Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02041-y

REVIEW

Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly

applications
Sanjeev Balda1 · Aarjoo Sharma1 · Neena Capalash2 · Prince Sharma1

Received: 17 October 2020 / Accepted: 29 January 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Natural fibres of plant and animal origin have been explored vastly over the last two decades and are gaining importance
over synthetic counterparts owing to their biodegradability, renewability, lightweight and better biochemical and strength
properties. Plant-based natural fibres such as banana, coir, sisal, jute, kenaf and many others have been studied for industrial
applications. Among these, banana fibre is of major interest as banana is one of the most consumed fruit worldwide with
annual production of 115.7 million tonnes in the year 2018 and is grown in 130 countries, which makes banana waste avail-
able locally. Various parts of banana plant such as fruit, fruit peel, flower bud, leaves and pseudo-stem (banana trunk) are
utilized for different industrial purposes. Pseudo-stem is the major portion of banana waste biomass and yields good qual-
ity fibre that has the potential for industrial applications in the making of sanitary pads, textiles, pulp and paper, food and
reinforced composite materials for automobiles, construction material, aerospace and other composite materials. Recently,
Philippine Department of Science and Technology prepared masks from banana fibre which can cut the usage of single
usage plastic. This review outlines various methods of extraction of fibre, biochemical and mechanical properties of banana
fibre and its applications.
Graphic abstract

Keywords Banana fibre · Natural fibre · Eco-friendly · Sanitary pads · Reinforced composites · Pulp and paper

Sanjeev Balda and Aarjoo Sharma contributed equally

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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Introduction
The rising concern for global warming, stringent environ-
mental regulations and community awareness insist upon
forest conservation and reducing the plastic pollution. There
is thus increasing demand from industries for sustainable
materials to replace forest-based raw material as well as syn-
thetic polymers. One such category of sustainable materials
is agrowaste residues which are being explored for potential
industrial applications. Agrowaste residues are good sources
of natural fibres which are eco-friendly alternate to synthetic
polymers. With increasing demand for natural fibre-based
products, worldwide production of natural fibres is also
increasing. In addition to being environmental friendly,
natural fibres provide additional features of renewability,
lightweight, excellent absorption and mechanical proper-
ties (Dunne et al. 2016). Moreover, these are biodegradable
and recyclable. Hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, cotton, flax, ramie
and banana fibres are natural ones being used and explored
by industries. Banana fibre, which is extracted from pseudo-
stem, has better fineness and spin ability than others. Banana
pseudo-stem is the major portion of biomass waste left after
fruit harvesting which can provide an alternate source to the
fibre-based industries (Yan et al. 2016).
Banana is among the most popular health fruit in the
world and is a rich source of fibre, iron, potassium, vitamin
C, vitamin B6 and manganese. Owing to the increasing
awareness about health, public is interested in hygienic
food products and functional foods. Banana seems to be
of special interest as it has various health benefits such
as in controlling blood pressure and reducing the risk
of neurodegenerative disorders. It helps in lowering the
incidence of degenerative diseases such as arthritis, heart
disease, inflammation, arteriosclerosis, brain dysfunction
and cancer (Singh et al. 2016). So demand for banana fruit
is steadily increasing owing to its health benefits.
The banana plant, which is perennial and belongs to
the family of Musaceae, has height that varies from 10 to
40 feet and bears fruit up to 12 inches. Major producers
of banana are subtropical and tropical countries. According
to (FAOSTAT 2018), total annual world production is esti-
mated at 115.7 million tonnes of fruit. India leads the world
with 26.7% of the total banana production, an annual output
of about 30.81 million tonnes from an area of 0.88 million
hectares. Other leading producers are China, Indonesia,
Brazil, Ecuador and Philippines (Fig. 1). India accounts for
only 0.38% of the total world export as most of produce is
consumed locally. Ecuador is the major banana exporting
country accounting for about 27.6% of total world export,
followed by Costa Rica, Colombia and Belgium.
The trunk of banana plant, also called pseudo-stem, is
made of leaf sheaths wrapped around the soft central core
13
S. Balda et al.
(Fig. 2).The banana pseudo-stem bears fruits only once
in its lifetime, before being replaced, and becomes waste
after fruit harvesting. Each hectare of banana plantation
is estimated to produce biomass waste of about 220 tons.
India alone produces about 190 million tons of biomass
waste from banana plantations. As per (FAOSTAT 2018)
report, total world area under cultivation is about 5.72 mil-
lion hectares, thus producing 1.243 billion tonnes of waste.
The major portion of the biomass waste from banana plant
is pseudo-stem. Due to lack of knowledge and resources,
this waste is either burned or dumped in lakes, rivers or
shallow areas, which leads to release of greenhouse gases
causing serious threat to environment. This necessitates
the need for proper utilization of banana biomass waste,
especially in countries like India which is the leading pro-
ducer of banana fruit.
Various parts of banana such as leaves, pseudo-stem, pith
and fruit peels can be utilized for different food-based appli-
cations such as flavouring agent, colorant, livestock feed and
nutraceuticals (Padam et al. 2014) and nonfood-based appli-
cations such as making tea bags, biofertilizers, wastewater
treatment, paper production (Tripathi et al. 2019), textile
and composites (Akinyemi and Dai 2020). Banana pseudo-
stem is being explored for quality fibre extraction. Like other
natural fibres, mechanical properties of banana pseudo-stem
fibre are comparable to traditional reinforcements. Being a
plant-based fibre, it provides additional benefits to the indus-
try of being an eco-friendly alternative (Yan et al. 2016).
Characteristics of banana fibre
Banana fibre obtained from the pseudo-stem of plant has
appearance similar to that of ramie and bamboo fibres.
Pseudo-stem is formed of about 14 to 18 sheaths and pro-
duces fibres of different quality depending upon position,
viz. (a) course fibre (outermost 2–3 sheaths) that breaks
easily so these sheaths are rejected, (b) soft lustrous fibre
(middle sheaths) and (c) very soft fibre (some middle and
inner sheaths excluding innermost sheaths). Pulpy matter
is present in the innermost sheaths and is not processed for
fibre production. Nearly 600 kg/ha of banana fibre can be
produced from pseudo-stem (Vardhini et al. 2018).
Morphological properties
Like most natural fibres, banana fibre is also multicellular.
Cells of banana fibre are irregular in shape—mostly non-
spherical—and cell wall is thick. It has an elongated and
very narrow central lumen (Ramesh et al. 2017). Elongation
of banana fibre is small but is highly strong. Fibre thick-
ness is in the range of 0.05 to 0.25 mm, decreasing from
outer to inner sheaths. Usually, physically extracted fibre has
Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly applications

