EE 16
Module 6 – Protective
Equipment
Protective Equipment
- It is Equipment applied to electric
power systems to detect abnormal and
intolerable conditions and to initiate
appropriate corrective actions.
- These devices include lightning
arresters, surge protectors, fuses, and
relays with associated circuit breakers,
reclosers, and so forth.
- are applied commensurately with the
degree of protection desired or felt
necessary for the particular system.
Protective devices must therefore be
installed on power systems:
- to ensure continuity of electrical
service
- to limit injury to people
- to limit damage to equipment when
problem situations develop.
All units of mechanical and electrical
parameters and their multiples and
submultiples that are involved in the
protection systems are in accordance
with:
- SI (International Units System);
- exceptions are made when hours (h)
may be used instead of seconds (s)
- temperature is °C (Celsius).
Protection devices
- In order to minimize the time of a fault
switchgears and equipment are
provided with ___________ to detect
them and to isolate the faulty part of
installation.
It is required to have an early detection
and localization of faults, and then,
prompt removal from service of faulty
equipment, for the purpose of:
 To safeguard the entire system to
ensure continuity of supply.
 To minimize damage and repair
costs.
 To ensure safety of personnel.
Two Technology – Fuse and Protection
relays
- Fuse
• were commonly used as a
protection against overcurrent and
overloads in the past and are still
very popular in some countries they
are still used in LV installations and
in MV cables and transformers with
rated power up to 630-1250 kVA.
- Protection relays
• being more reliable and accurate
and with the ability to detect other
type of faults than overloads and
overcurrent that can occur in
networks and equipment.
• The protective relay or simply relay
has this specific functionality, they
are set to operate, and initiate
tripping, when a fault condition is
detected.
Each power system protection scheme is
made up from the following components:
 Fault detecting or measuring relays
 Tripping and other auxiliary relays
 Circuit breakers
 Instrument transformers – current
(CT) and voltage (VT)
Protection
- the branch of electric power
engineering concerned with the
principles of design and operation of
equipment called ‘relays’ or ‘protective
relays’ that detects abnormal power
system conditions and initiates
corrective action as quickly as possible
in order to return the power system to
its normal state.
Quickness of response
- is an essential element of protective
relaying systems – response times of
the order of a few milliseconds are
often required.
Fundamentals of Power system
protection
- The nature of relaying
Characteristics of protective system
- Reliability
- Selectivity
- Stability
- Speed
- Sensitivity
Protective relaying
- is an important requirement in power
generation, transmission and
distribution, which identifies the exact
location of the fault and gives
command for isolating the faulty
portion very close to the fault by
sensing variations in electrical
quantities for ensuring safe operation.
Reliability
- The protective relay should operate
positively and isolate the faulty portion
of the power system as and when
required. A reliable relaying system
must be dependable and secure.
Selectivity
- Protection is arranged in zone, which
should cover the power system
completely, having no part
unprotected. When a fault occurs, the
protection is required to select and trip
the only the nearest circuit breaker.
Stability
- This term, applied to protaection on
distinct from power network, refers to
the ability of the system to remain inert
to all load conditions and fault external
to the relevant zone.
Speed
- The function of automatic protection is
to isolate fault from the power system
in a very much shorter time than could
be isolated manually, even with great
deal of supervision
Sensitivity
- Sensitivity is a term frequently used
when referring to the minimum
operating limit of a complete protective
system. A protective system is said to
be sensitive if the primary operating
current is low.
Protective devices are selected and
assigned to protect a specific part of the
power system
Primary zone of protections
- Responsibility of the protection device
Backup or overreached zone
- The overlapping of zones allows a
protective device to provide backup
protection to the adjacent zone
Backup protection
- is intended to operate only when the
primary protection fails to clear the
fault.
Backup (defined by IEEE)
- protection that operates independently
of specified components in the primary
protective system
Elements of a protection system
1. Battery and DC supply
- Since the primary function of a
protection system is to remove a fault,
the ability to trip a circuit breaker
through a relay must not be
compromised during a fault, when the
AC voltage available in the substation
may not be of sufficient magnitude.
2. Circuit breaker
- Circuit breakers of several designs can
be found in a power system, and it’s
name is according to the medium used
to interrupt the fault current In
addition, better insulating materials,
better arc quenching systems and
faster operating requirements resulted
in a variety of circuit breaker
characteristics: interrupting medium of
oil, gas, air or vacuum; insulating
medium of oil, air, gas or solid
dielectric; Operating mechanisms using
impulse coil, solenoid, spring–motor–
pneumatic or hydraulic.
3. Relay
- This convert the signal from a
monitoring devices and give
instructions to open a circuit under
faulty conditions or to give alarms
when the equipment being protected is
approaching towards possible failure.
4. Transducers
- Commonly known as the Instrument
Transformer, current and potential
transformer. The function of current
and potential transformers (collectively
known as transducers) is to transform
power system currents and voltages to
lower magnitudes, and to provide
galvanic isolation between the power
network and the relays and other
instruments connected to the
transducer secondary windings.
Factors which influence design of a
protective system
- Industry Standards
• The Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and
other organization provides industry
standards through ANSI or IEC These
organizations provides industry
standards through ANSI or IEC.
These include specific standards for
many applications.
 ANSI-C37.90-1989 Relays and
Relay System Associated with
Electric Power Apparatus
 IEEE STD 242-1975
Recommended Practice for
Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial
Power System
- Development of Protective Relays
• Electro-mechanical relay
• Solid-state relay
• Digital relay
- Electro Electro-mechanical relay:
st
mechanical relay (1 generation)
• The most commonly used
• Uses the induction disc principle
(watt-hour meter)
• Provides individual phase
protection
- Solid state relay (2nd generation)
• Characteristic curve is obtained
through use of RC timing
circuits
• No moving parts
• Used to retrofit electro-
mechanical mechanical relays
• Fast reset
• Less maintenance
- Digital Relay (3rd generation)
• Computer Computer-based-
with CPU
• Selectable characteristic curves
and protection functions
• Metering and control functions
• Event and/or disturbance
recording
• Remote communication
• Self-monitoring
Protection relay
- is a smart device that receives inputs,
compares them to set points, and
provides outputs. Inputs can be
current, voltage, resistance, or
temperature. Outputs can include
visual feedback in the form of indicator
lights and/or an alphanumeric display,
communications, control warnings,
alarms, and turning power off and on.
Input
- A relay needs information from the
system to make a decision. These
inputs can be collected in a variety of
ways. In some cases, the wires in the
field can be connected directly to the
relay.
Settings
- Many protection relays have adjustable
settings. The user programs settings
(pick-up levels) that allow the relay to
make a decision. The relay compares
the inputs to these settings and
responds accordingly.
-
Processes
- Once the inputs are connected and the
settings are programmed, the relay
compares these values and makes a
decision. Depending on the need,
different types of relays are available
for different functions.
