride. [1]
heat
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 d Iodine reacts with aqueous sodium thiosulfate,
i What type of chemical reaction is this? [1] Na2S2O3.
ii What type of oxide is calcium oxide?
oxide? i Balance the chemical equation for this
Give a reason for your answer. [2]]
[2 reaction. [2]
e Iron is a metal. .....Na2S2O3 + I2 → Na2S4O6 + .....NaI
Give three physical properties that are
characteristic
character istic of metals. [3]]
[3 ii The energy level diagram
diagram for
for this reaction
f The structure of a compound
compound of iron is shown.
shown.
is shown.
O
OC C CO
OC Fe Fe CO
reactants
C
O
OC CO energy
C
O products
28 This question
quest ion is about iodine and compounds of test
iodine. observations [2]
a Use the kinetic part
particle
icle model to describe the f Molten sodium iodide is electrolysed.
separation between the molecules and the Predict the product at the positive electrode.
type of motion of the molecules in: [1]
• solid iodine [Total: 14]
• iodine gas. [4]]
[4 (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 31 Q4 May/
b The graph shows
shows how the volume of iodine
iodine June 2019
2019))
gas changes with pressure. The temperature is 29 This question
quest ion is about
a bout copper and copper
kept constant. compounds.
a Describe how you could prepare
prepare a pure sample
sample
of crystals of hydrated copper(II) sulfate
volume of
using dilute sulfuric acid and an excess of
iodine gas copper(II)
copper(I I) oxide. [3]]
[3
b Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
sulfate is used to test
for water.
0
0 pressure
252
Theory past paper questions
253
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
i Why does the student add an excess of e A student added aqueous bromine
bromine to alkene C.
magnesium
magnesi um carbon
carbonate?
ate? [1]]
[1 C
ii Why does the student rinse the residue? [1
[1] H CH2CH3
e Silver
made by chloride, AgCl, is insoluble.
a precipitation insolub le. between
reaction It can be Describe the colour
the structure of the change
product.seen and
Show alldraw
of the
aqueous barium chloride and a suitable atoms and all of the bonds.
aqueous silver salt. colour change from to
i What is meant by the term precipita
precipitatete?? [2]
ii Name a suitable silver salt to use to structure [2]
prepare silver chloride. f Two different alcohols
alcohols can be produced from
Complete the chemical equation to show alkene B by an addition reaction.
the formation of insoluble silver chloride
B
from aqueous barium chloride and the H CH3
silver salt you have named.
C C
BaCl2 + ................
................ → ................ + ................
................ [3]
[Total: 22] i Draw the structures of the two alcohols.
Show all of the atoms and all of the
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q4 May/ bonds. [2]
June 2019) ii State the reagent and conditions needed
31 The structures
struc tures of five alkenes, A, B, C, D and E, to produce an alcohol from alkene B.
are shown. reagent
A B C conditions [3]
H H H CH3 H CH2CH3
g Alkene C can be converted into a polymer.
C C C C C C
H H H H H H C
H CH2CH3
D E
H CH2CH2CH3 H CH2CH2CH2CH3 C C
C C C C H H
H H H H
i What type of polymerisation occurs? [1]
a What is the genera
generall formul
formulaa of alkene
alkenes?
s? [1]]
[1 ii Suggest the name of the polymer formed.
b What is the molecular formula of alkene D? [1] [1]
c Predict which alkene, A, B, C, D or E, has the iii Complete the chemical equation to show
highest boiling point. this polymerisation. [3]]
[3
Explain your answer.
H CH2CH3
alkene
n C C
explanation [2]
d Which alkene, A, B, C, D or E, diffuses most H H
quickly?
Explain your answer. iv State the empirical formula of the polymer
polymer
alkene formed. [1]
explanation [2] [Total: 19]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 41 Q5 May/
June 2019)
254
Alternative to Practical past paper
questions
1 A student investigated
investigated the reaction of aqueous volume of acid thermometer
sodium hydroxide with two different acids, C added/cm3 diagrams temperature/°C
acid C and acid D. 35
Two experiments were carried out.
Experiment 1 25 30
mark. 25
5 cm3 of acid C was added to the sodium
hydroxide in the flask. The temperature of the Experiment 2
mixture was measured. The burette was emptied and rinsed with water.
Further 5 cm3 portions of acid C were added Experiment 1 was repeated using acid D.
to the mixture in the flask, stirring with the b Use the thermometer diagrams
diagrams to record the
3
thermometer
of acid C had until
been aadded.
total volume of 30 cm
The temperatures temperatures in the table of results.
Table of results [2]]
[2
after each 5 cm3 portion had been added were
measured. volume of acid thermometer
a Use the thermometer diagrams
diagrams to record the D added/cm3 diagrams temperature/°C
30
temperatures in the table of results.