Fig. 1  Status of banana cultiva-

tion in top producer countries

Fig. 2  Diagrammatic represen-

tation of a Banana Plant and b
cross-sectional view of banana
pseudo-stem

13
 S. Balda et al.

rough surface in comparison with bio-extracted one which pineapple leaf fibre (Ramesh et al. 2017). These strength
has clean surface. This is due to the presence of adhesive properties make banana fibre a promising candidate for
vegetative matter. Fibre quality is deteriorated by mechanical applications in pulp and paper and reinforced composite
extraction methods (Jayaprabha et al. 2011). industries.

Chemical properties

In comparison with other fruit plants, banana has high cellu-
lose content. The major components of banana pseudo-stem
are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, collectively known
as lignocellulosic content. With variations in climatic and
agricultural conditions, chemical composition of pseudo-
stem sheaths varies even in the same plant varieties. The
range of lignocellulosic content is 60–85% of dry weight for
different pseudo-stem sheaths. Ash content varies from 7 to
21% with innermost sheaths having the highest ash content.
Pectin is present in the range of 2.5 to 4% (Jayaprabha et al.
2011). Chemical properties of selected natural fibres have
been surveyed from literature (Table 1).
Fibre extraction
Various methods to separate the banana biomass have been
reported in literature. Lignin, hemicellulose and pectin are
responsible for bonding of thick cell walls of banana fibre.
Fibre extraction is done manually, mechanically, chemically
or biologically. A combination of these methods is also used.
Steps involved in extraction of banana fibre from pseudo-
stem are represented in Fig. 3.
Manual extraction

Mechanical properties Manual extraction, also known as stripping, is a laborious

Mechanical properties of banana fibre make it a good
choice for various applications as it has good tensile and
flexural strengths and stiffness. It is strong and breaking
causes less strain. Modulus of elasticity (flexural strength),
which is material’s resistance to deformation, is in the
range of 27 to 32 GPa which is higher as compared to
other natural fibres such as bamboo, sisal, coir and pal-
myra (Table 2). Tensile strength ranges from 529 to as
high as 914 MPa, i.e. higher than bamboo, coir, sisal and
process as it is done using knives where pseudo-stem is first
de-sheathed followed by flattening. Further 50–80-mm-wide
strips, known as tuxy, are formed with the help of knife. This
separation process, called tuxing, is followed by removal of
gum and other residual components i.e. degumming. The
fibre is then washed and dried for further applications (Ray
et al. 2013). The quality of fibre produced is good, but the
major drawbacks of manual extraction are that it requires
skilled labour and is time-consuming, making this process
unfeasible for large-scale productions (Simbana et al. 2020).

