91 Qo Gas Turbine Cycles ‘The simple constant pressure cycle and the open- and closed-cycle gas turbine units have been considered briefy in Chapter 5. In this chapter the various parts of the cycle will be considered in more detail and the practical limitations ‘and modifications to the ideal cycle will be discussed. ‘The main use for the gas turbine at the present day is in the aircraft field, although gas turbine units for electric power generation are being used increasingly, usually using natural gas as fuel. Gas turbines are used in marine propulsion, but the oil engine and steam turbine are more frequently used, particularly for larger ships. The gas turbine is also used in conjunction with the oil engine, and as part of total energy schemes in combination with steam plant; this is discussed more fully in Chapter 17. ‘The inefficiencies in the compression and expansion processes become greater for smaller stand-alone gas turbine units and a heat exchanger is frequently used in order to improve the cycle efficiency. A compact effective heat exchanger is nevessary before the small gas turbine can compete for economy with the small oil engine or petrol engine. “The use of constant pressure combustion with a rotary compressor driven by a rotary turbine, mounted on a common shaft, gives a combination which is ideal for conditions of steady mass flow over a wide operating range. The practical gas turbine cycle ‘The most basic gas turbine unit is one operating on the open cycle in which a rotary compressor and a turbine are mounted on a common shaft, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 9.1. Air is drawn into the compressor, C, and after compression passes to a combustion chamber, CC. Enetgy is supplied in the combustion chamber by spraying fuel into the airstream, and the resulting hot ‘gases expand through the turbine, T, to the atmosphere. In order to achieve net work output from the unit, the turbine must develop more gross work ‘output than is required to drive the compressor and to overcome mechanical losses in the drive. ‘The compressor used is either a centrifugal or an axial flow compressor andFig, 9.1 Open-cycle ‘ga8 turbine unit Fig. 92 Gas turbine eyele on a T-s diagram 91. The practical gas turbi cycle et work J Routput 1 Is Exhaust the compression process is therefore irreversible but approximately adiabatic. Similarly the expansion process in the turbine is ireversible but adiabatic. Due to these irreversiblities, more work is required in the compression processes for a given pressure ratio, and less work is developed in the expansion process. It is possible that the compressor and turbine may be so inefficient that the unit is not selfsustaining, and in fact it was the difficulties in improving the compressor and turbine design to cut down irreversbilities that retarded the development of the gas turbine unit. {As stated in section 5.5 the open-cycle gas turbine cannot be compared icoctly with the ideal constant pressure cycle. The actual cycle involves a chemical reaction in the combustion chamber which results in high-temperature products which are chemically different from the reactants (see section 7.8) During combustion there is no energy exchange with the surroundings, the effect being a gradual decrease in chemical energy with a corresponding increase in enthalpy ofthe working Nuid. The combustion reaction will not be considered in detail here, and a simplification will be made by assuming that the chemical energy released on a combustion is equivalent to a transfer of heat at constant pressure to a working fluid of constant mean specific heat. This simplified Approach allows the actual process to be compared with the ideal and to be represented on a T-s diagram. ‘Neglecting the pressure loss in the combustion chamber the cycle may be drawn on a T-s diagram as shown in Fig. 92. Line 1-2 represents irreversible adiabatic compression; line 2~3 represents constant pressure heat supply in the 261Gas Turbine Cycles 262 combustion chamber; line 3-4 represents irreversible adiabatic expansion, The process 12s represents the ideal isentropic process between the same pressures P; and p2. Similarly the process 3~4s represents the ideal isentropic expansion process between the pressures pz and