Table of results [2]]
[2 0 25
20
30
30
40
10 35
15 25
20
30
30
40
15 35
20 25
20
30
30
35
20 30 25 25
20
25
255
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
256
Alternative to Practical past paper
p aper questions
positive + – negative
ethene electrode electrode
mineral wool
concentrated
aqueous sodium chloride
and Universal Indicator
water
257
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
7 Two solids, S and V, were analysed. S was f i Compare the reactiv ity of solid S and
reactivity
copper(II) oxide. solid V wit
withh hydrogen perox
peroxide.
ide. [1]]
[1
The tests on the solids, and some of the ii Identify the gas
gas given off in test (e
(e)). [1]
observations, are in the following table. g What conclusions can you draw about
about
Complete the observations in the table. Do not solid V? [2]
write any conclusions in the table. [Total: 11]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 06
te s t obser v ation Q5 June 2009)
tests on solid S
a Appearance of solid S black solid
8 Acid–base indicators
b Hydrogen peroxide was slow effer vescence Indicators are used to identify acids and bases.
added to solid S in a test- Indicators can be obtained from berries and
tube.
other fruits.
A glowing splint was splint relit a Plan an exper
experiment
iment to obtain an
an aqueous
inserted into the tube. solution of an indicator
indicator from some berries. [3[3]]
c Dilute sulfuric acid was blue solution formed b Plan an exper
experiment
iment to use the indicator
indicator
added to solid S in a test- solution to show that it is an effective
tube. The mixture was
heated to boiling point.
indicator. [3]
[Total: 6]
The solution was divided
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 06
into three equal portions Q6 June 2009)
into test-tubes.
(i) To the first portion of .................. [1]
the solution, excess 9 Three unlabelled bottles of chemicals each
sodium hydroxide was contained one of the following
follow ing liquids:
added. • sodium nitrate dissolved
dissolved in water;
(ii) T
To
o the second portion of .................. [2] • pure water;
the solution, about 1 cm • hexene.
of aqueous ammonia a Give a test by which
which you could identify
.........................
solution was added.
.................. [2] sodium nitrate solution.
Excess ammonia test
solution was then result [2]
added.
b Give a test by which
which you could identif
identifyy
(iii) To the third portion .................. [2] pure water.
of the solution, dilute test
hydrochloric acid
was added followed result [2]
by barium chloride c Give a test by which
which you could identify
solution. hexene.
tests on solid V test
result [2]
d Appearance of solid V black solid
[Total: 6]
e Hydrogen peroxide
peroxide was rapid effervescence
added to solid V in a test- (Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 06 Q3
tube. November 2009)
A glowing splint was splint relit
inserted into the tube.
258
Alternative to Practical past paper
p aper questions
25
26
27
30
17
added
and thetoobservation
a little of the solution in the flask
noted.
observation red-brown precipitate a Complete the empty boxes
boxes to name the
Table of results
result s piecess of apparat
piece apparatus.
us. [3]]
[3
Burette readings/
readings/cmcm3 [4]
[4] The apparatus below was used to carr
carryy
out the chromatography
chromatography..
experiment 1 experiment 2
final reading
glass cover
initial reading
difference
e i In which exper
experiment
iment was the greatest beaker
volume of potassium manganate(VII) chromatography
solution
solut ion used? [1]]
[1 paper
solvent
260
Alternative to Practical past paper
p aper questions
aqueous
were addbarium
ed. chloride ..................... [2]
d Liquid R was heated to temperature
temperatur e = 100 °C
boiling in a test-tube. A
thermometer was used
to record the constant
temperature of the
vapour produced.
e What conclusions can you draw about
about
liquid Q? [2]
f Identify liquid R. [1]
[Total: 9]
(Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Chemistr y 0620 Paper 61
Q5 October/November 2011)
261
Glossary
Acid A substance which dissolves in water, producing Amino acids These naturally occurring organic compounds
H+(aq) ions as the only positive ions. An acid is a hydrogen possess both an –NH2 group and a –COOH group on adjacent
ion (H+) donor. carbon atoms. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids,
of which glycine is the simplest.
Activation energy The activation energy, E , is the
a
minimum energy that colliding particles must
minimum have in order Amphoteric oxide An oxide which can behave as an acid
to react. (it reacts with an alkali) or a base (it reacts with an acid),
for example, zinc oxide, ZnO, and aluminium oxide, Al 2O3.
Addition polymer A polymer formed by an addition
reaction. For example, poly(ethene) is formed from ethene. Anaerobic decay Decay that takes place in the absence of
oxygen.
Addition reaction A reaction in which an atom or group of
atoms is added across a carbon–carbon double bond. Anaerobic respiration Respiration that takes place in the
absence of air.
Alcohols Organic compounds containing the –OH group.
They have the general formula C nH2n+1OH. Ethanol is by far Anhydrous salts Salts which have had their water of
the most important of the alcohols and is often just called crystallisation removed by heating them.
‘alcohol’. Anions Negative ions; these are attracted to the anode.
Alkali A soluble base which produces OH−(aq) ions in Anode The positive electrode. It is positively charged
water. because electrons are drawn away from it.