Table 1  Biochemical properties of natural fibres

Fibre Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Pectin (%) Ash (%) Reference

Banana pseudo–stem 60–85 6–8 5–10 2.5–4 7–21 (Jayaprabha et al. 2011)
Coir 36–43 0.15–0.25 41–45 4 2.7–10.2 (Yan et al. 2016)
Cotton 83–95 4 0.75 6 0.6 (Yan et al. 2016)
Bamboo 34.5 20.5 26 – – (Yan et al. 2016)
Sisal 66–78 10–13 8–10 1.2 1 (Simbana et al. 2020)
Pineapple leaf fibre 81 18 12.7 – 3.6–7.0 (Faruk et al. 2012)

Table 2  Mechanical properties Fibre Tensile strength Flexural Elongation (%) Reference
of natural fibres (MPa) strength (GPa)

Banana pseudo–stem 529–914 27–32 3 (Ramesh et al. 2017)

Coir 175 4–6 30 (Ramesh et al. 2017)
Cotton 287–800 5.5–12.6 7–8 (Ramesh et al. 2017)
Bamboo 140–230 11–17 – (Faruk et al. 2012)
Sisal 400–700 9–38 3–7 (Simbana et al. 2020)
Pineapple leaf fibre 400–627 1.44 14.5 (Faruk et al. 2012)