p,. For the moment it will be assumed that the change in kinetic energy between the various points in the cycle is negligibly small compared with the enthalpy changes. Then applying the flow equation to each part of the cycle, we have the following for unit mass, For the compressor: Work input = ¢4(Ts ~ 7;) For the combustion chamber: Heat supplied = ¢(7, — For the turbine: Work output = e,(T, — ‘ol Ts — Te) ~ ¢y(Ts = T1) ret work output heat supplied Ty — Ts) ‘Then Net work output and Thermalefficienc; eT; = T) The value of the specific heat capacity of a real gas varies with temperature; also, in the open cycle, the specific heat capacity of the gases in the combustion chamber and in the turbine is different from that in the compressor because fuel has been added and a chemical change has taken place. Curves showing the variation of c, with temperature and air-fuel ratio can be used, and a suitable mean value of ¢, and hence 7 can be found, It is usual in the gas turbine practice to assume fixed mean values ofc, and y for the expansion process, and fixed mean values of c, and + for the compression process. For the combustion process, curves as shown in Fig, 9.18 (p.282) are used; for simple calculations ‘a mean value of c, can be assumed. In an open-cycle gas turbine unit the mass flow of gases in the turbine is greater than that in the compressor due to the ‘mass of fuel burned, but it is possible to neglect the mass of fuel, since the air—fuel ratios used are large, Also, in many cases airis bled from the compressor for cooling purposes, or in the case of aircraft at high altitude, bleed air is used for de-icing and cabin air-conditioning This amount of air bleed is approximately the same as the mass of fuel injected, The isentropic eficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of the work ‘input required in isentropic compression between p, and p; to the actual work required. ‘Neglecting changes in kinetic energy, we have - eT 1) ‘Compressor isentropic efficiency, yo = 2 2«— Tt nprestorisntopiceficenysie = 24H ly T =o (9.1) a (01)Example 9.1 Solution Fig. 93. Gas turbine unit (a) and T=s diagram (b) for Example 9.1 94 The practical ‘turbine cycle ‘Similarly the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is defined as the ratio of the ‘actual work output to the isentropic work output between the same pressures. ‘Neglecting kinetic energy changes on Ts = Te) ‘Turbine isentropiceffciency,ny = 2 a an) (9.2) ‘A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 10/1 and 2 maximum cycle temperature of 700°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0,82 and O85 respectively. Calculate the power output of an electric generator geared to the turbine when the air enters the compressor at 15°C at the rate of 15 kg/s. Take c, = 1.005 kJ/kg K and 1.4 for the compression process, and take c= 1.11 kJ/kg K and y = 1.333 for the expansion process. {A line diagram of the unit is shown in Fig. 9.3(a), and the cycle is shown on. ‘a T-s diagram in Fig. 9.3(b). In order to evaluate the net work output it is necessary to calculate the temperatures T; and T,. To calculate 7; we must first calculate T,, and then use the isentropic efficiency. Ta 104270 BK 973, Generator | — “Temperature/(K) T=134203 Lasek @ From equation (3.21) for an isentropic process Ty (ve\™ T, G therefore Toy = 288 x (10)°4!4 = 288 x 1931 = 556K ‘Then using equation (9.1) Ty—T, _ 556-288 _ 082 Ne 263Gos Turbine Cycles therefore T, = 288 + 3268 = 6148 K Similarly for the turbine therefore T= 28 973, OPH ~ 1778 ‘Then from equation (9.2) Tyee ee TT, 913 — S874 ie, (973 — T,) = 4256 x 085 therefore T,= 973 — 3618 = 612K Hence Compressor work input = ¢,(Ty — T,) = 1.005 x 326.8 = 328.4 KI /kg ‘Turbine work output = e4(T, — Tj) = Lt x 3618 = 401.6 kI/kg 1 therefore Net work output = (401.6 — 328.4) = 73.2 kI/kg ie. Power output = 73.2 x 15 = 1098 kW Example 9.2 Calculate the cycle efficiency and the work ratio of the plant in Example 9.1, assuming that c, for the combustion process is 1.11 kI/kg K Solution Heat supplied = e,(73 ~ T;) 1.11(973 ~ 6148) = 11 x 358.2 kI/kg ie, Heat supplied = 397.6 kJ/kg Therefore network output _ 732 heatsupplied ~ 397.6 ie, Cycle efficiency = 0.184 or 18.4% Cycle efficiency 264Fig. 94 Gas turbine unit with separate