Outputs
- The relay has several ways of
communicating that a decision has
been made. Typically, the relay will
operate a switch (relay contact) to
indicate that an input has surpassed a
setting, or the relay can provide
notification through visual feedback
such as a meter or LED. One advantage
of electronic or microprocessor relays is
an ability to communicate with a
network or a PLC.
Power system component needs
protection:
 Generator
 Transformer
 Bus
 Transmission line
 Circuit breaker
 Motor(Load)
Generator and motor protections
(rotating machinery protection)
- involves the consideration of more
possible failures or abnormal operating
conditions than any other system
element. Although the frequency of
failure, particularly for generators and
large motors, is relatively low, the
 consequences in cost and system
performance are often very serious.
• Abnormal conditions that must be
dealt:
 Winding faults: stator – phase
and ground fault
 Overload
 Over speed
 Abnormal voltages and
frequencies.
• For generators we must consider:
 Under excitation
 Motoring and start-up
• For motors we are concerned with:
 Stalling (locked rotor)
 Single phase
 Loss of excitation (synchronous
motors).
Transformer Faults (or short circuits)
- are the result of internal electrical
faults, the most common one being the
phase-to-ground fault. Somewhat less
common are the turn-to-turn faults.
Common Electrical protection
 Over current
 Current Differential
 Three-phase
 Volts-per-hertz protection
Non-Electrical Protection
 Pressure Devices (Buchholz relay)
 Temperature devices
Bus Protection (or bus differential)
- has been the most difficult protection
to implement because of the severity
of an incorrect operation on the
integrity of the system.
- signal such as the tripping signal.
Bus
- is one of the most critical system
elements. It is the connecting point of a
variety of elements and a number of
transmission lines, and any incorrect
operation would cause the loss of all of
these elements.
Power Transmission line protection
- are one of the most important systems
under electrical power system.
Transmission system
- is a system which between the
generation and the distribution center.
Several factors we need to consider while
protection of transmission lines:
 Wind and Ice
 Contamination
 Vandalism
 External forces
 Equipment Failures
 System Disturbances
 Overloading of system
 Lightning
Common transmission line protection:
 Differential Protection
 Phase Comparison
 Over Current Protection*
 Earth fault overcurrent protection
(Use for protect from large residual
current)
 Distance Protection*
 Thermal overload protection (Use
for underground power system)
Types of Relays
- Protective Relays – Protective relays
are function as to detect the fault and
also to initiate the appropriate control
- Regulating Relays – Regulating relay is
a device which manages the operation
of the load of tap changer on the
transformer.
- Reclosing and Synchronizing - Relays
this is a programmable relay whose the
function is to initiate a sequence of
actions leading to the automatic
reclosing of the circuit breaker.
- Monitoring Relays - Monitor power
supplies (voltage, current, power,
phase), temperatures, and other
analogue signals and detects
abnormalities in machines and
equipment by determining values
against alarm thresholds.
- Auxiliary Relays - these relays which
assist other relays by applying
supplementary actions.
Device number
- are used to identify the functions of
devices shown on a schematic diagram.
ANSI/IEEE C37.2-2008
- is one of a continuing series of revisions
of the standard, which originated in
1928.
1 - Master Element
2 - Time-delay Starting or Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay,
complete Sequence
4 - Master Protective
5 - Stopping Device, Emergency Stop
Switch
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 - Rate of Change Relay
7F - Rate Of Change Of Frequency Relay
(ROCOF)
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 - Multifunction Device
12 - Overspeed Device
13 - Synchronous-Speed Device
14 - Underspeed Device
15 - Speed or Frequency Matching Device
16 - Data Communications Device
17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch
18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19 - Starting-to-Running Transition
Contactor
20 - Electrically-Operated Valve ( Solenoid
Valve )
21 - Distance Relay
21G - Ground Distance
21P - Phase Distance
22 – Equalizer circuit breaker
23 – Temperature control device, Heater
24 – Volts per hertz relay
25 – Synchronizing or synchronism-check
device
26 – Apparatus thermal device,
Temperature Switch
27 – Undervoltage relay
27P - Phase Undervoltage
27S - DC undervoltage relay
27TN - Third Harmonic Neutral
Undervoltage
27TN/59N - 100% Stator Earth Fault
27X - Auxiliary Undervoltage
27 AUX - Undervoltage Auxiliary Input
27/27X - Bus/Line Undervoltage
27/50 - Inadvertent Energization
28 - Flame Detector
29 - Isolating Contactor
30 - Annunciator Relay
31 - Separate Excitation Device
32 - Directional Power Relay
32L - Low Forward Power
32H - High Directional Power
32N - Wattmetric Zero-Sequence
Directional
32P - Directional Power
32R - Reverse Power
33 - Position Switch
34 - Master Sequence Device
35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-ring Short
Circuiting Device
36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device
37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
37P - Underpower
38 - Bearing Protective Device / Bearing
Rtd
39 - Mechanical Condition Monitor
( Vibration )
40 - Field Relay / Loss of Excitation
41 - Field Circuit Breaker
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44 - Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45 - Atmospheric Condition Monitor
(fumes, smoke, fire)
46 - Reverse-Phase or Phase Balance
Current Relay or Stator Current Unbalance
47 - Phase-Sequence or Phase Balance
Voltage Relay
48 - Incomplete Sequence Relay / Blocked
Rotor
49 - Machine or Transformer Thermal
Relay / Thermal Overload
49RTD - RTD Biased Thermal Overload
50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
50BF - Breaker Failure or LBB ( Local
Breaker Back-up )
50DD - Current Disturbance Detector
50EF - End Fault Protection
50G - Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50IG - Isolated Ground Instantaneous
Overcurrent
50LR - Acceleration Time
50N - Neutral Instantaneous Overcurrent
50NBF - Neutral Instantaneous Breaker
Failure
50P - Phase Instantaneous Overcurrent
50SG - Sensitive Ground Instantaneous
Overcurrent
50SP - Split Phase Instantaneous Current
50Q - Negative Sequence Instantaneous
Overcurrent
50/27 - Inadvertent Energization
50/51 - Instantaneous / Time-delay
Overcurrent relay
50/74 - Ct Trouble
50/87 - Instantaneous Differential
51 - AC Time Overcurrent Relay
51C - Voltage Controlled Time Overcurrent
51G - Ground Time Overcurrent
51LR - AC inverse time overcurrent (locked
rotor) protection relay
51N - Neutral Time Overcurrent
51P - Phase Time Overcurrent
51R - Locked / Stalled Rotor
51V - Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent
51Q - Negative Sequence Time
Overcurrent
52 – AC circuit breaker
52a - AC circuit breaker position (contact
open when circuit breaker open)
52b - AC circuit breaker position (contact
closed when circuit breaker open)
53 - Exciter or Dc Generator Relay
54 - Turning Gear Engaging Device
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device
58 - Rectification Failure Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay