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Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly applications
Fig. 3  Steps involved in extraction of banana fibre from pseudo-stem
Mechanical extraction
In mechanical extraction, decorticator or raspador machines
are used for extraction of banana fibre from pseudo-stem
sheaths. In decorticator machine, a shaft is mounted with
rolling drum, which has blades positioned on its circumfer-
ence. The electric motor rotates the drum and creates beat-
ing action. Pseudo-stem sheath is fed through mouthpiece
and moves to feeding roller. Further crushing and beating
action of rotating drum is responsible for separation of fibre.
This is followed by degumming, fibre washing and drying.
This process is about 25 times faster than manual extraction,
and the capacity of these machines is about two tonnes dry
fibre per day (Mumthas et al. 2019). But since the natural
binding material cannot be removed from the fibres, detach-
ment of fibre is incomplete. Also the lignin component is not
completely removed, thus making the fibre undesirable for
industrial applications (Jayaprabha et al. 2011).
Chemical extraction
Chemical extraction involves the use of alkali, mild acids,
hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide. In this method, fibre
is first boiled in alkali solution to remove xylan and arabans
(major components of gum) followed by washing with water
for neutralization. Fibre bleaching is done using hypochlorite
or hydrogen peroxide followed again by washing with water.
Oxalic acid and sulphuric acid along with detergents are
also used sometimes for chemical extraction. Other chemi-
cals such as potassium permanganate, stearic acid and
benzoyl chloride have also been used (Arifuzzaman Khan
et al. 2013). Quality of chemically extracted fibre depends
upon treatment time, temperature, concentration and type of
chemicals used (Vardhini et al. 2018). The chemicals used
for fibre extraction cause environmental issues as the waste
released after chemical extraction has high COD, BOD, hal-
ogenated compounds and lignin derivatives. Waste should
therefore be treated before it is released into the environment
in order to minimize its harmful effects, which also adds to
operational costs (Mumthas et al. 2019).
Biological extraction
Biological method uses microbes or enzymes for fibre
extraction from banana pseudo-stem. Biological extraction
has the advantage of being specific, selective and is car-
ried out under mild conditions without the use of chemicals.
It can be done both aerobically and anaerobically (Jacob
et al. 2008). Traditional biological extraction uses bacteria
or fungi present in environment to remove hemicellulose,
pectin and lignin. Pseudo-stem sheaths are soaked in water
in the presence of environmental microbes (e.g. Bacillus,
Clostridium, Fusarium lateritium and Rhizomucor pusillus)
for several days to remove these noncellulosic components.
Akubueze et al. (2015) reported biological extraction with
a bacterial consortium of Bacillus cereus, B. licheniformis,
B. subtilis and B. polymyxa. Major drawback of these meth-
ods is that longer duration is required for treatment. Major
enzymes which can be used for biological extraction of
natural fibres are hemicellulases, pectinases and laccases.
These enzymes act by attacking the noncellulosic content
of sheaths to release the fibre (Chiliveri et al. 2016). Xu
et al. (2015) used commercial pectinase and protease for
biological extraction of banana fibre. Tensile strength and
elongation of biologically extracted fibre were higher than
that of mechanically extracted fibre. Mumthas et al (2019)
performed comparison studies for mechanical, chemical
and biological extraction methods. Chemical extraction
was done using NaOH, while pectinase enzyme was used
for biological extraction. An increase of 30% for chemical
extraction and 40% for biological extraction was reported in
comparison with mechanically extracted fibre. Another eco-
friendly method using pectinase from Aspergillus niger and
A. fumigates has been reported for the effective degumming
and extraction of banana fibre (Vellaichamy and Gaonkar
2017). Pectinase removes interlamellar pectin and thus helps
in the degumming of fibres. Kohli and Gupta (2019) used
calcium alginate immobilized pectin lyase from B. cereus for
eco-friendly extraction of banana fibre. Microbes and their
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enzymes are good bioresources for the bioremediation of
different types of wastes. As waste generated from biologi-
cal extraction has lower BOD, lower COD and decreased
pollutant load, it eliminates the need for additional waste
treatment steps. Biological extraction has the advantage of
being environmental friendly, but still has limited applicabil-
ity due to longer treatment time and high enzyme production
cost. Future research should therefore focus on the isolation
of novel enzymes and the application of genetic and enzyme
engineering for efficient and robust enzymes so as to lower
the treatment time and production cost.
Applications of banana fibre
Owing to its biodegradability, better chemical and mechani-
cal properties, banana fibre has the potential for application
in industries such as sanitary napkins, food, natural fibre-
based composites, pulp and paper, and textile.
Sanitary napkins
According to National Family Health Survey (2015–2016),
only 36% (121 million) women in India are using disposable
sanitary napkins and that might be due to their unavailabil-
ity and unaffordability in rural areas, monthly household
income, lack of awareness regarding menstrual hygiene and
sanitation and different taboos and beliefs. In previous years,
materials such as clothes, grasses, papyrus and mosses were
used without any sanitation treatment, resulting in physi-
cal and mental health related problems such as reproductive
tract infections, yeast infections and cervical cancer. Nowa-
days, most companies are producing sanitized napkins in
market but instead of getting alleviated, the problem of envi-
ronmental pollution and carbon footprints is on the rise as
these are mostly made of plastic. Super-absorbent polymer
(SAP) is used, with polyethylene (PE), a waterproof sheath
for its back cover. Being nonbiodegradable and unsafe due to
the addition of dioxins, formaldehyde and scented chemicals
in it, women are more prone to skin allergies, rashes, itchi-
ness, and reduced fertility, interference with normal foetal
and childhood development and to high risk of developing
cancer. In India, every year approximately 12.3 billion non-
biodegradable disposable sanitary napkins are being gener-
ated. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS)
Fig. 4  Three layers of conven-
tional sanitary pads
13
S. Balda et al.
showed that a large amount of harmful gases is released
in atmosphere either by dumping these in landfills (33%),
throwing with routine waste (28%), throwing in open (28%)
or by their direct burning in environment (15%) (Sambyal
et al. 2019).
To overcome the health, occupational and environmen-
tal hazard problems, this plastic pad revolution needs to
be replaced with the green, cost-friendly and eco-feminist
revolution. Considering the affordability, health and environ-
mental impact, sustainable sanitary napkins made of cheaper
and natural material having longer fluid retention capacity
should be used. Naturally available absorbent and cheaper
materials like banana fibre, bamboo fibre, jute and cotton
are being employed as alternatives to plastic-based sanitary
