Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Journal 2012
Journal 2012
Journal 2012
Members – Чланови
Prof. Dušan Mitić, PhD (University of Belgrade); Prof. Gordana Nikić, PhD (University
Singidunum); Prof. Dušan Pajin, PhD (International Yoga Academy, Belgrade); Prof. Milanko
Čabarkapa, PhD (University of Belgrade); Assist. Prof. Lazar Cvijić, PhD (University Alfa);
Brankica Šurlan, PhD (Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic);
Lada Stevanović, PhD (Serbian Academy of Science and Arts).
Translators – Преводиоци
Aleksandra Stanković; Bosiljka Janjušević, MA; Ivana Marković, MA; Marko Teodorski, MA;
Zorica Popović, PhD; Svetlana Vasilić
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
SENSE
International Scientific Yoga Journal
СМИСАО
Међународни научни часопис о јоги
Belgrade
Serbia, 2012
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
CONTENT
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
САДРЖАЈ
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
Abstract: Yoga research in India began thousands of years ago, with the
experiences of the great sages. Actual studies in the laboratory began in the 1920s
by a sage, Swamy Kuvalayanada who had an ideal blend of medical and spiritual
knowledge. He founded a yoga center called Kaivalyadhama (in west India).
Through the 1920s until the 1960s the world over people wanted to study
extraordinary powers of exceptional yogis. Exciting experiments were conducted
at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi and on the late Swami
Rama (from Rishikesh) at the Menninger Foundation (in the U.S.). However these
experiments seemed to suggest that yoga had little to do with the common man and
the effects required years of practice with extreme sacrifice. This changed when in
the late 1960s Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced transcendental meditation to
the world. For the first time changes were seen in University students after a short
duration of practice. This lead to research at Swami Vivekanada Yoga Research
Foundation (south India) which published and is publishing some of the most
rigorously controlled trials on the therapeutic effects of yoga, the National
Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (south India) and the Defense
Insititute of Physiology and Allied Sciences, which took yoga to the Indian army.
At this stage most of the research and interest in yoga was in India, the place of
its' origin. However the majority of Indians located in villages knew little about
yoga, assuming the practice was for the educated, urbanized Indian. This changed
with the mass movement of Patanjali Yogpeeth, which has taken yoga and
ayurveda to Indians in remote villages. The institution is actively engaged in
research and the results will be presented.
Introduction
Corresponding author: shirleytelles@gmail.com
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At the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (A.I.I.M.S.), New Delhi, Anand,
Chhina and Singh (1961) recorded the changes when a yogi (Ramananda Yogi
from Hyderabad) was confined in an airtight box. Recordings were made twice.
First, a burning candle was placed inside the box and the yogi remained in the box
for eight hours. Second,, the yogi remained in the box for ten hours without the
burning candle. On both occasions he did not develop tachycardia or hyperpnea. In
the same year, a study was conducted to compare the ability to voluntarily control
the heart through yoga, with control using the Valsalva maneuver (Wenger,
Bagchi, Anand, 1961). In one out of four yogis the heart rate slowed down. Based
on this the authors assumed that as a result of some voluntary muscular mechanism
vagal input to the sino-atrial node had interrupted the regular cardiac cycles.
The idea of confining yoga research to experienced yogis with special attainments
was radically altered when Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced Transcendental
Meditation (TM) to the world (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1966). The effects of
practicing this relatively simple technique in people who had no previous
experience of meditation led to a shift in the focus of yoga research (Wallace,
1970). Following these studies a series of rigorous, randomized controlled trials
were conducted by Chandra Patel a London cardiologist, which showed the
usefulness of yoga as an add-on treatment in the management of hypertension,
when compared to conventional treatment and to biofeedback (Patel, 1975; Patel,
North, 1975). This led to an interest in the use of yoga in the management of other
conditions considered psychosomatic in origin. At the Swami Vivekananda Yoga
Research Foundation (SVYASA) in Bangalore, a randomized controlled trial
showed that a combination of yoga practices reduced symptoms and the need for
medication in persons with bronchial asthma (Nagarathna, Nagendra, 1985). This
was followed by a series of studies which examined the effectiveness of particular
yoga techniques for specific diseases. Virendra Singh (currently a professor of
pulmonary medicine at Jaipur, and who had conducted a number of trials while in
the U.K.) examined the use of a cleansing technique called kunjal (Singh, 1987)
and of voluntary regulated breathing, or pranayama (Singh, Wisniewski, Britton,
Tattersfeld, 1990), for bronchial asthma. The latter study was the first (and remains
the only) placebo-controlled study in yoga research, as a ‘placebo’ for yoga
practice is difficult to devise. Here Singh and his colleagues randomized bronchial
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asthmatics to two groups. One group were asked to breathe through an active
device (which made the breathing resemble pranayama), while the other group
breathed through a ‘passive’ device, which had no effect on breathing. Datey,
Deshmukh and their colleagues (1969) from Bombay (Mumbai) showed that
shavasana was effective in the management of hypertension (Datey, Deshmukh,
Dalvi, Vinekar, 1969). However, a further change came in the thrust of yoga
research with the epoch-making study conducted by Dean Ornish (Ornish, 2002)
the University of California, San Francisco, which showed that a lifestyle change
can effectively reverse coronary heart disease (Ornish, 2002). Subsequently and
more recently, research at A.I.I.M.S., New Delhi showed the effectiveness of a
ten-day lifestyle change for various psychosomatic ailments (Bijlani, Vempati,
Yadav, Ray, Gupta, Sharma, Mehta, Mahapatra, 2005).
Reverting to the early 1980s another important step in yoga research was taken by
the Indian Council of Medical Research which funded a multi-faceted project to
understand the neurophysiological changes in pranayamas and meditations under
Desiraju at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences
(NIMHANS, Bangalore) (Desiraju, 1983). The project used what were, at the
time, state-of-the-art assessment techniques including different modalities of
evoked potentials, fast-Fourier transform analysis of the electroencephalogram,
polysomnography, and various methods to assess neurotransmitter levels and their
metabolites. The main research methodology innovation was that subjects were
studied in repeat sessions to assess intra-individual variability and each subject
was assessed in ‘experimental’ and ‘control’ sessions (i.e., a self-as-control design,
rather than a matched groups design, which was used in most studies before this
(Telles, Desiraju, 1993; Telles, Joseph, Venkatesh, Desiraju, 1993).
While various centers across the country are continuing to study therapeutic and
other applications of yoga, most researchers have more recently attempted to
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understand how the benefits are obtained. Most relevant perhaps are studies on
depression (Janakiramaiah, Gangadhar, NagaVenkatesha Murthy, Harish,
Subbakrishna, Vedamurthachar, 2000), schizophrenia (Duraiswamy, Thirthalli,
Nagendra, Gangadhar, 2007) and on epilepsy (Sathyaprabha, Satishchandra,
Pradhan, Sinha, Kaveri, Thennarasu, Murthy, Raju, 2008) by different groups at
the N.I.M.H.A.N.S., Bangalore, studies on yoga for irritable bowel syndrome by
K.K. Deepak at A.I.I.M.S., New Delhi (Taneja, Deepak, Poojary, Acharya,
Pandey, Sharma, 2004), and studies on yoga for complicated pregnancies
(Naendran, Nagarathna, Narendran, Gunasheela, Nagendra, 2005) and on
discomfort related to perimenopause, respectively, at SVYASA, Bangalore
(Chattha, Nagarathna, Padmalatha, Nagendra, 2008). There is also an interest in
use of yoga in specific professions, as for professional computer users (Telles,
Dash, Naveen, 2008; Telles, Naveen, Dash, Deginal, Manjunath, 2006) and
personnel in the army (Telles, Bhardwaj, Kumar, Kumar, Balkrishna, 2012).
There have also been attempts to specifically understand changes in the nervous
system related to yoga practice, using evoked potentials (Panjwani, Selvamurthy,
Singh, Gupta, Mukhopadhyay, Thakur, 2000; Raghuraj, Telles, 2004; Telles,
Raghavendra, Naveen, Manjunath, Subramanya, 2012). transcranial Doppler
(Naveen, Nagendra, Telles, Garner, 1999), functional magnetic resonance imaging
in a preliminary study (Naveen, Telles, 2003), and polysomnography (Sulekha,
Thennarasu, Vedamurthachar, Raju, Kutty, 2006).
In the last five years public awareness about yoga has increased multifold through
the teachings of Swami Ramdev (Anand, 2007), who has disseminated yoga
practice in camps conducted all over the country, which are also telecast to a wide
audience of yoga enthusiasts. This has at last made yoga accessible to people all
over the country, irrespective of their age, educational status, level of physical
activity (or inactivity), and health. These techniques were shown useful in the
management of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and obesity in a pilot study (Gokal,
Shillito, Maharaj, 2007; Telles, Yadav, Kumar, Sharma, Visweswaraiah,
Balkrishna 2012). Detailed investigations of the physiological effects of these
practices have been and are being conducted at the institution, Patanjali Yogpeeth
in Haridwar, north India (Telles, Naveen, 2008). More recent studies at Patanjali
Yogpeeth have demonstrated the usefulness of the yoga taught (called Patanjali
yoga), while examining the underlying mechanisms, for obesity and metabolic
syndrome (Telles, Naveen, Balkrishna, Kumar, (2009), type 2 diabetes mellitus
(Telles, Naveen, Balkrishna, 2010), rheumatoid arthritis (Telles, Naveen, Gaur,
Balkrishna, 2011; Telles, Singh, Balkrishna, 2012) more common conditions such
as neuroticism (Telles, Naveen, Kumar, Balkrishna, 2012), and even for post-
traumatic stress disorder in flood survivors (Telles, Singh, Joshi, Balkrishna,
2010).