59B - Bank Phase Overvoltage
59N - Neutral Overvoltage
59NU - Neutral Voltage Unbalance
59P - Phase Overvoltage
59X - Auxiliary Overvoltage
59Q - Negative Sequence Overvoltage
60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay
60N - Neutral Current Unbalance
60P - Phase Current Unbalance
61 - Density Switch or Sensor
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63 - Pressure Switch Detector
64 - Ground Protective Relay
64F - Field Ground Protection
64R – Rotor earth fault
64REF – Restricted earth fault differential
64S – Stator earth fault
64S - Sub-harmonic Stator Ground
Protection
64TN - 100% Stator Ground
65 - Governor
66 - Notching or Jogging Device/Maximum
Starting Rate/Starts Per Hour/Time
Between Starts
67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
67G - Ground Directional Overcurrent
67N - Neutral Directional Overcurrent
67Ns – Earth fault directional
67P - Phase Directional Overcurrent
67SG - Sensitive Ground Directional
Overcurrent
67Q - Negative Sequence Directional
Overcurrent
68 - Blocking Relay / Power Swing Blocking
69 - Permissive Control Device
70 - Rheostat
71 - Liquid Switch, Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism
76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
77 - Telemetering Device, Speed Sensor
78 - Phase Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step
Protective Relay
78V - Loss of Mains
79 - AC Reclosing Relay / Auto Reclose
80 - Liquid or Gas Flow Relay
81 - Frequency Relay
81O - Over Frequency
81R - an invalid use of R suffix - refer 7F for
Rate Of Change Of Frequency (ROCOF)
81U - Under Frequency
82 - DC Reclosing Relay
83 - Automatic Selective Control or
Transfer Relay
84 - Operating Mechanism
85 - Pilot Communications, Carrier or Pilot-
Wire Relay
86 - Lock-Out Relay, Master Trip Relay
87 - Differential Protective Relay
87B - Bus Differential
87G - Generator Differential
87GT - Generator/Transformer Differential
87L - Segregated Line Current Differential
87LG - Ground Line Current Differential
87M - Motor Differential
87O - Overall Differential
87PC - Phase Comparison
87RGF - Restricted Ground Fault
87S - Stator Differential
87S - Percent Differential
87T - Transformer Differential
87V - Voltage Differential
88 - Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
89 - Line Switch
90 - Regulating Device
91 - Voltage Directional Relay
92 - Voltage And Power Directional Relay
93 - Field-Changing Contactor
94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
95 – TRIP CIRCUIT HEALTHY
96 – Transmitter
97 – For specific applications where other
numbers are not suitable
98 – For specific applications where other
numbers are not suitable
99 – For specific applications where other
numbers are not suitable
Acronyms Description
AFD - Arc Flash Detector
CLK - Clock or Timing Source
CLP - Cold Load Pickup
DDR – Dynamic Disturbance Recorder
DFR – Digital Fault Recorder
DME – Disturbance Monitor Equipment
ENV – Environmental data
HIZ – High Impedance Fault Detector
HMI – Human Machine Interface
HST – Historian
LGC – Scheme Logic
MET – Substation Metering
PDC – Phasor Data Concentrator
PMU – Phasor Measurement Unit
PQM – Power Quality Monitor
RIO – Remote Input/Output Device
RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector
RTU – Remote Terminal Unit/Data
Concentrator
SER – Sequence of Events Recorder
TCM – Trip Circuit Monitor S - Synchronizing, Secondary, Strainer,
LRSS – Local/Remote selector switch Sump, or Suction (Valve)
VTFF - Vt Fuse Fail SOTF - Switch On To Fault
T - Transformer or Thyratron
TD - Time Delay
Suffixes Description TDC - Time-Delay Closing Contact
_1 - Positive-Sequence TDDO - Time Delayed Relay Coil Drop-Out
_2 - Negative-Sequence TDO - Time-Delay Opening Contact
A - Alarm, Auxiliary Power TDPU - Time Delayed Relay Coil Pickup
AC - Alternating Current THD - Total Harmonic Distortion
AN - Anode TH - Transformer (High-Voltage Side)
B - Bus, Battery, or Blower TL - Transformer (Low-Voltage Side)
BF - Breaker Failure TM - Telemeter
BK - Brake TT - Transformer (Tertiary-Voltage Side)
BL - Block (Valve) Q - Lube Oil
BP - Bypass W - Water
BT - Bus Tie F - Fuel
BU - Backup G - Gas
C - Capacitor, Condenser, Compensator, U - Under or Unit
Carrier Current, Case or Compressor X - Auxiliary
CA - Cathode Z – Impedance
CH - Check (Valve)
D - Discharge (Valve)
DC - Direct Current Module 7 – Substation layout
DCB - Directional Comparison Blocking
DCUB - Directional Comparison Unblocking In the today’s world, the need for bulk
DD - Disturbance Detector electrical power has increased. To fulfil the
DUTT - Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip required demand, huge power is needed
E - Exciter to be delivered; hence bigger generating
F - Feeder, Field, Filament, Filter, or Fan stations are to be designed. The electrical
G - Ground or Generator power generating stations may be
GC - Ground Check generating electrical energy by means, but
H - Heater or Housing not limited to, hydraulic, thermal, or
L - Line or Logic renewable sources solely contingent on
M - Motor or Metering the accessibility of resources and areas
MOC - Mechanism Operated Contact where these power stations are built. The
N - Neutral or Network areas where power stations are built might
O - Over not be nearby load centers where the load
P - Phase or Pump is consuming power. Therefore,
PC - Phase Comparison transmitting generated power to the load
POTT - Pott: Permissive Overreaching center is of great importance.
Transfer Trip There is a need for larger high voltage
PUTT - Putt: Permissive Underreaching transmission networks, called Grid, for the
Transfer Trip purpose of transmission. Usually, power is
R - Reactor, Rectifier, or Room generated in lower voltage levels and is
economical for its transmission in high
voltages. However, the distribution of
electrical power is achieved in lower
voltages pertinent to consumer
requirements. Therefore, for maintenance
of such voltage levels and deliverance of
stability numerous switching stations and
transformation stations are created amid
consumer ends and electrical power
generating stations. These stations are
commonly known as the electrical
substations.
Electrical substation
- a network of electrical components
comprising of power transformers, bus
bars, auxiliaries, and switchgear etc.
- may have a single or complex circuit
composed of numerous outgoing and
incoming circuits which are connected
to a bus bar.
- may receive electrical energy directly
from generating stations through
incoming power supply lines or from
other substations while it delivers
electricity to the consumers through
outgoing transmission lines.
- A substation which is near to the
electrical power generation is also
known as grid substation.
Main Purpose of Substations
 It serves as protection hub of the
transmission system.
 It maintains the frequency of system
confined in targeted limits and has
to deal with load shedding.
 It controls the exchange of electrical
energy amid consumers and
generating stations.
 It is ensuring transient stability
along with steady-state stability of
the system.
 It delivers sufficient line capacity
hence securing supply.
 It helps in reducing the flow of
reactive power, hence gaining
voltage control.
 Through line carrier, it performs
data transmission to ensure
monitoring of network, protection,
and control.
 It helps in fault analysis and pinning
cause for a failure, hence improving
the performance of the electrical
network.
 It ensures reliable supply through
feeding network at numerous
points.