pads. Conventional sanitary pads are made up of three main
layers having their specific functional properties, the top
sheet, absorbent core and barrier sheet (Fig. 4). Top sheet
frequently transfers the fluid to the inner layers. Polypro-
pylene fibre is used majorly in commercially available top
sheets. Next to the top layer, absorbent core is made up of
SAP and wood pulp. SAP possesses the property to absorb
and retain the fluid into a jelly like substance to prevent the
backflow of fluid. Barrier sheet is fluid impermeable film
made up of polyethylene (Woeller and Hochwalt 2015).
To design the green, eco-feminist sanitary pads, these
three layers should be replaced with alternative natural and
sustainable raw materials.
Green top layer
Organic cotton and Tencel fibre have become the first choice
for use as the top sheet. Both are soft, skin-friendly, bio-
degradable and have superior liquid transfusion property
through their capillary actions. Tencel is a lyocell fibre hav-
ing submicroscopic channels to manage moisture absorption
and liberation.
Green material for absorbent core and barrier sheet
To improve the strength and hygiene of women and to
keep the nature free from tonnes of waste, a start-up com-
pany—Saathi—in India has developed 100% biodegrad-
able, affordable, soft, plastic and chemical-free Saathi’s
pads, made of banana fibre which just takes 3 to 6 months
to biodegrade into compost in landfill and claims 50% higher
Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly applications
absorption strength than cotton fibres. Reusable pads made
of banana fibre and cotton cloth are also available in mar-
ket as Saukhyam pads and offer a sustainable alternative
to nondegradable plastic pads. These are 75% cheaper than
conventional ones and are fresh and ready to use again after
washing with cold water and soap. A nonprofitable NGO
SHE (Sustainable Health Enterprises) also used banana
fibre to develop eco-friendly and affordable sanitary pads in
developing countries. Sanfe: India’s new age female hygiene
innovation brand, developed compostable, reusable and
cheaper sanitary pads from banana fibre and claimed their
repeated usage up to 120 washes. Four different layers (poly-
ester pilling fabric, terry and banana fibres and cotton polyu-
rethane laminate) were used to design quadrant true lock
technology that makes the product rash-free and liquid-proof
(IIT Delhi). As polyurethane takes longer time to degrade, it
can be replaced with bioplastic products derived from corn
starch or with polylactides, polyhydroxyalkanoates and PLA
(Poly Lactic Acid) fibre. TiO2/Ag + was added to PLA to
impart the antimicrobial property (Shirai et al. 2016).
Petchimuthu et al. (2019) attempted to design and distrib-
ute UV-sterilized multilayered sanitary pads made of banana
fibres, organic cotton and muslin cloth wrapped in canvas
cloth in rural areas and observed absorbance capacity of
5 h with no rashes or foul smell. Lightweight, soft, supe-
rior absorption, bleach and perfume free, easily and quickly
biodegradable and availability are the remarkable properties
that make the environment- and animal-friendly banana fibre
the first choice of companies to make green, affordable and
sustainable sanitary pads.
For designing and developing the sanitary pads, locally
available bamboo fibre can be an alternative material for
absorbent core. Bamboo fibre is very soft and absorbs water
3–4 times better than cotton and also helps in reducing the
bad odour due to the presence of multiple micro-holes and
micro-gaps. In addition to this, it also contains a natural
agent “bamboo kun” that imparts the antibacterial, antifun-
gal and antistatic property to the bamboo fibre. Seven super
absorbent core layers of bamboo fibre meshed with corn
starch and bioactive biodegradable lactide have been com-
mercialized by the name HeyDay pads in market. Carmesi
pads, made of bamboo fibre and corn base bio plastic, are
disposable for their clearance but high cost is the limiting
factor for easy affordability in rural areas (Fig. 5).
Food applications
With improvement in the living standards of people, diet
has become a matter of concern due to the lack of intake
of nutritional foods that adjust the body functions and help
prevent many lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovas-
cular disease, obesity, intestinal cancer and constipation
that are majorly caused by an imbalanced diet and stressful
environment. Therefore, functional foods rich in dietary
fibre have attracted more attention in recent years as dietary
fibres are reported to have outstanding health promotion
benefits (Sujithra and Manikkandan 2019). Dietary fibre is
nonstarch polysaccharides including cellulose, noncellulosic
polysaccharides such as hemicellulose, pectin, mucilage and
lignin that cannot be digested or absorbed by human gastro-
intestinal tract. Current studies on dietary fibre have mainly
focused on wheat bran, corn, soybean, rice bran and banana
stem sources. Banana stem as a rich source of fibre helps
control obesity and aids in detoxifying the body. Banana
pseudo-stem flour has good amount of several important
macro minerals like potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg) and phosphorus (P) which are impor-
tant to maintain body health. The central core of banana is
edible and is used to prepare dishes, candies, drinks and
pickles. Candies are fortified with appreciable amounts of
iron, potassium and vitamin B (Ho et al. 2015). The leftover
of banana candy preparation or central core sap was used to
prepare soft drink and fresh juice that help prevent kidney
stones. The National Cancer Standard Institute established
that the banana peel extract is nontoxic to human cells and
can be utilized as a natural source of antioxidants. Banana
peel accounts for 30–40% of the total fruit weight and con-
tains carbohydrates-, proteins-, fibre-, gallocatechin-, dopa-
mine- and anthocyanins-rich compounds such as delphi-
nidin, cyanidin and catecholamines (González-Montelongo
et al. 2010). These compounds act as protective scavengers
against oxygen derived free radicals and reactive species
that play role in ageing and thus can be used in healthcare
industry. Kurhade et al. (2016) prepared functional bread
by incorporating banana peel powder in whole wheat flour
and reported increased antioxidant activity and photochemi-
cal content, therefore imparting health benefits to humans.
Khoozani et al. (2020) examined the physicochemical and
nutritional properties and in vitro digestibility of wheat
bread fortified with whole green banana flour. The use of
freeze-dried whole green banana flour as up to 30% substitu-
tion for wheat flour was observed to enhance the total dietary
fibre, macronutrients (P, K, Mg, Na and Ca) and mineral
content in bread. Slower starch digestibility (resistant starch)
of bread prepared using freeze-dried whole green banana
flour can be considered as prebiotic-containing functional
bread, utilized to promote the survival of probiotics. Instant
noodles with added banana flour, rich in dietary fibre, have
good nutritional quality and sensory acceptability. Banana
by-products have been used as nutraceuticals, bioactive and
flavouring compounds. Pith of the pseudo-stem and the
green culled banana is used as sources of edible starch that
has high resistance to heating and amylase action and was
proven to be superior to the commercially available corn
starch (Li et al. 2018).
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 S. Balda et al.