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Conclusion
It is encouraging to note that research on yoga which began almost a century ago
in India, continues to be of great interest in yoga institutions as well as in medical
institutions of national importance. Equally encouraging is the fact that research in
this area is being actively funded by the Government of India. It is important and
fitting that research on the effects and applications of yoga is carried out with a
maximum blend of knowledge of the traditional texts along with present-day
scientific method.
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17. Ornish, D. (2002). Dean Ornish, MD: a conversation with the editor. Interview by William
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25. Singh, V. (1987). Kunjal: a nonspecific protective factor in management of bronchial asthma. J
Asthma, 24(3):183-186.
26. Singh, V., Wisniewski, A., Britton, J. & Tattersfeld, A. (1990). Effect of yoga breathing exercises
(pranayama) on airway reactivity in subjects with asthma. Lancet, 335: 1381-1383.
27. Sulekha, S., Thennarasu, K., Vedamurthachar, A., Raju, T. R. & Kutty, B.M. (2006). Evaluation
of sleep architecture in practitioners of Sudarshan Kriya yoga and Vipassana meditation Sleep and
Biological Rhythms, 4 (3): 207-214.
28. Taneja, I., Deepak, K.K., Poojary, G., Acharya, I.N., Pandey, R.M. & Sharma, M.P. (2004).
Yogic versus conventional treatment in diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome: a
randomized control study. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 29(1):19-33.
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Psychophysiol. 1993, 5(2):147-52.
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latency auditory evoked potentials in 2 meditative states. Clin EEG Neurosci. 43(2):154-160.
31. Telles, S. & Naveen, K.V. (2008). Voluntary breath regulation in yoga: Its’ relevance and
physiological effects. Biofeedback, 36(2): 70-73.
32. Telles, S., Bhardwaj, A. K., Kumar, S., Kumar, N. & Balkrishna, A. (2012). Performance in a
substitution task and state anxiety following yoga in army recruits. Psychological Reports, 110(3):
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33. Telles, S., Dash, M. & Naveen, K.V. (2008) Effect of yoga on musculoskeletal discomfort and
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35. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V. & Balkrishna, A. (2010). Serum leptin, cholesterol and glucose levels in
diabetics following a yoga and diet change program. Medical Science Monitor, 16(3): LE4-5.
36. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V. & Dash, M. (2007). Yoga reduces symptoms of distress in tsunami
survivors in the Andaman islands. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 4(4):503-9.
37. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V., Balkrishna A. & Kumar, S. (2009). Short term health impact of a yoga
and diet change program on obesity. Medical Science Monitor, 16(1): CR35-40.
38. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V., Dash, M., Deginal, R. & Manjunath, N.K. (2006) Effect of yoga on
self-rated visual discomfort in computer users. Head Face Med, 2:46.
39. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V., Gaur, V. & Balkrishna, A. (2011). Effect of one week of yoga on
function and severity in rheumatoid arthritis. BMC Res Notes. 12(4):118.
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40. Telles, S., Naveen, K.V., Kumar, N. & Balkrishna, A. (2012). The effect of yoga on neuroticism
in an Indian population varies with sociodemographic factors. Journal of Cultural Diversity [In
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41. Telles, S., Singh, N. & Balkrishna, A. (2012). Is yoga a suitable treatment for rheumatoid
arthritis: current opinion. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, [In press].
42. Telles, S., Yadav, A., Kumar, N., Sharma, S., Visweswaraiah, K. V. & Balkrishna, A. (2012).
Blood pressure and purdue pegboard scores in individuals with hypertension after alternate nostril
breathing, breath awareness, and no intervention. Medical science monitor [In Press].
43. Vyavahare, S.K. (1994). Report on the proceedings of the Paramahamsa Satyananda Tyag
Golden Jubilee World Yoga Convention. Yoga Magazine (3).
44. Wallace, R.K. (1970). Physiological effects of Transcendental Meditation. Science, 167: 1751-
1754.
45. Wenger, M.A., Bagchi, B.K. & Anand, B.K. (1961). Experiments in India on “voluntary” control
of the heart and pulse. Circulation, 24: 1319-1325.
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shirleytelles@gmail.com
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Увод
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Ако још једном погледамо у ране осамдесете године 20. века, још један
важан корак у истраживањима у области јоге направио је у Индијски савет за
медицинска истраживања, који је уложио средства у сложен пројекат изведен
у Националном институту за ментално здравље и неуронауке (NIMHANS,
Бангалор) под руководством Т. Десирађија, да би се разумеле
неурофизиолошке промене код извођења пранајаме и медитације (Desiraju,
1983). У овом пројекту су коришћење технике испитивања које су у то време
представљале врхунско достигнуће, међу којима су различити модалитети
евоцираног потенцијала, брза Фуријерова трансформација
електроенцефалограма, полисомнографија и различите методе за испитивање
нивоа неуротрансмитера и њихових метаболита. Главна иновација у
истраживачкој методологији била је у томе што су учесници испитивани у
поновљеним сесијама да би се истражила интра-индивидуална
варијабилност, а сваки учесник је испитан и у „експерименталној“ и у
„контролној“ сесији (тј. дизајн самоконтроле, за разлику од дизајна
усклађених група који је коришћен у већини истраживања пре овог) (Telles,
Desiraju, 1993; Telles, Joseph, Venkatesh, Desiraju, 1993).
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Закључак
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Abstract: This review paper shows the steps of the development of scientific
thought about yoga in the Kaivalyadhama Yoga Institute in India. There are
chronologically shown results of some scientific researches. There were
researched effects of yoga practice on physical and mental health of the
individual, on physiological and biological state in different life occasions. The
results evoke interest of the scientists for further, more detailed researches of the
effects of yoga practice in different fields of life.
Since, the experiential aspect of yoga is known to improve both physical and
mental health, it seems necessary to verify the experiences on organic level of the
body. Hence, need of modern scientific approach seems relevant. Therefefore,
Samijis’ efforts to explore yogic effects on physical mental plane of the body. The
journey of scientific research started by Swami Kuvalayanda by experimenting on
yoga practitioners. This would help to understand the fundamental changes at
Corresponding author: Subodh@kdham.com
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physiological and mental level before and after yoga practices, which include
asanas and pranayama. The first study by Swamiji was to understand the yogic
nature of breathing activity different from that of normal breathing exercise. This
was research finding reported in first three volumes of yoga –mimamsa journal.
Swamijis finding revealed that yogic breathing exercise called ujjayii pranayama
is different from typical non-yogic breathing activity performed with or without
breath hold. This aspect was tested by the Swamiji based on famous Haldane
hypothesis, in which it states that there is an anatomical and physiological
limitations for lungs to hold the breath so as to fill maximum air in the lungs and it
does not exceed more than 800c.c. of air. Swamiji from his study inferred that the
breath hold performed by yogic technique method deviates from Haldane
hypothesis as it exceeded with more than 800c.c. of air in lungs. The another
remakrable study was to understand anatomical aspect of special yogic practices
such as uddiyana bandha on Intra-gastric pressure in which X-ray study showed a
distinct displacement of diaphragm position and enhanced intra –thorasic pressure
in contrast to developing negative pressure below the stomach region that
comprises large intestine and colon. This negative pressure was termed as
madhavadas vacuum and its relevance in treating constipation was also explored.
The other class of study is on nauli – a unique yogic technique also showed
negative pressure along with the spatial displacement of the visceral region of
alimentary canal which may be voluntarily shifted from center of alimentary canal
to the either of the sides of abdominal regions. Its’ relevance in emptying the
Colon contents is well observed. It helps to eliminate undigested contents and
waste products. This has a large implication to treat irritable bowel syndrome and
constipation.
The other milestone on understanding the yogic effects were physiological and
biochemical aspects of yogic practices. The fundamental research on physiological
studies done by Swami Kuvalananda was to observe changes in blood pressure,
oxygen consumption and carbon-dioxide tolerance. This was the major break
through to reveal that the yogic practices performed with controlled breath and
whole body awareness in effortless way, inspired to investigate the extent of
energy expenditure due to yoga asana practices. Therefore, Swamiji designed a
unique experimental design to test the energy expenditure in terms of oxygen
consumption and carbon-dioxide tolerance. The famous experiment was referred
as bhugarbha samadhi or Air Tight Burial Pit experiment. The yoga practitioner as
an Experimental subject was compared to control subject to asses the ability to
withstand the tolerance of carbon dioxide and demand for oxygen in the limited air
volume over maximum duration. The study showed amazing results and revealed
subject who practiced yoga practices lead to least oxygen consumption in contrast
to the control subject and also tolerance towards accumulated carbondioxide
content by the yoga subject was inferred. Based on the finding of this study
Swamiji confirmed that carbondioxide tolerance increases after yogic practices.
These findings indicate application of yoga practices to the subject to sustain in
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high altitude atmosphere, where the oxygen depletion exists seems useful. It has
also been found later that yoga practice reduce cellular damages caused by oxygen
radical formation. The further study by swamiji revealed the applicability yogic
relaxation responses in treating hypertensive subjects were well documented.