 It assists in determining energy
transfer with help of transmission
lines.
Different Substation Layouts
1. According to service requirement
- A sub-station may be called upon to
change voltage level or improve power
factor or convert a.c. power into d.c.
power etc. According to the service
requirement, sub-stations may be
classified into
• Transformer sub-stations.
 Those sub-stations which
change the voltage level of
electric supply are called
transformer sub-stations. These
sub-stations receive power at
some voltage and deliver it at
 some other voltage. Obviously,
transformer will be the main
component in such sub-
stations. Most of the sub-
stations in the power system
are of this type.
• Switching sub-stations
 These sub-stations do not
change the voltage level i.e.
incoming and outgoing lines
have the same voltage.
However, they simply perform
the switching operations of
power lines.
- A sub-station has many components
• Power factor correction sub-
stations.
 Those sub-stations which
improve the power factor of the
system are called power factor
correction sub-stations. Such
sub-stations are generally
located at the receiving end of
transmission lines. These sub-
stations generally use
synchronous condensers as the
power factor improvement
equipment.
• Frequency changer sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which
change the supply frequency
are known as frequency
changer sub-stations. Such a
frequency change may be
required for industrial
utilisation.
• Converting sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which
change a.c. power into d.c.
power are called converting
sub-stations. These sub-stations
receive a.c. power and convert
it into d.c power with suitable
apparatus to supply for such
purposes as traction,
electroplating, electric welding
etc.
• Industrial sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which supply
power to individual industrial
concerns are known as
industrial sub-stations.
2. According to constructional features
( e.g. circuit breakers, switches, fuses,
instruments etc.) which must be
housed properly to ensure continuous
and reliable service. According to
constructional features, the sub-
stations are classified as :
• Indoor sub-stations
 For voltages up to 11 kV, the
equipment of the sub-station is
installed indoor because of
economic considerations.
However, when the atmosphere
is contaminated with impurities,
these sub-stations can be
erected for voltages up to 69 kV
or even higher.
• Outdoor sub-stations
 For voltages beyond 69 kV,
equipment is invariably installed
out- door. It is because for such
voltages, the clearances
between conductors and the
space required for switches,
circuit breakers and other
equipment becomes so great
that it is not economical to
install the equipment indoor.

• Underground sub-stations
 In thickly populated areas, the
space available for equipment
and building is limited and the
cost of land is high. Under such
situations, the sub-station is
created underground.
• Pole-mounted sub-stations
 This is an outdoor sub-station
with equipment installed over-
head on H-pole or 4-pole
structure. It is the cheapest
form of sub-station for voltages
not exceeding 11 kV (or 34.5 kV
in some cases). Electric power is
almost distributed in localities
through such sub- stations. For
complete discussion on pole-
mounted sub-station.
3. According to bus configurations
- The industry has developed several
standard bus configurations that vary in
complexity, cost, and reliability. The
layout of a substation for any particular
configuration may vary to
accommodate differences in
equipment type, size and arrangement,
and site-specific criteria.
• Radial Bus Configuration
 The radial bus configuration
consists of one main bus and a
single breaker, also called single
bus, single breaker. The
transmission lines,
transformers, and shunt
capacitor banks for extra high
voltage application, are
connected to the main bus
through circuit breakers, circuit
switchers, or motor operated or
manually operated disconnect
switches. Radial bus
substations are the simplest to
operate. But they have the least
system reliability and flexibility
of operation.
• Sectionalized Radial Bus
Configuration
 The sectionalized or split radial
bus is a modification of the
radial bus. This configuration is
two radial buses tied together
through a sectionalizing or bus
tie circuit breaker. The
sectionalizing circuit breaker
can be operated normally open
or normally closed, depending
on system requirements. Bus
faults or the failure of a breaker
(other than the tiebreaker) to
operate for a fault requires an
outage of only the affected bus
section. Breaker bypass
switches can be applied in
sectionalized radial bus
substations and operate the
same as in radial bus
substations.
• Main and Transfer Bus
 The main and transfer bus is
another modification of the
radial bus. This configuration
consists of a main bus and a
transfer bus. All circuits are
connected to the main bus
through circuit breakers and to
the transfer bus through
transfer switches. The main and
transfer buses are connected
through a transfer bus circuit
breaker.
 The transfer bus circuit breaker
protects a circuit during
maintenance of its associated
circuit breaker.
• Single Breaker Double Bus
Configuration
 The single breaker double bus
configuration is a modification
of the sectionalized radial bus.
This configuration consists of
two main buses connected
through a tie circuit breaker.
• Ring Bus Configuration
 The ring bus configuration is, in
reality, a series of sectionalized
radial buses connected together
to form a ring. Each bus is called
a position. Sometimes a
transmission line and a
transformer are paired on one
ring position. In this
configuration, only one position
is removed from service for a
circuit or bus fault. The circuit
breakers which serve the
faulted position are opened.
The failure of a breaker to
operate for a line or bus fault
will cause two positions to be
removed from service.
 This configuration allows for any
circuit breaker to be removed
from service for maintenance
without an outage on any
circuit. Line disconnect
switches are often installed to
allow a line to be removed from
service and the ring to remain
intact. The two circuit breakers
sourcing the line are opened,
the line disconnect switch is
opened, and then the two
circuit breakers are closed.
• One-Half Breaker Configuration
 The one-half breaker
configuration is a variation of
the ring bus concept on a
multiple substation basis. As
with the ring bus, two breakers
must be tripped to isolate a
faulted line or transformer. In
the case of the one-half breaker
configuration, one of the
breakers is usually at the other
end of the transmission line. In
the Figure below, Substations A,
B, C, D, and E form an extended
ring bus.
• Breaker and One Half Bus
Configuration
 The breaker and one-half
configuration consist of two
main buses. Connected
between the main buses are
bays which consist of three
circuit breakers. A circuit is
terminated between each two
circuit breakers.
• Double Breaker Double Bus
Configuration
 The double breaker double bus
configuration consists of two
main buses. Connected
between the main buses are
bays consisting of two circuit
breakers, and between the
circuit breakers, a circuit. In this
configuration, each circuit has
two dedicated circuit breakers.
Module 8 – Substation High
Voltage Equipment
Electrical substations are the interface
between parts of the distribution grid and
transmission systems. It transforms
voltage from high to low, or vice versa, or
perform any of several other important
functions. Between the generating station
and consumer, electric power may flow
through several substations at different
voltage levels. A substation may include
transformers to change voltage levels
between high transmission voltages and
lower distribution voltages, or at the
interconnection of two different
transmission voltages.
Single bus configuration
- consists of one main bus that is
energized at all times and to which all
circuits are connected. This
arrangement is the simplest but
provides the least amount of system
reliability
Sectionalized bus
- is basically two or more single bus
schemes, each tied together with bus
sectionalizing breakers. The most
common configuration is the double
bus single breaker configuration.
Main and Transfer Bus
- consists of two independent buses, one
of which, the main bus, is normally
energized. Under normal operating
conditions, all incoming and outgoing
circuits are fed from the main bus
through their associated circuit
breakers and switches.