Alkali metals The six metallic elements in Group I of the Artificial fertiliser A substance added to soil to increase
Periodic Table. the amount of elements such as nitrogen, potassium and
Alkaline earth metals The six metallic elements in phosphorus. This enables crops grown in the soil to grow
Group II of the Periodic Table. more healthily and to produce higher yields.
Alkanes A family of saturated hydrocarbons with the Atmosphere (air
(air)) The mixture of gases that surrounds
general formula CnH2n+2. The term ‘saturated’, in this the Earth.
context, is used to describe molecules that have only single
Atmospheric pressure The pressure exerted by the
bonds. The alkanes can only undergo substitution reactions
atmosphere on a surface due to the weight of the air
in which there is replacement of one atom in the molecule
above it.
by another atom.
Atom The smallest part of an element that can exist as a
Alkenes A family of unsaturated hydrocarbons with the
stable entity. It has a central nucleus containing neutrons
general formula CnH2n. The term ‘unsaturated’, in this
and protons surrounded by electrons in shells. 1 mole of
context, is used to describe
more carbon–carbon molecules
double bonds. which contain
Unsaturated one or
compounds atoms has a mass equal to the relative atomic mass ( Ar) in
grams.
undergo addition reactions across the carbon–carbon
double bonds and so produce saturated compounds. The Atomic mass unit Exactly of the mass of one atom of
12
addition of hydrogen across the carbon–carbon double the most abundant isotope of carbon, carbon-12.
bonds is used to reduce the amount of unsaturation during
the production of margarines. Avogadro’s Law Equal volumes of all gases measured under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain
Alloy Generally, a mixture of two or more metals (for equal numbers of molecules.
example, brass is an alloy of zinc and copper) or of a metal
and a non-metal (for example, steel is an alloy of iron Base A substance which neutralises an acid, producing a
and carbon, sometimes with other metals included). They salt and water as the only products. A base is a hydrogen
are formed by mixing the molten substances thoroughly. ion (H+) acceptor.
Generally, it is found that alloying produces a metallic Batch process A batch process is one in which each batch
substance which has more useful properties than the goes through one stage of the production
product ion process before
original pure metals it was made from. moving on to the next stage.
262
Glossary
Binary compound A substance that contains two elements Cathode The negative electrode. It is negatively charged
chemically combined. because an excess of electrons move towards it.
Biodegradable This relates to substances which can be Cations Positive ions; these are attracted to the cathode.
broken down in the environment by, for example, bacteria.
CFC Abbreviation for chlorofluorocarbon, a type of organic
Blast furnace A furnace for smelting iron ores, such as compound in which some or all of the hydrogen atoms of
hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4), to produce pig an alkane have been replaced by fluorine and chlorine
(or cast) iron. atoms. These substances are generally unreactive but they
can diffuse into the stratosphere where they break down
Boiling point The temperature at which the pressure of the
under the influence of ultraviolet light. The products of this
gas created above a liquid equals atmospheric pressure.
photochemical process then react with ozone (in the ozone
Bond energy An amount of energy associated with a layer). Because of this, their use has been discouraged. They
particular bond in a molecular element or compound. are now being replaced by hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
(HCFCs).
Calculating moles of compounds Chemical change A permanent change in which a new
mass of compound substance is formed.
number of moles =
solut
solution
ion (in
(in mol/dm3 )
mol/dm volume (in dm3)
Condensation polymer A polymer formed by a condensation
reaction (one in which water is produced during
Carboxylic acids A family of organic compounds containing
polymerisation). For example, nylon is produced by the
the functional group –COOH. They have the general formula
condensation reaction between 1,6-diaminohexane and
CnH2n+1COOH. The most important and well known of these
hexanedioic acid.
acids is ethanoic acid, which is the main constituent in
vinegar. Ethanoic acid is produced by the oxidation of Corrosion The process that takes place when metals and
ethanol. alloys are chemically attacked by oxygen, water or any
other substances found in their immediate environment.
Catalyst A substance which alters the rate of a chemical
reaction and is unchanged at the end of the reaction. It Covalent bond A chemical bond formed by the sharing of
increases the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an one or more pairs of electrons between two atoms.
alternative reaction path which has a lower activation
Crystal A solid whose particles are arranged
arr anged in a definite
energy, Ea.
way giving a specific shape.
Catalytic converter A device for converting dangerous Crystallisation The process of forming crystals from
f rom a
exhaust gases from cars into less harmful emissions. For
liquid.
example, carbon monoxide gas is converted to carbon
dioxide gas. Decanting The process of removing a liquid from a solid
which has settled or from an immiscible heavier liquid by
Catalytic cracking The decomposition of higher alkanes pouring.
into alkenes and alkanes of lower relative molecular mass.
The process involves passing the larger alkane molecules Delocalised Refers to spreading out of electrons within the
over a catalyst of aluminium and chromium oxides, heated metal structure. The electrons are not attached to any one
to 550°C. particular ion.
263
Glossary
Diatomic molecule A molecule containing two atoms, for Enthalpy Energy stored in chemical bonds, given the
example, hydrogen, H2, and oxygen, O2. symbol H.