Research trend from 1960 onwards was more diversified to cover various other
scientific disciplines such as fundamental physiology, psychology, physical
education. The scientific evaluation of traditional claims of yogic concepts on
mind –body relation as described in Patanjali yoga Sutras is the pivotal study on
nostril dominance and brain functions. The study was conducted Vinekar and
Bhole and revealed the implications of breath activity in body regulated through
stimulation of yoga danda (Crutches) and its relevance to balance the opening of
both nostrils– referred as “Sushumna” was highlighted and its implication to treat
various psychosomatic diseases was vital contribution to yoga therapy. The other
physiology using electro-myographic (EMG) study conducted by Karambelkar
was first to demonstrate the difference between yogic asana performed as exercise
and as relaxation technique. The yoga asana performed as isometric and isotonic
exercise leads to intense muscle contraction and enhanced heart rate compared to
yoga asana practiced as relaxation technique. The study of transcendental effects
of samadhi state of yoga on brain functions revealed unique EEG patterns and
suggested supra –conscious state of Samadhi.
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Similarly, the therapeutical utility of yoga was observed from a research study on
yogic effects in treating obese patients. The study confirmed gradual reduction of
excess body weight in the residential yoga group who were under diet control as
compared to non-residential yoga group and aerobic group. Further, a study on
student population in regard to deteriorating mental health due to stiff competition
often leads to suicidal tendency among adolescent students of Maharasthra state.
The research findings indicated that yoga practices led to reversal of suicidal
tendency, frustration, anxiety and improved mental health and physiological
changes such as reduced blood pressure, pulse rate, etc. The bio-chemical aspect
includes hormonal changes such as cortisol, adrenalin and nor epinephrine levels.
This suggest stress coping mechanism of yoga practices helps to reverse suicidal
tendency.
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Conclusion
The above scientific research highlights since 1924 to the present day reflects that
yogic principles have a sound scientific basis and attempts to scientifically co-
relate with some of the claims made in traditional yogic texts. This suggests yogic
practices apart from expreiential aspect it has firm scientific basis to restore mental
and physical health.
References:
1. Bhogal, R.S., Oak, J.P., Gore, M.M., Kulkarni, D.D. & Bera, T.K. (2005). A Month Long Training
Programme of Yoga and Aerobics on Anxiety in Obese Indians. Yoga –Mimamsa,37, 1 & 2: 31-44.
2. Bhogal, R.S., Oak, J.P., Kulkarni, D.D., Gore, M.M. & Era, T.K. (2004). Psycho Physiological
Responses to Omkar and Gayatri Mantra Recitations in Police Trainees Undergoing proffesional
Training. Yoga- Mimamsa,36, 1&2:11-27.
3. Bhole, M.V. & Karambelkar, P.V. (1968). Significance of Nostrils in Breathing. Yoga-
Mimamsa,10 (4):1-12.
4. Desai, B.P. & Bhole, M.V. (1981). Gastric responses to Vastradhauti and Standard Alcohol test
meal in Asthmatics -A comparative study. Yoga-Mimamsa, 20, (1):13-22.
5. Gangully, S.K. & Gharote, M.L. (1974). CardioVascular Effeciency Before and After Yogic
Training, Yoga-Mimamsa,17 (1); 8-13.
6. Gharore, M.L, Gangully, S.K. & Moorthy, A.M. (1976). Effect of Yogic Training on Minimum
Muscular Fittness. Yoga-Mimamsa, 18 (2):1-20.
7. Gharote, M.L. (1971). Effect of air swallowing on the gastric acidity - pilot study. Yoga-
Mimamsa,14 (1& 2): 2-7.
8. Gharote, M.L. (1976). Physical Fitness in Relation to the practice of selected yogic exercises, Yoga
-Mimamsa 18 (1):14-33.
9. Gore, M.M, Kulkarni, D.D., Bhogal, R.S. & Bera, T.K. (2003).Yoga Training and Detraining
Effect on EEG Alpha and Autonomic functions in School Boys. Yoga-Mimamsa, 36, 3&4: 133-139.
10. Gore, M.M. (2004). Influence of Asanas on Nostril Dominance. Yoga-mimamsa, 36 (1): 28.35.
11. Gore, M.M., Bhogal, R.S. & Rajapurkar (1990). Effect of Trataka on Various Psycho-
Physiological Functions. Yoga-Mimamsa, 29 (3), 18-32.
12. Karambelkar, P.V., Deshpande, R.R. & Bhole, M.V. (1983). Oxygen consumption during
pranayama. Yoga-Mimamsa,14 (3&4):7-13.
13. Karambelkar, P.V. & Bhole, M.V (1971). Effect of yogic treatment on blood picture in asthma
patients, Yoga-Mimamsa,14(1&2);1-16.
14. Karambelkar, P.V., Bhole, M.V. & Gharote, М.L. (1969). Muscle activity in some Asanas. Yoga-
Mimamsa, 12 (1):12-13.
15. Karambelkar, P.V. & Bhole, M.V. (1967). Underground burial or bhugarbha samadhi, Yoga-
Mimamsa, 10 (2): 2-16.
16. Karambelkar, P.V., Gharote, M.L & Bhole, M.V (1968). Uropepsin Excretion as Influenced by
Some Yogic Practices. Yoga-Mimamsa, 18 (1): 1-8.
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17. Karambelkar, P.V. Gharore, M.L, Gangully, S.K. & Moorthy, A.M (1977). Effect of Short Term
Yogic Training on Serum Cholestrol Level. Yoga -Mimamsa,19 (1): 1-12.
18. Kocher, H.C. (1974). Effect of Short Term Yogic Training Programme on Dexterity -A Pilot
Study. Yoga-Mimamsa, 16 (3&4); 131-148.
19. Kocher, HC (1971). Construction for a scale of measurement of Attitude towards yoga. Yoga-
Mimamsa, 14 (3&41):35-52.
20. Kocher, H.C. (1972). The mirror tracing test as a measure of steadiness among yoga practitioners.
Yoga-Mimamsa, 15 (3);13-22.
21. Kocher, H.C. (1976). Influence of Yogic Practices on Mental Fatigue. Yoga-Mimamsa, 17(2):1-
13.
22. Kocher, H.C. (1976). RESEARCH NOTE: Effect of Yogic Practices on Immediate Memory.
Yoga-Mimamsa, 18 (3&4):57-62.
23. Kulkarni, D.D. (1998). Orienting Reflex In Shavasana Practice and Shavasana Imagery.Yoga-
Mimamsa, 34, (1):27-36.
24. Kulkarni, D.D. & Bera, T.K. (2009). Yogic Exercise and Health -A Psycho-Neuro
Immunological Approach. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology,53,1:3-15.
25. Kuvalayananda, S. (1924). Studies in internal and external pressure changes in madhya (central)
nauli. Yoga-Mimamsa, 2 (1):9 1-100.
26. Kuvalayananda, S. (1924). X ray experiments on uddiyana. Yoga-Mimamsa 1 (1): 1-27.
27. Kuvalayananda, S. (1928). X-ray experiments on the diaphragm and the ribs. Yoga-Mimamsa , 3
(2): 87-89.
28. Kuvalayananda, S. (1931). CO2 elimination in pranayama. Yoga-Mimamsa, 4 (3): 95-122.
29. Kuvalayananda, S. (1934). Alveolar air composition experiments.Yoga-Mimamsa,5(1):9-42.
30. Kuvalayananda, S. (1957). Carbon dioxide concentration in resting alveolar air. Yoga-Mimamsa,
5 (1):41-43.
31. Kuvalayananda, S. (1957). Studies in internal and external pressure changes in madhya (central)
nauli wama (left side) nauli. Yoga-Mimamsa, 7 (2):273-282.
32. Kuvalayanada, S. & Karambelkar, P.V. (1976). Pressure Changes and X-Ray Studies in
Gajakarni. Yoga-Mimamsa, 18(1):1-10.
33. Mahaure, H.H. (2008). Effect of yogic exercise on super oxide dismutase levels in diabetics.
International journal of yoga, 1(1): 21-26.
34. Sahu, R.J. & Bhole, M.V. (1984). Effect of Two Types of Pranava (Om) Recitations on Psycho-
Motor Performance. Yoga-Mimamsa, 22 (3&4): 22-30.
35. Sahu, R.J. & Gharote, M.L. (1984). Effect of Short Term Yogic Training Programme on
Dexterity -A Pilot Study. Yoga-Mimamsa, 23(2):21-27.
36. Sahu, R.J. & Bhole, M.V. (1981). Effect of OM recitation and Physical Activity on Psychomotor
performance- A comparative study. Yoga-Mimamsa, 20 (1&2):22-30.
37. Shete S.U., Kulkarni,D.D. & Thakur, G.S. (2012). Effect of Yoga Practice on Hs-CRP in Indian
Railway Engine drivers of Metropolis. Recent Research in Science & Technology, 4, 2:30-33.
38. Thakur, G.S., Shete, S. & Kulkarni,D.D. (2012). Effect of Yoga Training on Hand Steadiness in
School Children. Yoga –Mimamsa, 53,4:297-303.
39. Pratap, V. (1968). Steadiness in Normals Before and After Yogic Practices, Yoga-Mimamsa,
11(2);1-13.
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Апстракт. Овај прегледни рад указује на кораке развоја научне мисли о јоги
у институту Kaivalydhama у Индији. Хронолошки су изнети резултати
појединих научних истраживања. Истраживани су ефекти практиковања
јоге на физичко и психичко здравље појединца, на физиолошко и биолошко
стање у различитим животним околностима. Резултати побуђују
интересовање научника за даља, детаљнија истраживања ефеката
пректиковања јоге у различитим пољима живота.