Fig. 5  a Quadrant true-lock technology of Sanfe Pads. b Saathi’s pads. c Reusable Saukhyam pads. d Biodegradable Carmesi pads. e Organic,
biodegradable Carmesi HeyDay pads

Natural fibre‑based composites
Composites consist of two or more components in which
one acts as the matrix and the other as reinforcement. Natu-
ral fibre-reinforced composites (NFRCs) are high-strength
fibres embedded in a polymer matrix and are used in vari-
ous industrial setups such as automobile, aerospace and
construction. Various natural fibres have been used as rein-
forcements in composites with polyethylene, polyester, poly-
vinylchloride and epoxy as matrix systems. Biodegradable

13
Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly applications

and eco-friendly matrix systems are also being explored for
application in composites such as poly-hydroxybutyrate-co-
β-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB),
poly (ester amide) (PEA) and polylactic acid (Yan et al.
2016). Earliest use of plant fibres in NFRCs was during
the reign of Pharaoh where bricks were supplemented with
straw. NFRCs offer various advantages over synthetic fibres
such as renewability, good insulation and thermal proper-
ties and biodegradability, i.e. after the completion of life
cycle, can be easily removed from environment (Anbupalani
et al. 2020). Plant-based natural fibres are attracting great
interest and are expected to grow at an annual rate of 13%.
Plant-based reinforced composites (PFRCs) are the matri-
ces composed of a combination of biodegradable polymer
and plant fibre. PFRCs are forecasted to represent 28% of
the market reinforcement composite material by the year
2020 and are offered as an alternative for replacing con-
ventional fibre reinforced composites (Ramesh et al. 2017).
PFRCs’ properties need to be tailored depending upon their
application and by selection of fibre, matrix and chemical
treatment (such as alkali, ­KMnO4, sodium lauryl sulphate,
silane), manufacturing methods and use of additives. Banana
fibres are being used in reinforced composite formations
(Table 3). First, large-scale application of natural fibres
was in automobile industry where banana fibre was used to
replace glass in polypropylene composite matrix, which was
used in Mercedes-Benz A-Class spare tyre. It has high rot
resistance and tensile strength (Kumari et al. 2019).
Banana fibre reinforcement composite of epoxy enhances
its tensile strength and impact strength by 90% and 40%,
respectively, in comparison with virgin epoxy. This means
that in comparison with virgin epoxy, composite sustains
higher load as the applied stress is transmitted and distrib-
uted from epoxy to banana fibre which results in higher
strength. Reinforcement of polylactic acid (PLA) compos-
ites with banana fibre reduces their brittleness. Also banana
fibre reinforcement of PLA composite enhanced flexural
strength by almost 70% and doubled the tensile strength. So
in addition to being eco-friendly, reinforcement of PLA has
application in high-temperature products such as hot food
containers (Pappu et al. 2015). Biodegradable and eco-
friendly cutlery with improved mechanical properties using
modified banana fibre and nanoclay (cloisite 30B)-reinforced
PLA bionanocomposite was prepared. Silane-treated banana
fibre and nanoclay-reinforced PLA have improved thermal
properties, modulus and tensile strength but elongation %
and impact strength decreased significantly due to decrease
in movement of polymer chains (Sajna et al. 2016).

Table 3   Applications of various parts of banana plant as food additives

Food additive Variety Application/Property Reference

Starch Unripe banana (Musa paradisi- Production of starch-based edible (Pinzon et al. 2020)
aca) coating to increase the shelf life
of strawberries
Dry flesh and peel of green banana Swelling and gelatinizing property (Li et al. 2018)
Unripe banana (Musa paradisi- Swelling and viscosity (Pelissari et al. 2012)
aca)
Pectin Ripened banana (Musa paradisia Fat replacer in salad cream (Maneerat et al. 2017)
var. Namwa)
Banana peels (Musa paradisiacal For biodegradable plastic film (Chodijah and Zaman 2019)
formatypica) formation
Anthocyanin-based pigments Bracts (Musa acuminate) Antioxidant, anticancer, anti- (Sujithra and Manikkandan 2019)
inflammatory
Bracts (Musa balbisiana) Natural colorant (Ove et al. 2019)
Bracts (Musa acuminate) Biocolour with antioxidant (Iyer and Tilara 2016)
property
Bioactive compounds: Pseudo-stem (Musa acuminata Antioxidant (Saravanan and Aradhya 2011)
Entisic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, balbisiana)
ferulic acid and cinnamic acid
Phenolics and Flavonoids Pseudo-stem and rhizome (Musa Nutraceutical beverage (Saravanan and Aradhya 2011)
AAB cv. Nanjanagudu Rasabale)
Anthocyanins, catecholamines, Peel (Musa acuminata Colla Antioxidant (González-Montelongo et al. 2010)
tocopherols, phytosterols and AAA)
ascorbic acid
Estragole, hexadecanoic acid ethyl Peel (Musa acuminata Colla Antioxidants González-Montelongo et al. (2010)
ester, epicatechin, gallocatechin, AAA)
coumaric acid, beta-tocopherol, Peel (Musa sapientum) Antioxidant (Waghmare and Kurhade 2014)
vitamin E