Diffusion The process by which different substances mix as Enthalpy change of reaction The transfer of thermal
a result of the random motions of their particles. energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy change, ∆ H,
of the reaction. ∆H
∆ H is negative for exothermic reactions and
Displacement reaction A reaction in which a more reactive
positive for endothermi
endothermicc react ions.
element displaces a less reactive element from solution.
Enthalpy of combustion The enthalpy change which takes
Distillate The condensed vapour produced from a mixture place when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in
of liquids on distillation.
oxygen.
Distillation The process of boiling a liquid and then
Enthalpy of neutralisation The enthalpy change which
condensing the vapour produced back into a liquid. It is
takes place when 1 mole of hydrogen ions is completely
used to purify liquids and to separate mixtures of liquids.
neutralised.
Electrical conductivity A substance shows electrical
Enzymes Protein molecules produced in living cells. They
conductivity if it allows the passage of an electric current
act as biological catalysts and are specific
specif ic to certain
through.
reactions. They operate only within narrow temperature
Electrode A point where the electric
electr ic current enters and and pH ranges.
leaves the electrolytic cell. An inert electrode
elec trode is usually
Esters A family of organic compounds formed by the
made of platinum or carbon and does not react with the
reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid in the
electrolyte or the substances produced at the electrodes
elec trodes
presence of concentrated H2SO4.
themselves.
Electrolysis The decomposition of an ionic compound, Eutrophication A process that occurs when fertiliser drains
into lakes and rivers, causing algae to multiply rapidly
when molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of an
and the water to turn green. It results in fish and other
electric current.
organisms suffocating and dying through lack of oxygen in
Electrolyte A substance which will carry electr ic current the water.
only when it is molten or dissolved.
Evaporation A process occurring at the surface of a liquid
Electron A sub-atomic particle that has a negative charge involving the change of state of a liquid into a gas at a
equal in magnitude to that of a proton. Electrons are found temperature below the boiling point. When a solution is
in electron shells which surround the nucleus of the atom. heated, the solvent evaporates and leaves the solute behind.
Electronic configuration (structure) A shorthand method Exothermic reaction An exothermic reaction transfers
of describing the arrangement of electrons within the thermal energy to its surroundings, leading to an increase
electron shells of an atom. in the temperature of the surroundings.
Electron shells (energy levels) Electrons group together Fermentation A series of biochemical reactions brought
in electron shells which surround the nucleus of the atom. about by the enzymes in yeast or, more generally, by micro-
The electron shells can hold differ ing numbers of organisms.
electrons.
Filtrate The liquid or solution which passes through a filter
Electroplating The process of depositing metals from during filtration.
solution in the form of a layer on other surfaces such
Filtration The process of separating a solid from a liquid
as metal.
using a fine filter paper which does not allow the solid to
Electrostatic force of attraction A strong force of pass through.
attraction between
bet ween opposite charges.
Flue gas desulfurisation (FGD) The process by which
Element A substance which cannot be further divided into sulfur dioxide gas is removed from the waste gases of power
simpler substances by chemical methods. stations by passing them through calcium hydroxide slurry.
Empirical formula A formula showing the simplest whole Fossil fuels Fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas, formed
number ratio of atoms or ions present in a compound. from the remains of plants and animals.
Endothermic reaction An endothermic reaction absorbs Fractional distillation A distillation technique used to
thermal energy from the surroundings, leading to a separate a mixture of liquids that have different boiling
decrease in the temperature of the surroundings. points.
264
Glossary
Fuel cells In a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, hydrogen and Intramolecular bonds Forces which act within a molecule,
oxygen are used to produce a voltage, and water is the only for example, covalent bonds.
product.
Ion An atom or group of atoms which has either lost one or
Functional group The atom or group of atoms responsible more electrons, making it positively charged, or gained one
for the characteristic reactions of a compound. For or more electrons, making it negatively charged.
example, the alcohol functional group is –OH.
Ionic bond A strong electrostatic force of attraction
attr action
Giant covalent structure A substance containing thousands between oppositely charged ions.
of atoms per molecule.
Ionic equation The simplified equation of a reaction
Giant ionic lattice A lattice
lat tice of positive and negative ions which we can write if the chemicals involved are ionic
held together by the electrostatic forces of attraction substances.
between ions.
Ionisation The process whereby an atom gains or loses an
Group A vertical column of the Periodic Table containing electron(s) to become an ion.
elements with the same number of electrons in their outer
electron shell. Elements in a particular group show trends Isomers Compounds which have the same molecular
in their properties, both chemical and physical. formula but different structural arrangements of the
atoms.
Haber process The chemical process by which ammonia, NH3,
is made in very large quantities
quantit ies from nitrogen and hydrogen. Isotopes These are different atoms of the same element
that have the same number of protons but different
Hall–Héroult cell The electrolysis cell in which aluminium numbers of neutrons. Isotopes of the same element have
is extracted from
f rom purified bauxite dissolved in molten
molten the same chemical properties because they have the same
cryolite at 900°C. This cell has both a graphite anode and number of electrons and therefore the same electronic
a graphite cathode. configuration.