Ring bus configuration
- is an extension of the sectionalized bus
arrangement and is accomplished by
interconnecting the two open ends of
the buses through another
sectionalizing breaker.
Breaker and a half configuration
- consists of two main buses, each
normally energized. Electrically
connected between the buses are
three circuit breakers and, between
each two breakers
The double bus
- double breaker configuration consists
of two main buses, each normally
energized. Electrically connected
between the buses are two circuit
breakers and, between the breakers,
one circuit.
--- --- --- --- --- ---
High Voltage Electrical Equipment
- Major electrical equipment such as
transformers, switchgear and circuit
breakers are all part of the power plant
design. Together with these major
components are the protection and
instrumentation.
 Transformer
• is a static machine used for
transforming power from one circuit
to another without changing the
frequency. As there are no rotating
or moving parts, a transformer is
classified as a static device.
Transformer operates on an AC
supply. Transformers operate based
on the principle of mutual
induction. Power transformers are
generally used in transmission
network for stepping up or down
the voltage level. It operates mainly
during high or peak loads and has
maximum efficiency at or near full
load. Distribution transformer steps
down the voltage for distribution
purpose to domestic or commercial
users. It has good voltage regulation
and operates 24 hrs a day with
maximum efficiency at 50% of full
load. Instrument transformers
include C.T and P.T which are used to
reduce high voltages and current to
lesser values which can be
measured by conventional
instruments.
• Types of Transformers
 Step up transformers - converts  Dry type transformer - air
the low voltage (LV) and high cooling is used instead.
current from the primary side of
the transformer to the high
voltage (HV) and low current
value on the secondary side of
the transformer.
 Step down transformers -
converts the high voltage (HV)
• Types of transformer windings –
and low current from the
core type and shell type, and also
primary side of the transformer
berry type transformers
to the low voltage (LV) and high
 A core type transformer - has
current value on the secondary
side of the transformer. two vertical legs or limbs with
 Three phase transformer - two horizontal sections named
generally used in three phase yoke. The core is rectangular in
power system as it is more cost shape with a common magnetic
effective than single phase circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and
transformers.
 Single phase transformer - But
when size matters, it is
preferable to use a bank of
three single phase transformer
vs a three-phase transformer, as
it is easier to transport than one
single three phase transformer
unit.
 Two winding transformer - is
generally used where the ratio LV) are placed on both the
between the high voltage and
limbs.
low voltage side is greater than
2.
 A shell type transformer - has a
 Autotransformer - where the
ratio between the high voltage central limb and two outer
and low voltage sides is less limbs. Both HV, LV coils are
than 2. placed on the central limb. The
 Outdoor transformer - outdoor double magnetic circuit is
transformers are designed for present.
installing outdoors.  In a berry type transformer, the
 Indoor transformers - are core looks like the spokes of a
designed for installing at wheel. Tightly fitted metal sheet
indoors. tanks are used for housing this
 Oil cooled transformer - the type of transformer, with
cooling medium is transformer transformer oil filled inside.
oil.
  Switchgear
 Circuit breaker • Switchgear is a general term used to
• An electrical circuit breaker is a refer to a range of switches, circuit
switching device which can be breakers, fuses, etc., which are used
operated manually and in an electric power system to
automatically for controlling and control, regulate and switch the
protecting an electrical power circuit on and off. By controlling the
system. As the modern power circuit, switchgear protects and
system deals with huge currents, isolates electrical equipment from
special attention should be given the power supply,
during designing of a circuit breaker enabling testing, maintenance and
to ensure it is able to safely fault clearing work to be
interrupt the arc produced during undertaken.
the closing of a circuit breaker.
• Switchgear has two types
• Types of circuit breaker of components:
 Oil circuit breaker  Power-conducting component
 Air circuit breaker s: These conduct or interrupt
 Gas (SF6) circuit breaker the power flow; such as
 Vacuum circuit breaker switches, circuit breakers, fuses,
• According to their services: isolators,
 Outdoor circuit breaker. relays, lightning arrestors, and
 Indoor breaker. so on.
• According to the operating  Control systems:
mechanism: These monitor, control and
 Spring operated circuit breaker. protect the power-
 Pneumatic circuit breaker. conducting components; such
 Hydraulic circuit breaker. as control panels,
• According to the voltage level: current transformers,
 High voltage circuit breaker. potential transformers,
 Medium voltage circuit breaker. associated circuitry, and so on.
 Low voltage circuit breaker.
• Switchgear is directly linked to the
supply system and, based on the
• According to tank used voltage level, can be classified as
 Dead Tank either:
 Live Tank  Low voltage switchgear (LV).
 Medium voltage switchgear
(MV).
 High voltage switchgear (HV).

 Protective Relay
• A relay is automatic device which
senses an abnormal condition of
 electrical circuit and closes its
contacts. These contacts in turns
close and complete the circuit
breaker trip coil circuit hence make
the circuit breaker tripped for
disconnecting the faulty portion of
the electrical circuit from rest of the
healthy circuit. Selection of relays
and coordination of their settings so
that the correct circuit breaker trips
when it is supposed to, and does not
trip when it is not supposed to is a
subject too broad to be covered
herein. For the purpose of this
document the listings below will set
forth those protective relay types
which will be considered. For the
relay, using IEC or IEEE standards are
widely used in today’s engineering.
 Emergency power system
• Those portions of the station service
load that must be operable for a
safe shutdown of the unit, or that
are required for protection of the
unit during shutdown, will be fed
from a separate 480-volt unit
emergency power bus. A suitable
emergency diesel engine driven
generator will be installed and
arranged to start automatically and
carry these loads if the normal
source of power to this bus is lost.
The loads fed from this bus might
include such things as emergency
lighting, communication system,
battery charger, boiler control
system, burner control system,
control boards, annunciator,
recorders and instrumentation.
Design of these systems will provide
for them to return to operation after
a brief power outage.
• Battery and charger.
 General requirements. The dc
system, consisting of a station
battery, chargers and dc
distribution panels, provides a
continuous and reliable source
of dc control voltage for system
protection during normal
operation and for emergency
shutdown of the power plant.
Battery will be nominal 125
volts, mounted on wooden
racks or metal racks with PVC
covers on the metal supporting
surfaces. Lead calcium cells
having pasted plates or other
suitable cells will be considered
for use.
 Duty cycle. Required capacity
will be calculated on an 8-hour
duty cycle basis taking into
account all normal and
emergency loads. The duty
cycle will meet the
requirements of the steam
generator burner control
system, emergency cooling
systems, control bench board,
relays and instrument panels,
emergency lighting system, and
all close/trip functions of the
medium voltage and 480-volt
circuit breaker systems.
 Battery chargers.
 Two chargers capable of
maintaining a 2.17 the
proper float and equalizing
voltage on the battery will
be provided. Each charger
will be capable of restoring
the station battery to full
charge in 12 hours after
emergency service
discharge. Also, each unit
will be capable of meeting
 50 percent of the total dc
demand including charging
current taken by the
discharged battery during
normal conditions
 Battery room. Only the battery
will be located in a ventilated
battery room. The chargers
maybe wall or floor mounted,
together with the main dc
distribution panel, immediately
outside the battery room.