13

Layering sequence affects the mechanical properties of
snake grass/coir fibre and snake grass/banana fibre hybrid
composites. The latter had maximum tensile strength
while snake grass/coir composites gained maximum flex-
ural strength. Addition of banana fibre to polypropylene
improved the strength of composite by 42 to 80% in com-
parison with pure polypropylene which had a strength of
25.43 MPa (Vardhini et al. 2018). Compressing–moulding
technique was used to develop a hybrid trilayer composite
from sisal (S)/banana (B)/coconut sheath (C) and has the
potential for application in air space vehicles as an alterna-
tive to food stand (Senthilkumar et al. 2018). A hybrid of
banana fibre and glass fibre in phenolic resin showed 69.2%
higher tensile strength than bilayer composite of banana and
glass fibres. Boopalan et al. (2013) investigated mechanical
and thermal properties of banana and jute fibreṣ-reinforced
epoxy composites, and maximum impact strength and flex-
ural strength showed an increase of 35.5 and 4.3%, respec-
tively, for 50:50 ratio of banana and jute fibre reinforcement.
Banana fibre had also been studied for civil and construc-
tion applications. Banana fibre reinforcement at 12% by
mass enhanced the flexural strength (modulus of rupture)
of cement to 25 MPa. An increase of 77 and 94% in com-
pressive and flexural strengths, respectively, was observed
in banana fibre (0.35% by weight)-reinforced composite in
comparison with unreinforced cement (Mostafa and Uddin
2015). Akinyemi and Dai (2020) reported improvement up
to 33% in split tensile strength of cement composite by the
addition of banana fibre. Best performance was observed
on addition of 1.5% banana fibre, 10% wood bottom ash
and 0.3% styrene–butadiene rubber to the unreinforced
composite.
Pulp and paper industry
Paper industry is exploring different nonwood raw materi-
als for pulp and paper production due to the rapid depletion
of forest cover by excessive use of wood based material in
Table 4  Banana fibre composites and their mechanical properties
Composites Tensile strength
(MPa)
Nanoclay treated banana fibre and epoxy 149
Banana fibre, Euphorbia coagulum, and polyester – 31.6
Banana fibre-polylactic acid 78.6
Polypropylene and banana fibre yarn 77.74
Banana/sisal Fibre and polyester 58
Banana fibre and Phenol formaldehyde 26
Banana, glass and epoxy 120
Banana fibre (Laccase treated) and polypropylene 44
Banana fibre (Xylanase treated) and polypropylene 47
13
S. Balda et al.
different industries. Also, nonwood fibre-based paper pro-
duction is economical than wood-based paper. Banana fibre
has the potential for paper production due to high cellulose,
lower hemicellulose and lignin contents than other nonwood
material. It can be used for the production of currency paper,
cheque paper, writing paper and anti-grease paper. Paper
made from banana fibre has shelf life of more than 100 years
and is being used for making Japanese Yen notes. Banana
fibre has been reported for paper production, alone and in
combination with other agroresidue pulps (Table 4). Trip-
athi et al. (2019) reported up to 75% substitution of soft-
wood pulp with banana stem pulp without compromising
the strength properties of paper. Plastic wrapping material
can be replaced with wrapping paper made from banana
fibre. Paper made from 100% banana fibre was found most
absorbent and abrasion resistant. An addition of 20% waste-
paper to banana fibre enhanced the tensile strength and burst
index of paper. A patent was granted for making high-quality
paper as well as currency paper from banana fibre. Use of
enzymes for eco-friendly paper production has been of inter-
est to various researchers. Xylanase from Bacillus subtilis C
01 (Manimaran and Vatsala 2007) and Aspergillus oryzae
(Pratibha et al. 2017) was reported for banana fibre pulp
biobleaching with significant increase in optical and strength
properties of pulp (Table 5).
Textiles
The Indian textile market is expected to grow from 14.9% in
2018 and to 17.9% in 2023, compared to the global market
which is expected to grow at 4.3% rate and will cross USD
1350 billion by 2027. Such increasing demand of fabric is
presenting an attractive investment opportunity for fulfilling
the domestic requirement and increasing the export of textile
products. In recent years, scarcity of traditional resources of
natural fibres like cotton, wool, silk and flax has prompted
various textile industries to seek sustainable alternative
plant fibres such as mulberry bast, pineapple leaf, bamboo,
Flexural strength Impact strength Reference
(MPa) (KJ/m)
88 − (Mohan and Kanny 2019)
121 (Kumari et al. 2019)
65.4 17.4 (Pappu et al. 2015)
52.88 – (Amir et al. 2017)
63 36 (Idicula et al. 2010)
50 7 (Ghosh et al. 2011)
2500 – (Kumar et al. 2019)
67.24 25.72 (Vardhini et al. 2018)
73.24 26.56 (Vardhini et al. 2018)
Banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco‑friendly applications