Subodh@kdham.com
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Закључак
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Introduction
Corresponding author: nkmsharma@gmail.com
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of death rate with age has been recognized as the hallmark of senescence
(Shrestha, 2000).
While the process of aging is inevitable, attempts are being made to convert the
same into a pleasurable experience. Hence the concept of healthy aging has been
adopted to identify interventions which can positively interfere with process of
regular aging and to move an individual towards successful aging. Healthy aging is
described as a state of low risk and high function in contrast to usual aging which
is a non-pathologic state but at high risk (Rowe, Kahn, 1987). It was reported that
healthy aging has three main components: (a) a low probability of disease and
disease-related disability, (b) a high capacity for cognitive and physical
functioning, and (c) an active engagement with life including interpersonal
relations and productive activity (Rowe, Kahn, 2000).
A common thread between such interventions is the use of yoga based lifestyle
modification. Yoga is an ancient Indian system of holistic living. It provides the
most comprehensive approach for health promotion and disease prevention.
Attempts have been made to understand the role of yoga in preventing or
managing age related health problems. Majority of the studies have used single
intervention for a single problem approach. Since the effects of combination of
Yoga practices in healthy volunteers belonging to different age groups (except the
elderly) are well understood, and the complex interplay between physical,
physiological, psychological and behavioral sub systems results in normal/
accelerated aging, the present single blind randomized controlled trial was
designed to evaluate the influence of an Integrated Yoga Module on a
comprehensive test battery covering diverse aspects of age related health
problems. This paper reviews the reported outcomes in detail.
Method
Subjects of the research were 120 inmates of a residential home for the aged, over
the age of sixty years belonging to both sexes were examined. Thirty of them were
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ill or bed-ridden. The remaining 90 persons were told about the trial, i.e., those
participants would be randomly allocated to: Yoga, Äyurveda or Wait-list control
groups. All of them expressed their willingness to participate in the trial and the
signed informed consent of each subject was taken. 90 subjects who expressed
their willingness to participate in the trial were screened using: the
electrocardiogram (all leads), fasting blood glucose, blood pressure measurements
(using sphygmomanometer), and routine clinical examination.
Inclusion criteria: The subjects who had the following attributes were included in
the study: (1) above the age of sixty years; (2) belonging to both sexes; (3) residing
at the home for the aged for more than 6 months; (4) healthy on a routine medical
examination and on screening and (5) willing to participate in the trial by giving a
signed informed consent.
Exclusion criteria: Subjects with the following conditions were excluded from the
trial: (1) chronic ailments; (2) disability or immobility; (3) unwillingness to
participate in the trial. Following the detailed screening and routine clinical
examination described above, subjects with the following health problems were
excluded from the study: uncontrolled diabetes (seven participants), uncontrolled
hypertension (four), neurological disorders (three), dementia (one), hearing
impairment (five), and a detected case of non-infective Hansen’s disease. Sixty
nine subjects were included for the study after this screening.
Subjects were assessed at baseline and after three and six months of their
respective interventions (Yoga, Äyurveda, or Wait-list control). The individual
who did randomization and data analysis was blinded. Hence, it was a single blind
randomized controlled trial. The protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethical
Committee (IEC) of Swami Vivekänanda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana,
Bangalore. The subjects were told about the aims and methods of the study and the
informed consent was signed by all subjects
Assessments
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2. Neurological Variables:
b) The Tinetti balance and gait evaluation test: Balance and gait were assessed
and scored individually in a 16-item test. The Tinetti balance and gait evaluation
test required the subject to be seated in a hard chair without arms as support.
Different maneuvers related to balance (9 items) and gait (7 items) were tested as
per the procedure required to evaluate individual items (Tinetti, 1986). A score of
22 or less (total 28) indicated the risk of fall.
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3. Psychological Variables:
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using the statistical package (SPSS Version 10.0). The
repeated measures ANOVA was used to test for (1) significant differences
between the assessments i.e., at baseline, three and six months (this was a Within-
Subjects factor; Time) and (2) differences between the groups (Äyurveda, Yoga
and Wait-list control), this was a Between-Subjects factor, and the test for a Time
by Group interaction provided a global test for an intervention effect.
The t-test for paired data was used to compare data at three and six months with
those at baseline of each group, separately.
Interventions
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contents were: sugar (4g), honey (2g), water and clarified butter (ghee) in the
amount required to get the correct semi-solid consistency. The participants were
given 10g (1 tablespoon, approximately) twice a day, once in the morning (6 a.m.)
and again in the evening (6 p.m.) for 24 weeks.
The Wait-list Control group: The Wait-list Control group was not given any
intervention but was told that they could receive either yoga or ayurveda after the
trial. They were asked to continue with the normal routine of the home.
Results
General Health Measures: There was a significant difference between the groups
for FVC and between the assessments for MVV and MV (p<.01). There was a
significant difference in the assessments for the Mid arm circumference (p<.05).
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Discussion
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Lifestyle factors known to promote diseases might adversely affect the telomere
length & telomerase activity. Studies conducted on lifestyle modifications
involving a low fat diet regimen, physical fitness and relaxation measures were
capable of enhancing the telomerase activity and a significant maintenance was
observed in the telomere length (Ornish, Lin, Daubenmier, Weidner, Epel, Kemp,
sar, 2008). Similarly, a study conducted over a 3 months trial over a Buddhist
meditation technique has shown to improve telomerase activity which was found
to be proportionate to the psychological stress and negative emotionality (Jacobs,
Epel, Lin, Blackburn, Wolkowitz, Bridwell, 2011) in agreement with the earlier
findings as, stress resistance is directly proportional to an individual’s ability to
survive. There by, suggesting a hypothesis that a modality capable of combating
the negative emotions and promotional mental wellbeing should be having an
impact over the telomerase activity. Where, the role of Yoga in improving the
psychological wellbeing and avoiding negative emotions are well studied and
established (Narasimhan, Nagarathna, Nagendra, 2011).
Conclusion
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References:
1. Bhattacharya, S., Pandey, U. S. & Verma, N. S. (2002). Improvement in oxidative status with
yogic breathing in young healthy males. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 46:349-
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2. Bowman, A. J., Clayton, R. H., Murray, A., Reed, J. W., Subhan, M. M., & Ford, G. A. (1997).
Effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga on the baroreflex in healthy elderly persons. European
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 27(5):443-449.
3. Chandramurthy, P. H. (2008). Rasashastra. Choukamba Sanskrit Series office. New Delhi
4. Comfort, A. (1969). Test battery to measure ageing-rate in man. The Lancet, 27:1969.
5. DiBenedetto, M., Innes, K. E., Taylor, A. G., Rodeheaver, P. F., Boxer, J. A., Wright, H. J. &
Kerrigan, D. C. (2005). Effect of a gentle Iyengar yoga program on gait in the elderly: an exploratory
Study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86(9):1830-7.
6. Finch, C. (1987). Environmental influences on the aging brain. In. Riley, M J. & Baum, M.A.
(Eds.), Perspectives in Behavioral Medicine. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 77-91.
7. Ganong, W. F. (1987). Review of medical physiology. Connecticut: Prentice-Hall International,
Inc.
8. Gothe, N., Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. & McAuley, E. (2012). The Acute Effects of Yoga on
Executive Function. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2012 Jul 9. [Epub ahead of print]
9. Haber, D. (1983). Yoga as a preventive health care program for white and black elders: an
exploratory study. International Journal for Aging in Human Development, 17(30):169-176.
10. Hegde, S.V., Adhikari, P., Kotian, S., Pinto, V.J., D'Souza, S. & D'Souza, V. (2011). Effect of 3-
month yoga on oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes with or without complications: a controlled clinical
trial. Diabetes Care, 34:2208-10.
11. Jacobs, T.L., Epel, E.S., Lin, J., Blackburn, E.H., Wolkowitz, O.M. & Bridwell, D.A. (2011).
Intensive meditation training, immune cell telomerase activity, and psychological mediators.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36(5):664-81.
12. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Christian, L., Preston, H., Houts, C. R., Malarkey, W. B., Emery, C. F.
& Glaser, R. (2010). Stress, Inflammation, and Yoga Practice. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(2):113-
121.
13. Li, Q. Z., Li, P., Garcia, G. E., Johnson, R. J. & Feng, L. (2005). Genomic profiling of neutrophil
transcripts in Asian Qigong practitioners: pilot study in generegulation by mind-body interaction.
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(1):29-39.
14. Martarelli, D., Cocchioni, M., Scuri, S. & Pompei, P. (2011). Diaphragmatic breathing reduces
exercise-induced oxidative stress. Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine,
2011:932430. Epub 2011 Feb 10.
15. Narasimhan, L., Nagarathna, R. & Nagendra, H. (2011). Effect of integrated yogic practices on
positive and negative emotions in healthy adults. International Journal of Yoga, 4(1):13-9.
16. Ornish, D., Lin, J., Daubenmier, J., Weidner, G., Epel, E., Kemp, C., et al. (2008). Increased
telomerase activity and comprehensive lifestyle changes: a pilot study. Lancet Oncology, 9:1048-57.
17. Prakash, R., Rastogi, P., Dubey, I., Abhishek, P., Chaudhury, S. & Small, B. J. (2012). Long-
term concentrative meditation and cognitive performance among older adults. Neuropsychology,
development, and cognition. Section B, Aging and cognition, 19(4):479-94.
18. Rowe, J. (1991). Reducing the risk of usual aging. Generations, 15(1):25-28.
19. Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R.L. (2000). Successful aging and disease prevention. Advances in Renal
Replacement Therapy, 7(1):70-71.