Halogens The elements found in Group VII of the Periodic Kinetic particle theory A theory which accounts for the
Table. properties of matter in terms of its constituent particles.
Homologous series A series of compounds which possess Lattice A regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms/
the same functional group and have the same general ions in a crystalline solid.
formula. The members of the series differ from one member
to the next by a –CH2– unit and show a trend in physical Law of constant composition Compounds always have the
properties as well as having similar chemical
chemical properties. same elements joined together in the same proportion.
Hydrated salts Salts which contain water molecules in their Locating agent A substance used to locate, on a
crystal structures. chromatogram, the separated parts of a mixture in
chromatogram,
chromatography.
Hydrocarbon A compound which contains atoms of carbon
and hydrogen only. Mass number (nucleon number) Symbol A
A.. The total
number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus
Hydrogen bond A weak intermolecular force (bond) that of an atom.
occurs between water molecules because the bonds within
the molecules are polar. It is the strongest of these weak Matter Anything which occupies space and has a mass.
forces. Melting point The temperature at which a solid begins to
Immiscible When two liquids form two layers when mixed turn into a liquid. Pure substances have a sharp melting
together, they are said to be immiscible. point.
Indicator A substance used to show whether a substance is Metal extraction The method used to extract a metal
acidic or alkaline (basic), for example, thymolphthalein. from its ore; it depends on the position of the metal in the
reactivity series.
Inert electrode These are electrodes that do not react with
the electrolyte or the products of electrolysis. Examples of Metallic bond An electrostatic force of attraction between
inert electrodes are carbon and platinum. the ‘sea’ of electrons and the regular array of positive metal
ions within a solid metal.
said to be If
Insoluble a solute does not dissolve in a solvent, it is
insoluble. Metalloid (semi-metal) An element with properties
between those of metals and non-metals, for example
Intermolecular bonds These are attractive
attrac tive forces which boron and silicon.
form between neighbou
neighbouring
ring molecules.
265
Glossary
Metals A class of chemical elements which have a element (including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the
characteristic lustrous appearance and are good conductors halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur).
of heat and electricity.
Oxidation Gain of oxygen.
Miscible When two liquids form a homogeneous layer when
Oxidation The process of oxygen gain or loss of electrons.
mixed together, they are said to be miscible.
Also an increase in oxidation number.
Mixture Two or more substances mixed together that can be
Oxidising agent A substance that oxidises another
separated by physical means.
substance and is itself reduced.
Molar mass The mass of 1 mole of a compound. It has units
Oxidising agent A substance that oxidises another
of g/mol.
substance and is itself reduced during a redox reaction. It
Mole The amount of substance which contains 6.02 × 10 23 will cause an increase in oxidation number.
atoms, ions or molecules. This number is called Avogadro’s
Particulates Very small particles found in the atmosphere,
constant.
such as certain types of smoke emitted from diesel engines,
Molecular formula A formula showing the actual number as well as dust.
and type of different atoms of each element present in one
Percentage yield
molecule of a compound.
actual yield
Molecule A group of atoms covalently bonded together. percentagee yield
percentag = × 100
theoretical yield
Monatomic molecule A molecule which consists of only one
atom, for example neon or argon. Periodic Table A table of elements arranged in order of
increasing proton number to show the similarities of the
Monomer A simple molecule, such as ethene, which can be chemical elements with related electronic configuration.
polymerised.
Periods Horizontal rows of the Periodic Table.
Neutralisation The process in which the acidity or
Within a period, the atoms of all the elements have
alkalinity of a substance is destroyed. Destroying acidity
the same number of occupied electron shells but
means removing H+(aq) by reaction with a base, carbonate
have an increasing number of electrons in the outer
or metal. Destroying alkalinity means removing the OH −(aq)
electron shell.
by reaction with an acid: H +(aq) + OH− (aq) → H2O(l).
Petroleum Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. It is often
Neutron An uncharged sub-atomic particle present in the
referred to as crude oil.
nuclei of atoms.
pH scale A scale running from 0 to 14, used for expressing
Noble gases The unreactive gases found in Group 0 of the
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Periodic Table.
Photosynthesis The chemical process by which green
Non-metals A class of chemical elements that are typically
plants synthesise their carbon compounds from atmospheric
poor conductors of heat and electricity.
electric ity.
carbon dioxide using light as the energy source and
Non-renewable energy sources Sources of energy, such as chlorophyll as the catalyst.
fossil fuels, which take millions of years to form and which
Pollution The modification of the environment caused by
we are using up at a rapid rate.
human influence. It often renders the environment harmful
Nucleus Found at the centre of the atom, it consists of and unpleasant to life. Atmospheric pollution is caused by
protons and neutrons. gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxides being released into the atmosphere by a variety of
Oil refining The general process of converting the mixture
industries and also by the burning of fossil fuels. Water
that is collected as petroleum
pe troleum into separate fractions. The
pollution is caused by many substances, such as those found
fractions are separated from the petroleum mixture by
in fertilisers and in industrial effluent.
fractional distillation.