Table 5  Application of banana Fibre Bright- Tensile Tear index Burst Reference
fibre in pulp and paper industry ness (% Index ­(mNm2/g) index
ISO) (Nm/g) (kN/g)

Banana 83.1 78.8 7.40 7.0 (Tripathi et al. 2019)

Banana 89.3 43.6 6.06 3.13 (Tripathi et al. 2013)
Banana + Bagasse (20:80) 90.2 55.3 6.93 3.6 (Tripathi et al. 2013)
Banana 42.15 72.21 4.70 4.25 (Kumar et al. 2013a)
Banana + Bagasse (20:80) 39.41 36.01 4.10 2 (Kumar et al. 2013a)
Banana 39 84.91 4.35 7.9 (Kumar et al. 2013b)
Banana + Cotton hosiery (50:50) 50.14 65.56 9.11 10.11 (Kumar et al. 2013b)

kapok and banana fibre for eco-friendly product formation. Conclusion

Long banana fibre with high tensile strength and stiffness is
a promising material for textile, yarn and handicraft prod-
ucts. Banana fibre had been used for textile manufacturing
from ancient times in India, as the evidence of this can be
found in epics like Ramayana where Sita and Rama wore
“Naravastra” clothes made from banana fibres. Japan and
Philippines have been employing banana fibre at a large
scale for commercial making of shirts, dresses and house-
hold items. The banana fibre has multifaceted uses in prepar-
ing many value-added products and handicraft items such
as table-mats, bags, wall hangings ropes, curtains, apparel
garments and home furnishings. Because it is lightweight
and comfortable, it is preferred by people as summer wear
(Pappu et al. 2015). Some studies have analysed the enzy-
matic degumming effect on banana fibre for textile purposes
so as to smoothen it for yarn and cloth production. Jacob
et al. (2008) showed a process for simultaneous extraction
and degumming of banana fibre by solid-state fermentation
using the polygalacturonase-producing Streptomyces lydi-
cus. The polygalacturonase and lignin peroxidase enzymes
from Aspergillus niger were used to improve the surface
smoothness and strength properties of banana pseudo-stem
fibre for application in textile industry (Vellaichamy and
Gaonkar 2017). Ortega et al. (2016) used a cocktail of pec-
tinase and hemicellulase (Biopectinase M01) and polygalac-
turonase (Biopectinase K) from BIOCON for the production
of textile-grade banana fibre.
Banana pseudo-stem, a waste after fruit harvest, is an excel-
lent source of good quality fibre. Quality and quantity of fibre
depend upon the extraction method. Exploitation of banana
fibre for different industrial applications provides a new direc-
tions to both academia and industries to explore its future
applications. Fibre content and strength properties are the
major concerns affecting applicability of banana fibre for spe-
cific applications. High cellulose and low lignin content make
banana fibre an excellent choice for pulp and paper industry
which is categorized as one of most polluting ones. Owing to
its excellent absorption and strength properties, banana fibre
has great potential as the base material in sanitary pads manu-
facturing, which being made up of plastic currently are major
pollutants. Therefore, banana fibre can be eco-friendly and
economical alternative to synthetic fibres. Major challenges for
commercial applications of banana fibre include efficient and
eco-friendly extraction of quality fibre from pseudo-stem at
large scale. Most of the research is currently limited to labora-
tory studies, so further scale-up of processes for industrial set
up is required. Future applications where banana fibre needs to
be explored include plastic free eco-friendly N95-type masks,
PPE kits, carry bags, eco-friendly clothes, mattresses and car-
pets, and application in art and craft designing. Applicability
for capsule coatings in medicinal research also needs to be
explored. Enzyme-based sustainable and eco-friendly process
for sanitary pad manufacturing is need of the hour.

Other applications
Compliance with ethical standards
Various other applications of banana pseudostem include
its use as dye absorbent, heavy metal absorber, biofertilizer Conflict of interest Authors declare no conflict of interest.
and substrate for mushroom cultivation (Padam et al. 2014).
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Authors and Affiliations
Sanjeev Balda1 · Aarjoo Sharma1 · Neena Capalash2 · Prince Sharma1
* Prince Sharma
princess@pu.ac.in
1
Department of Microbiology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, India
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Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
2
Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, India
13