20. Rowe, J., & Kahn, R. (1987). Human aging: Usual and successful. Science, 237:143-149.
21. Schneider, R. H., Alexander, C. N., Salerno, J. W., Robinson, D. K., Fields, J. Z., & Nidich, S. I.
(2002). Disease prevention and health promotion in the aging with a traditional system of natural
medicine: Maharshi vedic medicine. Journal of Aging and Health, 14(1):52-78.
22. Sheikh, J. I., Yesavage, J. A., Raret, L., & Lum, D. (1986). Geriatric depression scale: recent
evidence and development of a shorter version. In T.L. Brink (Ed.) Clinical Gerontologist, (Vol.
5(1/2), pp. 165). New York: Haworth Press.
23. Shrestha, L. B. (2000). Population aging in developing countries. Health Affairs, 19(3):204-211.
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24. Steel, K. (1997). Research on aging. An agenda for all nations individually and collectively
[Editorial]. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(16):1374-1375.
25. Swan, N. (1999). Aging research on the international agenda. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 281(9):784.
26. Tinetti, M.E. (1986). Performance oriented assessment of mobility problem in elderly patients.
Journal of American Geriatric Society, 34:119.
27. Zar, J. H. (1999). Biostatistical Analysis, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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Увод
nkmsharma@gmail.com
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Метод
Дизајн експеримента
Процене
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2. Неуролошке варијабле:
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3. Психолошке варијабле
Анализа података
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Резултати
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Introduction
In this paper we research effects of the yoga educational program which aimed to
improve working competences in managers. Concept of the yoga intelligence
indicates ability of perception, understanding, management and recognition of the
deeper meaning, inner potentials (energetic, physical, mind, emotional, social,
motivational) that can be attained through yoga practice.
Corresponding author: nikic.predrag@gmail.com
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From the organization point of view, knowledge, skills and adequate behavior of
the employees lead to the performance improvement, and from the point of view
of the employee, effectiveness is provided by the adequate qualifications, i.e.
ability to perform one specific working role.
In order to be able to follow up development of the competences of its employees,
organization sets observability of competences. Observability is inherent to the
nature of the certain working place, but there are attempts to set the general criteria
and levels of development of the employees’ competences (Dreyfus, 1986).
Yoga intelligence can be defined as the ability to use resources as a whole, the
ability to realize, understand and manage our deepest meanings, relations and
goals, while recognizing the implication. We can also perceive yoga intelligence as
the ability to manage our development, while searching for the meaning in the
process of making aware, understanding, acceptance and managing cognition
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YOGA INTELLIGENCE
AWARENESS MEANING MANAGEMENT
1. 2. 3.
1. ENERGY PROCESSES
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
3. MOTIVATIONAL PROCESSES
4. EMOTIONAL PROCESSES
5. CREATIVE PROCESSES
6. SOCIAL RELATIONS (COMMUNICATIONAL PROCESSES)
7. MIND PROCESSES
Yoga practice influences the change of the perception of reality. Yogi searches for
the deepest meanings. Yoga practices enable practitioners to gather all fields of life
through the discourse of purpose and meaning.
Finding the meaning means the ability to perceive unpredictable life occasions as
guidelines for development and maturation, mostly relying on depth of experience,
i.e. insight, with the aim to achieve unity – the state of samadhi (Nikić, 2011).
Research
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for 3 months, twice a weak. The program that takes 90 minutes included asanas,
pranayama (bastrika, kapalabhati, complete three-fold yoga breathing), dharana,
dhyana and relaxation. Control group consisted of managers who didn’t participate
in the training program. There was assessed yoga intelligence before the yoga
practice and after the practice of the yoga program. There were used instruments
YI (Nikić, 2010), demographic questionnaire and MRK (instrument for
measurement of the working competences of managers). Statistical method that
were used are correlation and regression analysis. Questionnaire for estimation of
the yoga intelligence requires the respondent to range offered options of behavior
in different conditions. Measurement was conducted by the scales of self-
estimation. Scale of the yoga intelligence contains the subscales divided into
classes. All subscales are the Lykert type of scales.
In the test, there were extracted the following indicators of the yoga intelligence:
awareness (recognition, honest assessment and valuation), search for meaning and
managing (energy, loco-motor, respiratory, digestive, uro-genital, cardio-vascular
and nervous system, mind processes, emotions and moods, creativity, persistence
(self-motivation) and social relations.
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9. Amortization of stress
10. Interpersonal relationships
High correlation (0,41**) was noticed in the IMWC indicator (perception of the
situational dimension) and YI indicator (management of the mind processes).
There was confirmed expectation of the high correlation (0,38*) between
indicators IMWC (interpersonal relations) and indicator YI (management of
emotional relations), as well as IMWC (readiness for organizational changes) and
YI (awareness of energy flow) (0,36*).
YI indicator (management of the mind processes) correlates with two more IMWC
indicators (interest in the long term goals and interest in the plans of organization).
There was expected and confirmed correlation between YI indicator (management
of creativity) with IMWC indicator (presence of creativity and inventiveness in
managers). Correlation was also noticed between IMWC indicator (interest in
improvement of the standards in organization) and YI indicator (management of
self-motivation).
Pearson’s
CORRELATED VARIABLES
correlation
coefficient
IMWC - PERCEPTION OF THE SITUATIONAL
0,41**
DIMENSION
YI – UNDERSTANDING OF THE MIND PROCESSES
IMWC - INTEREST IN THE LONG-TERM GOALS OF
THE ORGANIZATION 0,32*
YI – MANAGING MIND PROCESSES
IMWC - INTEREST IN THE PLANS OF THE
ORGANIZATION 0,33*
YI – MIND PROCESSES MANAGEMENT
IMWC - PERCEPTION OF THE ORGANIZATION AS A
0,23*
WHOLE
YI – AWARENESS OF EMOTIONS
IMWC - INTUITIVE UNDERSTANDING OF THE
BUSINESS SITUATIONS 0,23*
YI – AWARENESS OF MIND PROCESSES
IMWC - INTEREST IN IMPROVEMENT OF
0,18*
STANDARDS IN THE ORGANIZATION
YI – SELF-MOTIVATION MANAGEMENT
IMWC - PRESENCE OF CREATIVITY AND 0,26*
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INVENTIVENESS
YI – CREATIVITY MANAGEMENT
IMWC - READINESS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL
0,36*
CHANGES
YI – AWARENESS OF ENERGY FLOW
IMWC - HUMAN RELATIONS 0,38*
YI – EMOTIONAL RELATIONS MANAGEMENT
* - correlation significant at the level 0,05
** - correlation significant at the level 0,01
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Managers were taught through the yoga training to satisfy their need to influence
the change in the world around us by skillful response to it, that is, that they will
most effectively influence the change in the world around them if they start to
apply what they require from the world by themselves. Processes of individual
transformation, which carry basic structural changes in lifestyle resulting from the
practice of yoga, are of great importance, given that the intensity and extent of the
coverage reach the fundamental changes in the creation of a new organizational
environment and society as a whole.
Modern society and knowledge-based economy, much less accepts rigid, factual,
academic and textbook knowledge, but points to the importance of human wisdom,
acquiring new skills because they create innovations, offer a solution to the
problems and act for the common good.
More recent review of theories and researches in management indicate that the
direction based on resources of knowledge and competence became the dominant
framework.
Conclusion
We can conclude that there exists the need for much stronger connecting of the
yoga practice and management, on one side, with the concept of the development
of employees’ potentials, on the other side. We can conclude that fastness and final
success of the process of organizational socialization depend upon adaptation of
the employees’ perspective and that yoga practice can help in that. Yoga practice
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gives the employees health, but also different perspective of the perception of
reality. After the yoga practice, organizational reality is perceived deeper and more
contentful, so behavior of employees also changes. There is expressed higher
inventiveness, greater freedom in investigating and higher stress amortization.
Therefore, in development of the employees’ competences, yoga practice can help
in increasing awareness and perception of the organizational reality from different
angles. Yoga practice improves the abilities of the individual and it makes
possibility for insuring more humane working surrounding and greater working
results for the organizations.
References:
1. Dreyfus, H. & Dreyfus, S. (1986). Mind over machine. The power of human intuition and
expertise in the era of the computer New York: Free Press.
2. Janjušević, B. (2011): Correlation of the yoga techniques practice with locus of control and anger
management style. International Scientific Yoga Journal SENSE, 1 (1): p. 55-70.
3. Jones, C. & Saundry, R. (2012). The practice of discipline: evaluating the roles and relationships
between managers and HR professionals. Human resource Managemet Journal, 22 (3): p. 252-266.
4. Nikić, P. (2011): Concept of the yoga intelligence. International Scientific Yoga Journal SENSE, 1
(1): p. 17-35.
5. Nikić, P. & Nikić, G. (2011): Menadžment i organizaciono ponašanje u svetlu efekata
praktikovanja tehnika joge, Zbornik Univerziteta „V.G.Šuhova“, Belgorod, Rusija, str. 261-273.
6. Šurlan, B. (2011): Concept of time in yoga. International Scientific Yoga Journal SENSE, 1 (1): p.
179-185.
7. Widaman, K.F. (2011). A cognitive psychologist’s take on intelligence, more or less (more and
less?). Intelligence, 39 (6): p. 493-495.
8. Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A.B. & Illies, R. (2012). Everyday working life: Explaining within-
person fluctuations in employee well-being, Human Relations, 65(9): p. 1051-1069.