 DC distribution panel. The
distribution panel will utilize
molded case circuit breakers or
fuses selected to coordinate
with dc breakers furnished in
control panels and switchgear.
The breakers will be equipped
with thermal magnetic trip
devices, and for 20 kA dc
interrupting rating.
General facilities design
Input adjustments will be designed to be
delegated to automatic control systems
except during start up, shutdown, and
abnormal operating conditions when the
operator displaces or overrides automatic
control functions. The following
instruments will be mounted on the
control board in the operating room to
provide the operator with information
needed for operations:
a. Generator.
1. Ammeter with phase selector switch
2. Voltmeter with phase selector
switch
3. Wattmeter
4. Varmeter
5. Power factor meter Frequency
meter
6. Temperature meter with selector
switch for stator temperature
detectors
7. D.C. volmeter for excitation voltage
8. D.C. ammeter for field current
b. Stepup transformer.
1. Voltmeter on high voltage side with
selector switch
2. Ammeter with selector switch
3. Wattmeter
4. Varmeter
5. Power factor meter
c. Auxiliary transformer.
1. Switch
2. Voltmeter on low voltage side with
selector
3. Ammeter with selector switch
4. Wattmeter
5. Varmeter
6. Power factor meter
d. Common.
1. Voltmeter with selector switch for
each bus
2. Synchroscope
e. Integrating meters. The following
integrating meters will be provided but
need not be mounted on the control
board:
1. Generator output watt-hour meter
2. Auxiliary transformer watt-hour
meter for each auxiliary transformer
Electrical Control System
For the integration of the electrical
systems the control system has to be
designed to fulfill some important
requirements:
- Monitoring
• Monitoring of the electrical system
has to be possible at workplaces of
the control room, workplaces
 dedicated to control of the electrical
system and workplaces for
maintenance. Graphic displays have
to be available presenting the status
of the overall or parts of the
electrical system.
• To be able to take immediate action
in case of disturbances, it is also
important to be aware of all alarms
and have a quick overview in which
part / area alarms are active.
- Manual or remote operation
• The manual (remote) operations of
electrical devices have to be
supported by consistent means;
e.g., faceplates in the or locally at
the device cubicle using push-
buttons or control panels.
- Automatic operation
• From a power plant control system
point-of-view, automatic operation
means that electrical devices
are part of automatic control
sequences executed in an
automation controller. This
requirement applies only for those
devices that interact with process
control.
- Recording
• For purposes of disturbance
analysis, documentation, reporting
and optimization, the plant control
system has to be capable
of recording electrical system status
signals, alarms, event and
measured values.
EE 6
Module 3 – Induction Motor
The actual conversion of electrical power
into mechanical power always takes place
in the rotor of a motor. In the induction
motor, the power input to the rotor is not
applied directly ie. conductively, but is
transferred across on air – gap inductively.
The total power delivered to the rotor
power per phase consists of two parts:
1.) the power that causes a copper loss
2.) the electric power that is converted
into the mechanical power on a per
is phase basis.
Rotor Torque
- the force tending to produce
rotation.
- It is usually expressed in pound-feet
(lb-ft) except in the case of very
small motors given in terms of
ounce-inches (oz-in).
Starting Torque
- the torque developed by a motor at
the instant it is started. In some
cases, it is greater than the normal
running torque while in others it
may be somewhat less than this.
Since the starting torque occurs
when the slip is unity.
Induction motor efficiency
- the calculation of the efficiency of
an induction motor follows
essentially the same procedure as it
does for DC generator, alternator,
and the transformer.
Three kinds of losses in induction motors
1. Copper losses in the stator and
rotor.
2. Iron losses i.e., hysteresis and
eddy current.
3. Friction and windage losses in
the stator.
Three tests to determine the efficiency of
induction motor
1. No-load test
2. Load test
3. Stator Resistance test
No-Load Test
– when the two-wattmeter method is
used to measure the power input the total
power is the difference between the
wattmeter readings because the no load pf
is considerably less than 0.5.
Load Test
– the wattmeter reading is additive
because the pf is much greater than 0.5.
Stator Resistance Test
– it is measurement of the stator
winding per phase. It is customary to
measure the resistance between three
pairs of stators these values is then divided
by 2 to obtain the resistance per phase, a
Y-connected having been assumed AC
resistance is higher than DC resistance, the
resistance is usually multiplied by factor of
about 1.25 to obtain.
Blocked rotor test
- the values of the rotor resistance and
the rotor reactance, whether of the
squirrel cage or wound rotor type can be
determined by this test. In this method
three rheostats in the line wires, adjusting
the 3-phase motor voltage to a value at
w/c approximately rated current flows
when the rotor is blocked and cannot vary the supply frequency (because
rotate. Ns = 120f/P).

All the instant the motor is started, the 2. It is not inherently self-starting. It
rotor is not turning. The friction and has to be run up to synchronous
windage loss in therefore zero. However, speed by some means, before it can
the iron loss at starting will be greater be synchronized to the supply.
than the normal operating value because
the rotor frequency is the same as the 3. It is capable of being operated
stator frequency. under a wide range of power
factors, both lagging and leading.
Furthermore, if the blocked rotor test Hence, it can be used for power
had been made at rated voltage, the stator factor correction purposes.
current with the rotor blocked would have
been equal to (Vrated/Vbr) x Ibr and the
Two factors determine the speed of SM
power input w/ rotor blocked would have
1. The frequency of the supply source
been (Vrated/Vbr)² x Pbr w/ there ie is
2. The number of poles in the machine
possible to calculate the starting.
Advantages of Synchronous Motor
1. They can be made to operate at the
Module 4 - Synchronous Motor leading pf and thereby improve the
pf of an industrial plant from one
Synchronous Motor
that is normally lagging to one that
- Operates at an absolutely average
is close to unity.
constant speed regardless of the
load: it departs from this average
2. They are less costly in certain
speed only during load changes. The
horsepower and speed ranges.
regulation of this type is therefore
zero.
3. They usually operate and
- It is electrically identical with an
constructed at higher efficiency
alternator, when driven
especially in the low-speed unity pf
mechanically or as a motor, when
ranges. Synchronous motors are
driven electrically. Most
frequently used for pf correction
synchronous motors are rated
purposes only.
between 150KW to 15MW and run
at speeds ranging from 150 to
1800rpm. Synchronous Condenser/ Capacitor

Characteristics of Synchronous Motors The ability of a SM to take a very low

1. It runs either at synchronous speed leading pf current makes it behave like a
or not at all while running it capacitor. The overall pf of the system is
maintains a constant speed. The improved and with-it transmission
only way to change its speed is to efficiency and regulation as well as the
general operating performance of the
other apparatus.