power turbine (a) and the eyele on a diagram (b) Example 9.3, 9.1 The practical gas turbine eye From the definition of work ratio given in section 5.3, we have network output _ 73.2 Work ratio = PEWOre Outpt ross work output 4016 0.182 Use of a power turbine In Examples 9.1 and 9.2 the turbine is arranged to drive the compressor and to develop net work. It is sometimes more convenient to have two separate turbines, one of which drives the compressor while the other provides the power output. The first, or high-pressure (HP) turbine, is then known as the compressor turbine, and the second, or low-pressure (LP) turbine, is called the power turbine, The arrangement is shown in Fig. 9.4(a). Assuming that each turbine has its own isentropic efficiency, the cycle is as shown on a T-s diagram in Fig. 9.4(b). The numbers on Fig. 9.4(b) correspond to those of Fig. 9.4(a). Neglecting kinetic energy changes, we have work from HP turbine = work input to compressor ie, (Th-T) =6(2~T) Generator we 5 WP Exhaust where c,, and c,, are the specific heat capacities at constant pressure of the gases in the turbine and the air in the compressor respectively. The net work output is then given by the LP turbine, Net work output = ¢,(Ty ~ 13) ‘A gas turbine unit takes in air at 17°C and 1.01 bar and the pressure ratio is 8/1. The compressor is driven by the HP turbine and the LP turbine drives, ‘a separate power shaft. The isentropic eficiencies of the compressor, and the HP and LP turbines are 0.8, 0.85, and 0.83 respectively. Calculate the pressure 265Goe Turbine Cycles and temperature of the gases entering the power turbine, the net power developed by the unit per kg/s mass flow rate, the work ratio and the eycle efficiency of the unit, The maximum cycle temperature is 650°C. For the compression process take e, = 1.005 ki/kg K andy = 1.4;for the combustion process, and for the expansion process take c, = 1.15 kl/kg K and y = 1.333 Neglect the mass of fuel Solution ‘The unit is as shown in Figs 9.4(a) and 9.4(b), From equation (3.21), for an isentropic process, by (" =r T ®) ie Thy = 290 x 8°44 = 299 x 1.811 = 525K Then, using equation (9.1) 525 ~ 290 te os therefore 1, ~ 290 = 33 os ie T= 290-4294 = 584K ‘Then Work input tothe compressor = ¢,(T; ~ T;) = 1.005 x 294 = 2955 kd/ke Now the work output from the HP turbine must be sufficient to drive the compressor, Work output from HP turbin¢ (1, — T) = 2955 kI/keg therefore Ty~ = 95 2 257K LS therefore Ty = Ty ~ 287 = 923 ~257 = 666K ‘Then, using equation (9.2), Ty~T, _ 923-666 for HP turbi —_ in turbine = 3 = in 93-1, = = 3025K 3s therefore Tay = 923 — 302.5 = 620.5 K 2669.1. The practical gas turbine cycle ‘Then {rom equation (3.21) for an isentropic process, m-(2)" a) a BA(B)T. (Boas Pa \Tay 6205, ‘ Py 8x 101 aeaey 1.65 bar ee A949 Hence the pressure and temperature at entry to the LP turbine are 1.65 bar and 393°C, where f, = 666 — 273 = 393°C. To find the power output it is now necessary to evaluate ;. The pressure ratio, p4/Ps, is given by (Pe/Ps) x (3/Ps), ie, Pea P§ x22 (since py = py and ps = Ps) Ps Ps therefore m8 163 ps 49 tn Then 7 () 1.630290 = 1131 Ts. \Ps, therefore T= 5% = se8k TI Then, using equation (9.2) 1, ~Ts «for the LP turbine = 2+" ‘ty for the a 183(666 — $88) = 0.83 x 78 = 648 K Then Work output from LP turbine = c,(T, — Ts) = LIS x 64.8 = 745 kI/kg ie, ie, Net power output = 74.5 x 1 = Work ratio = network output ross work outpui z Heat supplied = ¢,,(7, — T;) = 1.15(923 — $84) ic, Heat supplied = 1.15 x 339 = 390 kJ/kg net work output _ 74.5 heatsupplied — 390 = 0.191 oF 19.1% Then Cycleefficiency 287Gas Turbine Cyotes Example 9.4 Solution Fig. 9.18 Gas turbine plant (a) and T-s diagram (b) for with conventional internal combustion engines of equivalent power, In large gas turbine units for marine propulsion or industrial power, a heat exchanger may be used, although the trend now is towards combined cycles using the turbine exhaust to generate steam or heat water (see Chapter 17). ‘A 5000 kW gas turbine generating set operates with two compressor stages with intercooling between stages; the overall pressure ratio is 9/1. A HP turbine is used to drive the compressors, and a LP turbine drives the generator. ‘The temperature of the gases at entry (0 the HP turbine is 