Polymer A substance possessing
possessing very large
l arge molecules
Ore A naturally occurring mineral from which a metal can
consisting of repeated units or monomers. Polymers
be extracted.
therefore have a very large
l arge relative molecular mass.
Organic chemistry The branch of chemistry concerned with
compounds of carbon found in living organisms. Polymerisation The chemical reaction in which molecules
(monomers) join together to form a polymer.
Organic compounds Substances whose molecules contain
Polyamide A condensation polymer, such as nylon, that
one or more carbon atoms covalently bonded with another
contains the amide link, –NHOC–.
266
Glossary
Proteins Natural polyamides formed from amino acids by Renewable energy Sources of energy which cannot be
condensation
condensation reactions. used up or which can be made at a rate faster than the
rate of use.
Proton A sub-atomic particle that has a positive charge
equal in magnitude to that of an electron. Protons occur in Residue The substance that remains after evaporation,
all nuclei. distillation or filtration have taken place.
Proton number (atomic number) The number of protons Reversible reaction A chemical reaction which can go both
in the nucleus of an atom. Symbol Z. The proton or atomic forwards and backwards. This means that once some of the
number is also equal to the number of electrons present in products have been formed, they will undergo a chemical
an atom. change once more to re-form the reactants. The reaction
from left to right in the equation is known as the forward
Pure substances These are substances that are made of
reaction and the reaction from right to left is known as the
only one type of atom, compound or one type of molecule
reverse reaction.
(a group of atoms bonded together).
Rf value The ratio of the distance travelled by the solute to
Purity The measure of whether a substance is pure.
the distance travelled by the solvent in chromatography.
Radioactive A property of unstable isotopes.
isotopes. They
disintegrate spontaneously to give off energy and one or distance travelled by solute
R =
f
more types of radiation. distance travelled by solvent
Radioisotope An isotope that gives off energy called Rust A loose, orange-brown, flaky layer of hydrated
radiation. iron(III) oxide found on the surface of iron or steel.
Reaction rate A measure of the change which happens The conditions necessary for rusting to take place are
during a reaction in a single unit of time. It may be the presence of oxygen and water. The rusting process
affected by the following factors: surface area of the is encouraged by other substances such as salt. It is an
reactants, concentration of the reactants, the pressure of oxidation process.
gases, the temperature at which the reaction is carried out Rust prevention To prevent iron rusting, it is necessary
and the use of a catalyst. to stop oxygen and water coming into contact with it.
Reactivity series of metals An order of reactivity,
reactiv ity, giving the The methods employed include painting, oiling/greasing,
most reactive metal first, based on results from experiments coating with plastic, plating, galvanising
galvanising and sacrificial
with oxygen, water and dilute hydrochloric acid. protection.
Redox reaction A reaction which involves simultaneous Saturated hydrocarbon A type of hydrocarbon molecule in
reduction and oxidation. which the molecule has the maximum possible number of
hydrogen atoms and so has no double bonds.
Reducing agent A substance which reduces another
substance and is itself oxidised. Saturated solution A solution containing the maximum
concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a given
Reducing agent A substance which reduces another temperature.
substance and is itself oxidised during a redox reaction.
Also it will cause a decrease in oxidation number. Simple molecular substance A substance that possesses
between one and a few hundred atoms per molecule.
Reduction The loss of oxygen.
Smog Caused by atmospheric pollutants that can react in
Reduction The process of oxygen loss, electron gain. Also a sunlight with other substances to produce a hazy, harmful
decrease in oxidation number. atmosphere.
Relative atomic mass Symbol Ar. Solids, liquids and gases The three states of matter to
average mass of isotope of the element which all substances belong.
A =
r
1 × mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 Soluble If a solute dissolves in a solvent, it is said to be
12 soluble.
Relative formula mass (RFM) The sum of the relative Solute The substance that is dissolved in a solvent.
atomic masses of all those elements shown in the formula
of the substance. This is often referred to as the relative Solution A liquid mixture composed of two or more
substances.
molecular mass (Mr).
267
Glossary
Solubility The solubility of a solute in a solvent at a given known volume of another reagent (for example, an alkali)
temperature is the number of grams of the solute which can slowly from a burette until an end-point is reached. If an
dissolve in 100 g of solvent to produce a saturated solution acid and alkali are used, then an indicator is used to show
at that temperature. that the end-point has been reached.
Solvent A substance that dissolves a solute to form Toxic Harmful to health, even deadly.
a solution.
Transition elements The elements found in the centre of
dissolves
solute + solvent
→ solution
the Periodic Table, between Groups II and III.
Strong acid An acid which produces a high concentration Trend A term used by chemists to describe how a particular
of H+(aq) ions in water solution, for example hydrochloric property changes across a period or down a group of the
acid. Periodic Table.
Substitution reaction A reaction in which an atom or group Unsaturated hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon molecule that
of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. possess at least one carbon–carbon double or triple
tr iple
covalent bond.