The proper selection of a motor for a given
application always involve a complete
understanding of essential operating and
physical requirements. Such information is
gained only through first-hand experience
in the installation and operation of actual
industrial equipment. Necessary to consult
specialists when expert advice is needed
about motor installation.
However, manufacturers have developed
standard types of motors having
characteristics that meet the general and
special needs of most kinds of mechanical
equipment. Such motors are usually tested
in catalogue and bulletins in w/c are
indicated such important items such as hp
output, speed range, starting torque,
starting amperes, etc.
Comparison between synchronous and
induction motor
1. For a given frequency, the
synchronous motor runs at a
constant average speed whatever
the load, while the speed of an
induction motor falls somewhat
with increase in load.
2. The synchronous motor can be
operated over a wide range of
power factors, both lagging and
leading, but induction motor always
run with lagging power factor which
may become very low at light loads.
3. A synchronous motor is inherently
not self-starting.
4. A DC excitation is required by
synchronous motor but not by
induction motor.
5. Synchronous motors are usually
more costly and complicated than
induction motors, but they are
particularly attractive for low-speed
drives (below 300 rpm) because
their power factor can always be
adjusted to 1.0 and their efficiency
is high. However, induction motors
are excellent for speed above
600rpm.
6. Synchronous motors can be run at
ultra-low speeds by using high
power electronic converters which
generate very low frequencies. Such
motors of 10MW range are used for
driving crushers, rotary kilns and
variable-speed ball mills etc.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS
Synchronous motors find extensive
application for the following classes of
service:
1. Power Factor Correction
2. Constant-speed, constant-load
drives
3. Voltage Regulation
A. Power Factor Correction
- Overexcited synchronous
motors having leading power
factor are widely used for
improving power factor of
those power systems which
employ a large number of
induction motors and other
devices having lagging power
 factor such as welders and When line voltage decreases
fluorescent lights, etc. due to inductive load, motor
excitation is increased, thereby
raising its power factor which
compensates for the line drop.
If, on the other hand, line
B. Constant Speed Applications voltage rises due to line
- Because of their high efficiency capacitive effect, motor
and high speed, synchronous excitation is decreased, thereby
motors (above 600 rpm) are making its power factor lagging
well-suited for loads where which helps to maintain the line
constant speed is required such voltage at its normal value.
as centrifugal pumps, belt-
driven reciprocating
compressors, blowers, line
shafts, rubber and paper mills,
etc. Low speed synchronous
motors (below 600 rpm) are
used for drives such as
centrifugal and screw-type
pumps, ball and tube mills,
vacuum pumps, chippers and
metal rolling mills, etc.

C. Voltage Regulation
- The voltage regulation at the
end of a long transmission line
varies greatly especially when
large inductive loads are
present. When an inductive
load is disconnected suddenly,
voltage tends to rise
considerably above its normal
value because of the line
capacitance.
- By installing a synchronous
motor with a field regulator (for
varying its excitation), this
voltage rise can be controlled.
EE 14
Transmission line
- Has three constants R, L and C
distributed uniformly along the
whole length of the line.
Resistance and Inductance form the series
impedance
The Capacitance existing between
conductors for 1-phase line or from a
conductor to neutral for a 3-phase line
forms a shunt path throughout the length
of the line.
Capacitance effects introduce
complications in transmission line
calculations.
Short transmission line
- When the length of an overhead
transmission line is up to about 50
km and the line voltage is
comparatively low (< 20 kV)
- When the length of an overhead
transmission line is about 50-150
km and the line voltage is
moderately high (>20 kV < 100 kV)
- When the length of an overhead
transmission line is more than 150
km and line voltage is very high (>
100 kV)
While studying the performance of a
transmission line, it is desirable to
determine its voltage regulation and
transmission efficiency.
Voltage Regulation
- When a transmission line is carrying
current, there is a voltage drop in
the line due to resistance and
inductance of the line. The result is
that receiving end voltage (VR) of
the line is generally less than the
sending end voltage (VS).
- The difference in voltage at the
receiving end of a transmission line
**between conditions of no load
and full load
- Is the rise in voltage at the receiving
end, expressed in percent of full
load voltage, when full load at a
specified power factor is removed
while the sending-end voltage is
held constant
Shunt conductance
- It represents the conductance
between conductors or between
conductor and ground and accounts
for the leakage current at the
insulators. It is very small in case of
overhead lines and may be assumed
zero.
Transmission efficiency
- The power obtained at the receiving
end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end
power due to losses in the line
resistance.
- The ratio of receiving end power to
the sending end power of a
transmission line.
End Condenser Method
- In this method, the capacitance of
the line is lumped or concentrated
at the receiving or load end.
- Limitations:
o There is a considerable error
(about 10%) in calculations
because the distributed
capacitance has been
 assumed to be lumped or
concentrated.
o This method overestimates
the effects of line capacitance
Nominal T Method
- In this method, the whole line
capacitance is assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point of
the line and half the line resistance
and reactance are lumped on its
either side.
Nominal pi Method
- In this method, capacitance of each
conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is
divided into two halves; one half
being lumped at the sending end
and the other half at the receiving
end.
Classification of Transmission lines
- Short transmission lines
- Medium transmission lines
- Long transmission lines
EE 15 – FINALS
Metering
Service Entrance
Service Panel
- is where the wires connected to the
load side of the meter enter the
house or building. The service
entrance in a residence is commonly
thought of as a breaker or fuse box.
In larger more complicated
commercial or industrial electrical
systems, the service entrance may
be a main disconnect panel or a
trough where up to six main
switches are present.
Service Switch
- A disconnecting means or
"disconnect switch" must be
provided in the service entrance to
disconnect all the wiring in the
building from the electrical power
supply. This may be accomplished
with a separate switch called a
service switch or main disconnect.
Many years ago, it was common to
install a separate switch next to the
fuse box to shut the power off. In
modern residences, the service
switch is actually the main breaker
housed inside the breaker box
which shuts off power to all the
other breakers in the box.
- The size of the service switch or
main breaker depends on the
electrical load served. Service
switches come in standard sizes of
30, 60, 100, 150, 200, 400 and
larger. The National Electrical Code
requires a minimum 100-amp
service size for all residences,
although many newer houses
typically use a 150 amp or larger
service.
- The National Electrical Code
requires electrical services to have a
service entrance panel commonly
called a breaker or fuse box. A
modern service entrance panel
consists of an enclosure housing the
breakers or fuses and associated
wiring. If located outside, the
enclosure must be weatherproof
which keeps rain and moisture from
interfering with the electrical parts.
 The breakers or fuses protect the required in front of the smaller
wires leaving the breaker box from disconnects.
overloading and being damaged.
- A ground wire connects inside the
service entrance panel to the
neutral connections to provide a
Branch Circuits
ground for the customer's service.