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Јога интелигенција
у менаџменту и организационом понашању
Предраг Никић
Међународно друштво за научна интердисциплинарна
истраживања у области јоге
Универзитет Алфа
Београд, Србија
Увод
nikic.predrag@gmail.com
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ЈОГА ИНТЕЛИГЕНЦИЈА
СВЕСНОСТ СМИСАО УПРАВЉАЊЕ
1. 2. 3.
1. ЕНЕРГЕТСКИ ПРОЦЕСИ ИЛИ ПОТЕНЦИЈАЛИ
2. ФИЗИОЛОШКИ ПРОЦЕСИ
3. МОТИВАЦИОНИ ПРОЦЕСИ (САМОМОТИВАЦИЈА)
4. ЕМОЦИОНАЛНИ ПРОЦЕСИ
5. КРЕАТИВНИ ПРОЦЕСИ
6. СОЦИЈАЛНИ ОДНОСИ (КОМУНИКАЦИОНИ ПРОЦЕСИ)
7. УМНИ ПРОЦЕСИ
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Истраживање
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Резултати истраживања
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За успех нису важне само особине као што су самодисциплина или умеће
управљања рачунарским програмом. Једнако су важне способности
препознавања, разумевања и управљања својим осећањима, мисаоном
смиреношћу и сабраношћу пажњом. Стабилни и уравнотежени чланови
организације отпорнији су и далеко лакше подносе деловање разних стресора
у организационом окружењу.
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Закључак
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Introduction
Values are both micro and macro concepts. On the micro level of the individual’s
behavior, values represent the source of motivation as internal standards that
enable harmonization of the individual’s needs and requests of the social life.
Values enable person to estimate possibilities for action that are available to
him/her. On the macro level of the cultural practice, values represent
understanding that brings meaning, order and integration into the social life.
Kluckhohn (1951) thought that, without system of values there is no personal
safety nor stability of the social organization.
Corresponding author: bosiljka.janjusevic@gmail.com
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Values, also, influence institutional decision making because they give the
meaning about what is right, good and desirable (Rokeach, Rokeach, 1989).
Values are also criteria that people use when they make choice and to justify their
activities both when they estimate people (including themselves) and events
(Schwartz, 1992; Rokeach, 1973; Williams, 1970). Yoga practitioners change their
life philosophy by accepting new life values, they change their behaviour,
attitudes, they tend to be humane and to achieve higher goals in their lives (Nikić,
2011).
In this paper there was examined correlation between value orientations and life
styles and the time period of the yoga techniques practice.
Goals of the research were aimed to identify whether there is correlation, and if it
exists, to examine the level of correlation between the time period of the yoga
techniques practice, value orientations and life styles and to examine polarity of
the found correlations.
There was established the following hypothesis: in respondents who practice yoga
for a longer period of time, openness and democratic orientations are more
pronounced, as well as humanistic life style, and competitive orientation is less
pronounced.
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Method
This research has been done with the aim to discover the nature of the value
orientations present in the yoga teachers, correlation between time period of the
yoga practice with value orientations and life styles of the yoga practitioners, as
well as explanation of these correlations between mentioned groups of phenomena.
The sample was made of 111 yoga practitioners from different parts of Serbia,
different ages. Their average years of age were 42. among respondents, there were
30 yoga practitioners who attend yoga classes, 38 students of the International
Yoga Academy in Belgrade and 43 certified yoga instructors (200 hours of
training).
For the variable yoga there was used Spearman’s correlation coefficient in the
statistical analysis and Pearson’s correlation coefficient for all other variables.
Table 1. Correlation between variable time period of the yoga practice, value
orientation and life style
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On the variable time period of the yoga instructor work, there was confirmed
lower expression of competitiveness (r = -0,24*). In this group of respondents –
yoga practitioners, correlation between yoga techniques practice, that is, time
period of the yoga instructor work and competitiveness as the factor of motivation
is lower and it is significant at the level 0,01.
Discussion
Goal of the research was examination of the correlation between time period of the
yoga practice, value orientation and motivation. We presumed that openness,
democratic and humanistic style are more pronounced in persons who practice
yoga techniques and that they are less prone to the competitiveness as motivational
factor. There were assessed three groups of the yoga practitioners, long time yoga
teachers, students of the International Yoga Academy and yoga practitioners who
practice yoga in their yoga classes.
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Results confirm hypothesis, i.e. there is a correlation between the time period of
yoga practice, value orientations and motivation. Longer time period of yoga
practice shows lower feeling of competitiveness as factor of motivation, and
higher openness, democratic orientation and human approach in the life situations
and communication with the surrounding. There is also significant negative
correlation between yoga practice and competitiveness on the variable time period
of the yoga instructor work. In the group of respondents who practice yoga as
recreation at the instructors’ yoga classes (variable yoga practice) there was no
significant correlation between yoga practice and competitiveness. Given the
correlations that have been proven in the previous variables, time period of the
yoga practice and time period of yoga instructor work, it can be concluded that
there appears reduction in competitiveness as the motivation factor by the longer
time period of yoga practice and wider range of applied yoga techniques.
Research shows that the most prevalent value orientations are openness and
democracy in yoga instructors (Nikić, Janjušević, 2011). Besides them, humanistic
style also singled out in yoga practitioners, and respondents give the least
importance to competitiveness as a value system. Values have a central place in
the structure of personality and they represent belief that a specific mode of
behavior or living is socially or personally more desirable compared to some
others (Rokeach, 1973).
In yoga instructors and yoga practitioners, awareness about body, emotions and the
ability to concentrate and direct the attention allow a greater degree of sympathy
with the other party and the other members of the organization, therefore they feel
possibility to give to the other the climate that they wish and expect for
themselves. Therefore, openness and democratic life style appears in yoga
practitioners, because these characteristics include behavior that they wish and
expect for themselves, as well. In both yoga instructors and practitioners,
competitiveness as the factor of motivation is in negative correlation with yoga
practice. In yoga practitioner, self-motivation is pronounced. Yoga practitioners
don’t find encouragement for achievement their results in competing with others
but in finding deeper meaning of their existence, i.e. reaching their personal inner
heights.
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Conclusion
Results of the research confirmed that yoga practice, including physical postures,
techniques of breathing, concentration, meditation and relaxation, are connected
with humanistic life style and higher level of openness and democratic orientation
of the practitioners. Yoga practice is in negative correlation with orientation
towards competitiveness as an important element of motivation. Results indicate
the need for further researches of the yoga practice effects. In the following
researches it is needed to separate yoga instructors according to the time period of
the yoga practice.
References:
1. Fontaine, J., & Schwartz, S. H. (1996). Universality and bias in the structure of psychological
questionnaire data. Paper presented at the XIII Congress of the International Association of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, Montreal, Canada.
2. Gausel, N. & Leach, C.W. (2011). Concern for self-image and social image in the management of
moral failure: Rethinking shame. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41 (4): p. 468-478.
3. Janjušević, B. (2011). Correlation of the Yoga Techniques Practice with Locus of Control and
Anger Management Style, International Yoga Journal: Sense, Vol. 1 (1), 55-70
4. Kluckhohn, C.K.M. (1951). Values and Value Orientations in the Theory of Action, in T. Parsons
and E. Shils, eds, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.)
5. Nikić, P. (2011). Correlation Between Essential and Yoga Competences. In: P.Nikić, ed.
Proceedings “Yoga – the Light of Microuniverse” of the International Interdisciplinary Scientific
Conference “Yoga in Science – Future and Perspectives”,September 23-24, 2010, Belgrade,
Serbia. Belgrade: Yoga Federation of Serbia, p. 19-28.
6. Nikić, P. (2011). Concept оf the Yoga Intelligence, International Yoga Journal: Sense, Vol. 1 (1),
17-35
7. Parashar, S., Dhar, S. & Dhar, U. (2004). Perception of Values: A Study of Future Professionals,
Journal of Human Values, 10; 143-152
8. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press
9. Rokeach, М. and Rokeach, B.M. (1989). Stability and Change in American Values Priorities,
American Psychologist, 44, 775–85
10. Schwartz, S.H. (1992). “Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances
and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries.” Advances in Experimental Psychology. 1-65. Print.
11. Schwartz, S.H. & Bilsky, W. (1990). Toward a Theory of the Universal Content and Structure of
Values: Extensions and Cross-cultural Replications, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
58, 878–91.
12. Spaargaren, G. & VanVliet, B. (2000). Lifestyle, Consumption and the Environment: The
Ecological Modernisation of Domestic Consumption. Environmental Politics. 9(1): 50-75.
13. Šurlan, B. (2011): Concept of time in yoga. International Scientific Yoga Journal SENSE, 1 (1):
p. 179-185.
14. Vallerand, R. J. (1993). The Academic Motivation Scale: A Measure of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and
Amotivation in Education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 4, 1003-17.
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15. Van Vugt, M. (2012). The missing link: Leadership, identity and the social brain. British Journal
of Psychology, 103 (2): p. 177-179.
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Увод
bosiljka.janjusevic@gmail.com
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Метод
Резултати истраживања
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Key words: hs-CRP, CAD, Lipid profiles, Yoga, Railway engine drivers.
Introduction
There is evidence that physical activity may modify the inflammatory process. In
fact, the effect of regular exercise has shown inverse association on levels of
Corresponding author: ghanshyam.thakur20@gmail.com
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Methods
Experimental design: The subjects were randomly divided into two groups viz.,
yoga group (n = 16) and control group (n=16). Primarily, baseline concentrations
of serum lipid profile and hs-CRP were taken from all the selected subjects of both
the groups. The subjects of yoga group were then underwent a training of yoga
practices under the overall supervision of yoga expert, whereas the comparable
control group did not. The training was imparted to the yoga group daily one hour
in the morning including Sundays and holidays for a total period of one month.