Supercooled liquid One which has cooled below its freezing
point without solidification. Water of crystallisation Water incorporated into the
Thermal cracking The decomposition of higher alkanes structure of substances as they crystallise, for example, in
to alkenes of lower relative molecular mass at high copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O).
temperatures, 800–850°C. Weak acid An acid which produces a low concentration of
Titrant A solution of known concentration that is H+(aq) in water solution, for example, ethanoic acid. It is
only partially ionised.
added (titrated) to another solution to determine the
concentration of a second chemical substance. X-ray diffraction A technique used to study crystal
Titration A method of volumetric analysis in which a structures.
volume of one reagent (for example, an acid) is added to a
268
Index
Note: page numbers in italics extraction of 71 71–
–3 B
indicate references to suggestions physical properties 4 , 11
recycling 16161 1 baking 211
for practical work. uses of 7474,, 153 balanced chemical equations 17
aluminium ions, identification of 157 157,, balances 222
A
acid rain 119
11 181,, 182
9, 181
234,, 235
234 barium 140
flame colour 234
aluminium oxide, electrolysis 72 72–
–4
acids 11116
6 Alzheimer’ss disease 74
Alzheimer’ barium chloride, reaction with sodium
definition 11118
8 amides 206 sulfate 124
neutralisation reactions 120 120,, 122
122––4 amines 206 bases
reaction with carbonates 122 amino acids 216
216– –17 definition 111188, 122
reaction with insoluble bases 123 123––4 ammonia 58 reaction with acids 120 120,, 122
122–
–4,
reaction with metals 121 121––2, 151, 152 detection of 124124,, 236 127– 8, 128
128– – 30
reaction with sodium thiosulfate diffusion 7 soluble and insoluble 122
104–
104 –5 Haber process 106 106,, 109
109––11 strength of 11 1188
reaction with soluble bases 122 122–
– 3, structure 40 40,, 41 batch processes 209 209– –10
127– 8, 128
128–– 30 tests for aqueous cations 235 bauxite 7070,, 72
72,, 74
74,, 158
reaction with calcium carbonate 102 ammonium chloride, reaction with beryllium 137137,, 140
strength of 11 1188, 11
119
9 calcium hydroxide 124 binary compounds 70 70–
–1
strong and weak 11 1188 –19 ammonium ions, identification of 234 234,, biodegradable plastics 201
activation energy (E (E ) 93
93,, 94
94,, 95
95,, 101 biodiesel 184
and catalysts 107 a 235
ammonium nitrate 175 biological washing powders 107 107––8
addition polymers 198 198– –200 amphoteric substances 11118
8 biotechnology 209 209,, 209
209––11
addition reactions 196 196– –7 anaerobic respiration 209 blast furnaces 15 15,, 159
159–– 60
aerobic respiration 211 anhydrous substances 126 boiling points 4, 11 11,, 233
alanine 216 anions 23 alcohols 207
alcohols 206206––8 anode 6969–
–70 alkanes 190
ethanol 208
208– –10 anodising 75 alkenes 194
hydrogen bonding 207 apparatus 221 covalent compounds 43
names of 207 balances 222 ionic compounds 34
see also ethanol measuring volume of gases metals 50
alkali metals (Group I) 137 137–– 41 223–
223 –4 water 171
171,, 172
alkaline earth metals (Group II) 140 measuring volume of liquids bond energy 92 92– – 3, 95
alkalis 11
1177 222–
222 –3 bonding
definition 122 stopwatches 221 covalent 38 38– –9
reaction with acids 122 122–– 3, 127– 8, thermometers 222 hydrogen bonds 173
alkanes128
128––30–9
188–
188 aqueous solutions
electrolysis 75 75–
–6
ionic 30–
30
metallic –50
2
chemical behaviour 191191–
–2 see also solutions Boyle, Robert 10
names of 190 argon 145
145,, 178
178,, 184 Bragg, Sir William and Sir Laurence
L aurence 33
physical properties 189
189–
–90 electronic configuration 26 brass 165
165,, 166
structural isomerism 190190–
–1 ascorbic acid (vitamin C) 206206,, 212 bromides, testing for 125
125,, 236
uses of 194 aspirin 212 bromine 137, 14 1411
see also methane Aston, Francis 25 diffusion 7
alkenes 194
194––5 atheroma 209 electronic configuratio
configuration
n 142
chemical behaviour 196196–
–7 atmosphere 177 reaction with ethene 197197,, 198
names of 194 composition of 177 177–
–8 uses of 143
physical properties 194 atmospheric pollution 179 179–– 82 Brønsted–Lowry theory 11 1188
production of 195
195––6 atomic mass units (amu) 21 bronze 165
165,, 166
structural isomerism 195 atoms 1010,, 12 buckminsterfullerene 48 48––9
allotropy 44 electronic configuration 26 26––7 burettes 222
222,, 223
forms of carbon 4545–
–9 structure 20 20– –2 butane 189
189,, 191
alloys 146
146,, 165
165– –6 Avogadro’s constant 55 butanoic acid 21211
1
aluminium 57 57,, 69
69,, 70
70,, 72
72––3, 158
158,, 164 Avogadro’s law 59 butanol 207