The ground wire extends to below - A branch circuit is defined as that
ground level where it attaches to a part of an electric circuit extending
ground rod. The ground rod serves beyond the last circuit breaker or
as an easy path for lightning to get fuse. The branch circuits start at the
into the earth if it strikes the utility breaker box and extend to the
line or the customer’s electrical
electrical devices connected to the
service.
service. Branch circuits are the last
Large Services part of the circuit supplying
electrical devices. These circuits are
- For large customers such as classified in two different ways,
apartment buildings or commercial according to the type of loads they
and industrial customers the service serve or according to their current-
can become more complicated. In carrying capacity.
these systems, the National
Electrical Code allows up to six
separate disconnects for each
electrical service as long as they are
grouped together.
- An example would be an apartment
complex where each electrical
service provided power for six
apartments. It would be common
for the service drop to be connected
to six separate disconnect switches,
each controlling an individual
apartments' electrical service. The
electrical wires from one disconnect
switch are connected to an electrical
meter to measure that particular
apartments' energy use and then
wires run from the meter to the
breaker or fuse box in the
corresponding apartment.
- If there are more than six electrical
disconnects, a main disconnect is
 - Switchgear is electrical equipment
that is used to protect, control, and
isolate electrical equipment in
power systems. It works by
interrupting or isolating electrical
circuits when a fault occurs,
EE 15 preventing damage to equipment
Switch Gear and minimizing the risk of electrical
hazards.
Switchgear - Switchgear typically includes
- Switchgear is a general term switches, fuses, circuit-breakers,
covering switching devices and their relays, and other components that
combination with associated are used to control and protect
control, measuring, protective and electrical power systems. When a
regulating equipment, also fault occurs, the switchgear detects
assemblies of such devices and it and isolates the faulty
equipment with associated component or circuit to prevent
interconnections, accessories, damage to other parts of the
enclosures and supporting system.
structures, intended in principle for - Switchgear also helps to control the
use in connection with generation, flow of electricity in the system,
transmission, distribution and allowing operators to switch
conversion of electric energy circuits on and off and control the
[Source: IEC 60947-1-2020]. power output of generators.
Additionally, it can provide backup
Main Components of Switchgear power to critical systems in the
 Circuit-breakers event of a power outage or other
 Residual current devices emergency.
 Isolators - Switchgear can be found in a wide
 Fuse-combination units range of settings, from power plants
 Switches and substations to industrial
 Surge protective devices facilities and commercial buildings.
 Contactors It plays a crucial role in ensuring
 Motor-starters the safe and reliable operation of
electrical power systems.
 Protective relays
 Transformers
 Disconnectors Switchgear Types
 Switch-disconnectors
1. High-Voltage Switchgears
 Busbars - High-voltage switchgear is designed
How Does Switchgear Work? to operate at voltages above 52 kV
 AC. It is typically used in power
transmission and distribution
systems, as well as in large industrial
facilities such as chemical plants and
refineries.
- High voltage circuit-breakers (such
as SF6 circuit-breaker or vacuum
circuit-breaker) are the main
component of HV switchgear. Hence
high voltage circuit-breaker should
have special features for safe and
reliable operation.
- Faulty tripping and switching
operation of high voltage circuit-
breakers are comparatively very
rare. Most of the time these circuit-
breakers remain at ON condition
and may be operated after a long
period of time. So Circuit-breakers
must be reliable enough to ensure
safe operation, as when required.
2. Medium-Voltage Switchgear
- Medium-voltage switchgear is
designed to operate at voltages
between 1 kV and 52 kV [2] AC.
- Medium voltage switchgear is
mainly used for the distribution of
electrical energy connected to
various electrical networks. They
include most of the substation
equipment such as minimum oil
circuit-breakers, bulk oil circuit-
breakers, air magnetic, SF6 gas-
insulated, vacuum, and gas-
insulated switchgear.
- They may metal-enclosed indoor
type, metal-enclosed outdoor type,
outdoor type without a metal
enclosure, etc. The interruption
medium maybe oil, SF6, and
vacuum.
3. Low-Voltage Switchgear
- Low-voltage switchgear is used in
power systems with voltage levels
below 1000 V AC or 1500 V DC. It is
typically used in residential and
commercial applications and plays a
crucial role in controlling and
protecting the electrical equipment
in these environments. The key
components of low-voltage
switchgear include circuit-breakers,
fuses, switches, relays, and
transformers.
Is there a Difference Between Switchgear
and Switchboards?
- Yes, there is a difference between
switchgear and switchboards.
Switchboard is an assembly of switchgear
with or without instruments, but the term
does not apply to groups of local switches
in final circuits.
Switchgear refers to the electrical
equipment that is used to control, protect,
and isolate electrical power systems. It
typically includes components such as
circuit-breakers, fuses, switches, and
relays, and is designed to operate at high
voltages and currents.
Switchboards are typically low-voltage
distribution boards that are used to
distribute power to various electrical loads
within a building or facility. They usually
consist of panels with multiple switches,
fuses, and other protective devices, as well
as metering equipment to monitor power
usage.
Switchgear and switchboards are used to
control and distribute electrical power,
switchgear is typically used in high-voltage
applications such as power generation and
transmission, while switchboards are used
in low-voltage applications such as
commercial and industrial buildings.
How Can I Extend the Life of My
Switchgear?
Electrical switchgear is an important
component of electrical power systems,
and its proper maintenance is essential for
ensuring the safe and reliable operation of
the system.
Here are some ways to extend the life of
your switchgear:
 Regular maintenance.
 Use recommended operating
procedures.
 Upgrades and retrofits.
 Training and education. Provide
training and education to your
personnel who operate and
maintain the switchgear.
 Monitoring and testing.
 Normal Service Conditions
 Ambient air temperature.
 The ambient air temperature
does not exceed +40 °C
 its average over a period of 24 h
does not exceed +35 °C.
 The lower limit of the ambient
air temperature is – 5 °C.
Ambient air temperature is that existing in
the vicinity of the equipment if supplied
without enclosure, or in the vicinity of the
enclosure if supplied with an enclosure.
Equipment intended to be used in ambient
air temperature above +40 °C (e.g. in
forges, boiler rooms, tropical countries) or
below –5 °C (e.g. –25 °C, as required by IEC
61439 (all parts) for outdoor installed low-
voltage switchgear and controlgear
assemblies) shall be designed and used
according to the relevant product standard
or, where applicable, according to an
agreement between manufacturer and
user. Information given in the
manufacturer’s documentation may take
the place of such an agreement.
NOTE – Ambient air temperature(s) for
certain types of equipment, e.g. circuit-
breakers or overload relays for starters, is
indicated in the relevant product standard.
Altitude.
- The altitude of the site of
installation does not exceed 2 000
m.
- For equipment to be used at higher
altitudes, it is necessary to take into
account the reduction of the
dielectric strength and the cooling
effect of the air. Electrical
equipment intended to operate
- under these conditions shall be
designed and used in accordance
with an agreement between
manufacturer and user. Information
given in the manufacturer’s
documentation may take the place
of such an agreement.
Humidity.
- The relative humidity of the air does
not exceed 50 % at a maximum
temperature of +40 °C. Higher
relative humidities may be
permitted at lower temperatures,
e.g. 90 % at +20 °C. Special
measures may be necessary in cases
of occasional condensation due to
variations in temperature.