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However, both the groups participated in their regular lifestyle activities and duties
assigned by the railways authorities. They were also advised to avoid non-
vegetarian food. After completion of the experiment for one month, the testing of
serum biochemistry was repeated.
Yoga Practices: The yoga group practiced a set of yoga techniques in the form of
asana (postures) and pranayama (breathing techniques). The supine position
asanas were ardh-halasana (halplough) viparita karani (inverted pose),
matsyasana (fish pose), naukasana (boat pose), setubandhasana (bridge pose),
and sputa vakrasana (reclining adamant pose). The prone position asanas
included were bhujangasana (cobra pose), ardhashalabhasana (half locust pose),
shalabhasana (locust pose), and dhanurasana (bow pose). The sitting position
asanas were vakrasana (twisted pose), gomukhasana (cow face pose),
paschimatanasana (forward bending pose), ardha ushtrsana (half camel pose)
while standing position asanas were tadasana (mountain pose), chakrasana
(wheel pose), utkatasana (chair pose) vrikshasana (tree pose). The pranayama
practices for this experiment were anulom vilom and bhramari. Each session of
yoga practices was concluded with om chanting. The duration of each asana
(posture) was ranged from 2 to 3 minutes depending upon the improvement in
performance, whereas for practice of pranayama the duration was from 2-5
minutes.
Serum biochemistry: Serum samples were separated from the collected blood by
using Vacutainer blood-collection tubes (Becton Dickinson) with the
centrifugation at 1,000 g for 10 min after the blood was allowed to clot at room
temperature for 30 min. Serum hs-CRP activity was measured by using Calbiotech
(USA) enzyme immunoassay kit on ELISA plate reader (Bio-Rad 680, Bio-Rad
PW 40, USA), where the sensitivity limit was 0.2 µg/ml. Further, biochemical
assay kits as prescribed for the analyzer Statfax-2000 (Awareness technology,
USA) were used to measure Serum total Cholesterol, Triglycerides HDL, and LDL
concentration.
Statistics: Since the primary outcome-variables were lipid profile and hs-CRP, the
collected data were analyzed for evaluating mean and standard deviation; whereas
within group comparisons were performed using paired t-tests, while between-
group comparisons were performed using independent t-tests.
Results
The result of within group comparison revealed that the yoga group showed a
significant decrease in total cholesterol (Tc), triglyceride (Tg) and hs-CRP (t= 6.4,
p<0.01; t= 10.42, p<0.01; t= 27.87, p<0.01) (Table 1), whereas the control group
revealed no change in Tc (t= 0.28 p >0.05) and in hs-CRP (t= 1.58, p>0.05)
respectively, but significant increase in Tg (t=19.66, p<0.01) was evident.
However, a significant decrease in LDL were observed in yoga (t= 5.21, p<0.01)
and control groups (t= 4.79, p<0.01). Further, no change was evident in HDL in
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both yoga and control groups (t=0.48, p>0.05, t=0.33, p>0.05). This indicates
yoga practice helps to reduce lipid profile to normal level and decreased CRP that
reflects yoga reduced inflammation.
Further, the results between the group confirmed that the yoga group had
significantly lower level of Tc, Tg and hs-CRP as compared to control group
(t=1.62 p< 0.05, t=1.83, p< 0.05, t=1.96, p< 0.05). Trend of reduction in LDL was
evident among the subjects of both the yoga and control groups; however, no
statistically significant difference was evident between these groups (t=1.04,
p>0.05) (Table 1). In case of HDL, trend of improvement was seen in both the
yoga and control groups; however, no statistically difference between the groups
was seen (t=0.39, p>0.05).
Table 1. Comparison of the baseline and final values (end of one month) of
serum lipids and hs-CRP levels recorded at the end of the yoga program
Discussion
The result of this randomized control trial of one month yoga training could reduce
total cholesterol, triglycerides, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and hs-CRP in
railway engine drivers. However, there was no significant improvement in high
density lipoprotein (HDL).
In the present study participants were railway engine drivers who are believed to
be under stress. Previous study on railway engine drivers shows prevalence of high
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Finally, the reduction in the lipoproteins and CRP, even though, is less in
magnitude but achieved by a very simple and inexpensive intervention. This is of
importance, because railway engine drivers are at higher risk of developing
cardiovascular disease. Although lipoproteins and hsCRP are the tools for
estimating coronary artery disease in healthy adults, this study has some
limitations. It does not include other well established risk factors, such as BMI,
alcohol intake, levels of physical activity or the presence of or absence of parental
history of coronary artery disease. Though this study was conducted on a small
sample, the results appeared are promising. However, future study on larger
population is required to confirm the beneficial effects of yoga. Since, our study
was limited to measures of hsCRP and lipoproteins other prospective studies
estimating specific cytokines related to inflammation will be required to elucidate
role of yoga in the prevention and regression of CAD.
Conclusion
The present study has demonstrated that yoga practices are associated with
regression of inflammatory process by reducing CRP levels in a representative
sample of apparently healthy middle aged railway engine drivers. Since, elevated
levels of CRP and other markers have been shown to important predictors of
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References:
1. Abramson, J. L. & Vaccarino, V. (2002). Relationship between physical activity and inflammation
among apparently healthy middle-aged and older US adults. Arch Intern Med. 162:1286–1292.
2. Ajani, U. A., Ford, E. S. & Mokdad, A. H. (2004). Prevalence of high C-reactive protein in
persons with serum lipid concentrations within the recommended values. Clin Chem. 50:1618–1622.
3. Akosah, K. O., Schaper, A., Cogbill, C. et al. (2003). Preventing myocardial infarction in the
young adult in the first place: how do the National Cholesterol Education Panel-III guidelines
perform? J Am Coll Cardiol. 41:1475–1479.
4. Bijlani, R. L., Vempati, R. P., Yadav, R. K., Ray, R. B., Gupta, V., Sharma, R., Mehta, N. &
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15. Kuller, L. H., Tracy, R. P., Shaten, J. & Meilahn, E. N. (1996). Relation of C-reactive protein and
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Maseri, A. (1994). The prognostic value of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid a protein in severe
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Rajani, M. & Bijlani, R. (2000). Retardation of coronary atherosclerosis with yoga lifestyle
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34. Tracy, R. P., Lemaitre, R. N., Psaty, B. M., Ives, D. G., Evans, R. W., Cushman, M., Meilahn, E.
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Увод
Corresponding author: ghanshyam.thakur20@gmail.com
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Методе
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Резултати
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*p<0,05, **p<0,01
Дискусија
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код здравих одраслих особа, ово истраживање има нека ограничења. Оно не
обухвата друге значајне факторе ризика, као што су индекс телесне масе,
коришћење алкохола, нивои физичке активности или присуство породичне
историје коронарне артеријске болести, односно њено одсуство. Иако је ово
истраживање рађено на малом узорку, добијени резултати обећавају.
Међутим, потребно је извести истраживање на већем узорку да би се
потврдили позитивни ефекти јоге. С обзиром на то што је наше истраживање
било ограничено на мерење hs-CRP-a и липопротеина, следећа истраживања
треба да испитају специфичне цитокине који су повезани са упалом да би се
расветлила улога практиковања техника јоге на превенцију и ублажавање
кардиоваскуларне болести.
Закључак
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Introduction
Corresponding author: leszekkulm@wp.pl
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1
Freud's influence affected the levels of awareness and Vogt'a as an expert on
psychosomatic medicine and the problems of "mind-body" (mind-body problems), referred
to the hypnotic state and welfare (well-being).
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Research group
One hundred fifty four healthy adults volunteered to participate in this study. The
students were recruited from post-graduated courses (health promotion and
relaxation techniques) provided by the University School of Physical Education
(years 2004/2005). The participants (n=154) were randomly distributed among the
three groups (yoga, relaxation and control group). Three participant was dropped
out before the second last session. All analyses were computed using data from
151 participants (n=53 for the yoga g., n=49 for the relaxation g. and n=49 for the
control g.). Majority, 137 were women and only 14 men. The participants were
told that they would be taking a part of research project investigating relaxation
techniques. The groups were labeled to prevent for a selection bias, so yoga group
was labeled as ‘relaxation exercises’, progressive relaxation as ‘relaxation
imagery’ and control group as ‘relaxation with music’. They were informed about
the research duration, according to course timetable. Characteristic of the sample
divided in three groups are given in Table 1.
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Groups
Total Yoga g. Relax g. Control g.
Number of participants 154 55 50 49
(1 session)
Number of participants 151 53 49 49
(6 session)
Women 137 47 44 46
Men 14 6 5 3
Mean age in years 34,4 33,4 34,2 32,8
The procedure of the two experimental groups is based on classical yoga technique
(Satyananda 1984) and Jacobson’s progressive relaxation (Jacobson 1938). The
instructors advised to focus on process, not on purpose. It was suggested that
participants should be open to "what appears at the moment.". Each session lasted
about 60 minutes
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In this group for first 25 minutes people were asked to do some simple slow
stretching movement. Then they were asked to do passive exercises according to a
standardized Jacobson's progressive relaxation technique. Relaxation involves
flexing specific muscles, holding the tension and then relaxing. The technique
involves progressing through muscle groups one at a time. They did specific
motions with their eyes closed, they had to tense and relax their muscles one by
one, starting from the feet - calves, thighs, hands, forearms, arms, shoulders, back,
chest, neck, eyebrows, eyes – to the jaw and the face. Progressive relaxation may
be practiced while lying down or sitting. This procedure lasted about 25 minutes.