anodising 75 butene 194
194,, 195
269
Index
270
Index
271
Index
272
Index
273
Index
S solutes 225 U
solutions 225
sacrificial protection 163163–
–4 chemical calculations 64 universal indicator 11
117
7–18
salt, production from sea water 227 concentration 5959–
– 60 unsaturated compounds, testing for
salts 120
120––1 saturated 227 197, 198
insoluble, preparation of 124 solvent extraction 230 uranium-235 24
soluble, preparation of 121
121––4 solvents 225
testing for 124
124––5 Sørenson, Søren 11117
7
V
saturated solutions 227 van der Waals bonds (forces) 43
separating funnels 228 spectroscopy
spot tests 124124–18
–5 verdigris 164
separating mixtures 224 starch hydrolysis 231 vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 206
206,, 212
liquid/liquid mixtures 228
228––32 states of matter 1–2 volume measurement 222 222–
–3
solid/liquid mixtures 225
225––8 changes of state 4 –6, 5
solid/solid mixtures 229
229–– 30 steam re-forming 109 109––10 W
sewage 173 steel 146, 165 water 14, 40
40––1
silicon 137 stopwatches 221 desalination 228
silicones 192 strong acids 11 118
8 –19 electrolysis 172
silicon(IV) oxide 49 strontium 140 hydrogen bonding 173
silver 157 structural formulae 191 ice 5
physical properties 11 structural isomerism 190 190– –1 importance of 170
170––1
silver plating 8282––3 sub-atomic particles 21 molar mass 57
simple molecular structures 43 sulfates, testing for 124124––5, 236 physical properties 4
slag 160 sulfites, testing for 236 purity 171
slow reactions 100 100––1 sulfur 19 reaction with alkali metals 138
138,,
sodium 137–
137
electronic – 8,configuration
150,, 153
150 153,, 158,26,
1641 physical properties 4 , 11 139
size of atoms 12 reaction with alkaline earth metals
39–
39 – 40 sulfur dioxide 141
141
flame colour 234 atmospheric pollution 179, 181 181–
–2 reaction with metals 151 151––2, 152
reaction with chlorine 139 testing for 236 testing for 109, 172, 236
reaction with water 151 sulfuric acid unique properties 172 172––3
sodium carbonate, reaction with Contact process 106 106,, 11
111
1–12 water cycle 171
ethanoic acid 212, 214 reaction with copper(II) sulfate water of crystallisation 126
126––7
sodium chloride 123–
123 –4 water pollution 173
173––4, 183
aqueous solution, electrolysis 76 surface area, effect on reaction r ates water treatment 17 174
4–5
crystals 3 102–
102 – 4, 103 weak acids 11119
9
ionic bonding 30 30– –1 carboxylic acids 211211––12
physical properties 4 T
structure 33
temperature X
sodium hydrogencarbonat
hydrogencarbonate e 65 xenon 145, 178
and changes of state 4
sodium hydroxide 59 X-ray diffraction (crystallography) 3,
identifying metal ions 156
156–
–7, 234 effect
effect on
on Haber process
reaction 110
11
rates 105 0––611
105– 33
reaction with ethanoic acid 212
effects on volume of a gas 6
reaction with hydrochloric acid Y
measurement 222
123, 128
128––30
theoretical yield 65 yeast
sodium sulfate, reaction with barium
thermal conductivity 11 baking 211
chloride 124
thermometers 222 ethanol production 209
209––10
sodium thiosulfate, reaction with
hydrochloric acid 104
104–
–5 thymolphthalein 11 117
7
solder 166
time measurement 221 Z
titration 123, 127–8, 128
128––9, 223 zinc 146, 158
solids 1
titration calculations 129
129–
–30 physical properties 11
arrangement of particles 2– 3
transition elements 136, 145145– –7 reaction with copper(II) nitrate 154
kinetic particle theory 2
trends 137, 139 sacrificial protection 163
163––4
sols 20
triple covalent bonds 42 zinc ions, identification of 157, 234
234,,
solubility
troposphere 177 235
covalent compounds 44
ionic compounds 34
274
The Periodic Table of Elements
Group
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2
H He
Hydrogen Helium
1 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
7 9 12 11 12 14 14 16 16 19 20 18
11 13 15 17
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 - - -
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
actinoids
Rf
Rutherfordium
Db
Dubnium
Sg
Seaborgium
Bh
Bohrium
Hs
Hassium
Mt
Meitnerium
Ds
Darmstadtium
Rg
Roentgenium
Cn
Copernicium
Nh
Nihonium
Fl
Flerovium
Mc
Moscovium
Lv
Livermorium
Ts
Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
- 226 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Key
a a = proton (atomic) number
number
X X = atomi
atomicc symbol
symbol
Element name
b b = relative atomic mass
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
139 140 141 144 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
2
7
The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm 3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).
5