650°C and the gases are reheated to 650°C after expansion in the first turbine, The exhaust gases leaving the LP turbine are passed through a heat exchanger to heat the air leaving the HP stage compressor. The compressors have equal pressure ratios and intercoofing is complete between stages. The air inlet temperature to the unit is 15°C. The isentropic efficiency of each compressor stage is 0.8 and the isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage is 0.85; the heat exchanger thermal ratio is 0.75. A mechanical efficiency of 98% can be assumed for both the power shaft and the compressor turbine shaft. Neglecting all pressure losses and changes in kinetic energy, calculate: (i) the cycle efficiency; (ii) the work ratio; (ii) the mass flow rate. For air take ¢,= 1.005 kJ/kg K and y= 14, and for the gases in the combustion chamber and in the turbines and heat exchanger take Gp = LAS KI/kg K and y = 1.333, Neglect the mass of fuel (i) The plant is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 9.15(a), and the cycle is represented on a T-s diagram in Fig. 9.15(b). ‘Since the pressure ratio and the isentropic efficiency of each compressor is the same, then the work input required for each compressor is the same since both compressorshave the same air inlet temperature,ie. T; = Tyand T, = Ts, Example 94 Interooler Ai aot Ta 3 Kh Lp hp e c L—- ‘ Net power ouput 0 Taos v @ ° 276EOYs T \p. Pr Tx, 288 x 3044 ‘Then from equation (9.1), ‘toy LP compressor rT therefore 394 — 288 _ 106 og” 08 ie T= 288 + 132.5 = 4205 K rT, Also Work input per compressor stage = ¢,,(7 ~ 71) = 1,005 x 132.5 = 133.1 kI/kg. ‘The HP turbine is required to drive both compressors and to overcome mechanical friction, 2x 1334 ie, Work output of HP turbine = : 0.98 72 kI/ke therefore GATe— Ty) = 272 ie, 1.15(923 ~ T) = 272 therefore 923 ~ %, = 22 = 2365 Lis 923 — 236.5 = 686.5 K From equation (9.2) iy HP turbine therefore Ty— Ty = 85 = 8K 0385 ie, Try =923 278 = 645K 277278 ‘Then using equation (3.21) r=) sa3ya93 Be ( B) 2) = 419 Pe_ 9 The ay Rta en Pm Tg 2 Using equation (3.21) ane e_(m)"™ argos an z(i) therefore in D6 oa ‘Then using equation (9.2) r, ‘tr LP turbine = 22 Ts therefore Ty ~ Ty = 085 x (923 ~ 762.6) 23 — 136.3 = 786.7 K ie Ba Therefore Network output = ¢,,(7%— %) x 0.98 = 115 x 1363 x 0.98 = 153.7 ki/ke From equation (9.6) ‘Thermal ratio of heat exchanger = ie, Ts ~ 4205 = 0.75(786.7 — 420.5) = 274.7K therefore Ty = 4205 +274. Now Heatsupplied = ¢,(T% — Ti) + ¢,(T—T) 15 {(923 — 695.2) + (923 — 686.5)} = 534 KI /ke ‘Then, from equation (5.2) Cycle efficiency = =, Q (ii) Gross work output = work output of HP turbine + work output of LP turbineExample 9.5 Solution Fig. 916. T-s diagram showing pressure losses for Example 9.5 9.2. Modifications to the basic cycle 1537 ie. Gross work output = 272 ‘um ] * * 098 rks Therefore Work ratio = etworkoutput _ 1337 _ 9 a5 gross work output 429 (iii) The electrical output is 5000 kW. Let the mass flow rate be rt kg/, then 5000 = rit x 153.7 5000 1 = 50 a26eg/s 153.7 el ic. Rate of flow of air = 32.6 kg/s Effect of pressure loss In Example 9-4 all pressure losses were neglected. In an actual gas turbine unit thete are pressure losses due to friction and turbulence in the intercooler, in the air side of the heat exchanger, in both combustion chambers, and in the {gas side of the heat exchanger, and in the exhaust duct. The high heat transfer rate in a combustion chamber leading to an appreciable velocity increase in a duct of approximately constant cross-sectional area causes a further pressure oss in addition to that due to friction and turbulence. For the gas turbine generating set of Example 9.4 recalculate the cycle efficiency and work ratio, taking the following pressure losses into account, ‘but assuming all other assumptions still apply: ait side of heat exchanger, 03 bar; gas side of heat exchanger and exhaust duct, 0.05 bar; intercooler, 0.15 bar; each combustion chamber, 0.2 bar. ‘Take an ambient pressure of 1.01 bar, a pressure ratio for each compressor of 3:1 as previously calculated, and find a new overall pressure ratio for the compression, All other data are unchanged Referring to the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 9.16, as before: Tay = 288(3)9 28° = 394K 279