Then, they were asked to imagine some pleasant activity from the daily life (open
air walks, games, bicycle riding, gardening, swimming, meditating, talking, eating
etc.). This part lasted for about 10 minutes. After relaxation, the experimenter
counted from l to 10, and asked participants to open their eyes and to come back to
the present.
These participants did not receive any specific instructions. They came for
listening of relaxation music. They had to find comfortable body position for 45
minutes and then was time of another 15 minutes to share the feelings.
Results
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Table 2. Change in tension intensity – main scores from the first session (S1) to
the last session (S2) among three groups
S1 S6 t-value Significance
M (SD) M (SD) (2-tailed)
Exercise r. 3.86 (1.16) 2.26 (1.30) 4.62 .00
Imagery r. 3.91 (1.20) 2.82 (1.09) 3.23 .00
Music r. 3.92 (1.56) 3.40 (1.01) 1.24 .01
Table 3. Change in energy effect – main scores from first class (S1) to the last
class (S6) among three groups.
S1 S6 t-value Significance
M (SD) M (SD) (2-tailed)
Exercise r. 5.25 (1.44) 9.04 (1.41) -7.42 .00
Imagery r. 4.48 (1.12) 7.10 (1.14) -5.49 .00
Music r. 5.12 (1.32) 5.82 (1.24) -1.81 .08 NS
Yoga kind of relaxation seems to be more effective in reducing of anxiety than two
other techniques (Table 4). The only this group progress significantly when
compare S1 and S6.
Table 4. Change in anxiety level – main scores from first class (S1) to the last
class (S6) among three groups
S1 S6 t-value Significance
M (SD) M (SD) (2-tailed)
Exercise r. 5.25 (1.44) 9.04 (1.41) -7.42 .00
Imagery r. 4.48 (1.12) 7.10 (1.14) -5.49 .00
Music r. 5.12 (1.32) 5.82 (1.24) -1.81 .08 NS
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probably there is not relationship. The same pattern of correlation was found for
energy and anxiety (Table 6).
Discussion
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Conclusions
2. Participants from yoga relaxation have reported the increased energy released
by relaxation. Some authors reported that spontaneous body movements,
often described as ‘without control’ along with positive emotions and mood, are
common during yoga sessions. Some participants described a remarkable build up
of energy often for longer time, whole day or few days after session.
3. In yoga and progressive relaxation groups some role play physical part of
trainings. Moreover, this kind of training, which is more physical passive
(postural yoga), is not very demanding for differences, such as stretching or active
progressive relaxation exercises (progressive relaxation). The researchers
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References:
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Увод
leszekkulm@wp.pl
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Експериментална група
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Групе
Укупно Група јоге Релаксациона Контролна
група група
Број учесника
154 55 50 49
(1 сесија)
Број учесника
151 53 49 49
(6 сесија)
Жене 137 47 44 46
Мушкарци 14 6 5 3
Просечна старост у
34,4 33,4 34,2 32,8
годинама
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Резултати
S1 S6 Значајност
t-вредност
M (SD) M (SD) (2-страна)
Вежбање 3,86 (1,16) 2,26 (1,30) 4,62 ,00
Визуелизација 3,91 (1,20) 2,82 (1,09) 3,23 ,00
Музика 3,92 (1,56) 3,40 (1,01) 1,24 ,01
S1 S6 Значајност
t-вредност
M (SD) M (SD) (2-страна)
Вежбање 5,25 (1,44) 9,04 (1,41) -7,42 ,00
Визуелизација 4,48 (1,12) 7,10 (1,14) -5,49 ,00
Музика 5,12 (1,32) 5,82 (1,24) -1,81 ,08 NS
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S1 S6 Значајност
t-вредност
M (SD) M (SD) (2-страна)
Вежбање 5,25 (1,44) 9,04 (1,41) -7,42 ,00
Визуелизација 4,48 (1,12) 7,10 (1,14) -5,49 ,00
Музика 5,12 (1,32) 5,82 (1,24) -1,81 ,08 NS
Дискусија
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Закључци
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Abstract: Core stability in general involves the muscular control required around
the lumbar spine to maintain functional stability. Stability and movement are both
critically dependent on the coordination of all the muscles surrounding the lumbar
spine. This paper describes a yogic breathing technique (Uddiyana Bandha) that
helps in enhancing core stability. In order to verify whether the practical results of
the exercise corroborated with the theoretical research, an observation of the
Transversus Abdominis at the umbilical level was carried out using ultrasound
imaging techniques. The findings support the theoretical analysis.
Introduction
Core stability is the ability to control the position and movement of the central
portion of the body. In other words, better core stability can serve to effectively
recruit the trunk musculature and then learn to control the position of the lumbar
spine during dynamic and static movements. Core stability training targets the
muscles deep within the abdomen which connect to the spine, pelvis and
shoulders, to assist in the maintenance of good posture and provide the foundation
for all arm and leg movements. On a more significant note, power is derived from
the trunk region of the body and a properly conditioned core helps control that
power, allowing for smoother, more efficient and better coordinated movement in
the limbs (Omkar et al. 2009). Moreover, well-conditioned core muscles help to
reduce the risk of injury.
The deep trunk muscles, Transversus Abdominis (TA), lumbar multifidus (MF),
Internal Oblique (IO), paraspinal, pelvic floor, are critical to the active support of
the lumbar spine (Cholewicki, et al. 1996). The co-contraction of these muscles
produce forces via the "thoracolumbar fascia" (TLF) and the "intra-abdominal
pressure" (IAP) mechanism which stabilize the lumbar spine, while the paraspinal
Corresponding author: omkar@aero.iisc.ernet.in
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and MF muscles act directly to resist the forces acting on the lumbar spine. By
definition, the TA and MF muscles act as stabilizers and are not involved in
producing movements, but instead involve static, or isometric, contractions
(Richardson, et al. 1999). Furthermore, they must act as stabilizers throughout
everyday activities as well as fitness and sport activities, and hence require very
good endurance of low-level forces. These muscles do not need to be very strong,
but they must be correctly coordinated (Kumar, et al. 2002).
Method
The exercise requires a stance with both feet placed apart, knees partially flexed
and the spine maintained straight. Next, a controlled breathing has to be performed
with full awareness about the core. The breathing proceeds in two stages. First,
the controlled respiratory attempt should coincide with the practice of Mula-
Bandha, consisting of the contraction of the levator ani, shifting up the rectum and
its adnexa. The controlled suspension of breath (3-15 seconds) to coincide with
Jalandhara Bandha, chin pressing against the chest, just below the jugular notch
to bring about a firm compression on the two carotid sinuses. Next, the controlled
expiration should proceed along with Uddiyana Bandha or retraction of the
abdominal wall, particularly the below the navel followed by a suspension of
breath for about 3-15 seconds (Fig. I). The exercise is repeated with an interval of
a few deep breaths. In essence, this consists of manipulation of intra-pulmonic,
intra-thoracic, and intra-abdominal pressures and retention of the same pressure
changes for a particular length of time. This breathing technique is also in
conformity with the various core stability models, which emphasize on the
controlled activation of transverses, multifidus, diagphram and the pelvic floor
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muscles. In this the compressive forces on the lumbar segment is relieved during
inhalation, by building the intra-abdominal pressure and during exhalation, by a
complete retraction of the navel towards the spine.
Results
The Uddiyana Bandha exercise was performed by the author in a clinical setup
where ultrasound scanner is available. First, the bent-knee stance was assumed and
the TA was observed at the umbilical level using Ultrasound Imaging. The
ultrasound image obtained is shown in Figure 2. Then the uddiyana bandha was
performed and while holding the posture ultrasound image of TA was captured.
The image of TA in uddiyana bandha is shown in Figure 3. An obvious inference
from the observation of the two images is that the thickness of the TA increases
from 10.5 mm to 17.5 mm. This finding indicate that the actual ultrasound data,
obtained during the test, corroborate with the author’s hypothesis.
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Note: The two ‘+’ marks were used to determine the thickness of the TA
Note: The ‘+’ marks used to indicate the thickness of the TA have moved further
apart, which indicates that the thickness of the TA is increased during the exercise
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Discussion
The Uddiyana Bandha can be proven to be effective from the point of view of the
basic mechanics involved as well. A test conducted by Hides (Hides, et al. 2006),
proved that in response to the action of drawing-in of the abdominal wall, ‘the
transversus abdominis contracted bilaterally to form a musculofascial band that
tightened like a corset’. This well-coordinated movement, from the point of view
of Panjabi’s statement on spinal stability (Punjabi, 1992), clearly is a factor that
contributes to lumbo-pelvic stability. The mechanism of corset shape in core
stability is well discussed by Omkar and Vishwas (Omkar et al. 2009).
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Conclusion
Core stability is one of the basic issues in combating problems associated with the
lumbosacral spine. Recent advances, both theoretical and experimental, in the field
of core stability training have given a new dimension to the understanding of yogic
postures and breathing techniques. The Uddiyana Bandha is one such yoga
exercise that holds a position of great pertinence with regard to core stability.
References
1. Ainscough-Potts, A., Morrissey, M.C., Critchley, D. (2006). The response of the transverse
abdominis and internal oblique muscles to different postures, Manual Therapy; 11: 54-60
2. Cholewicki, J. and McGill, S.M. (1996). Mechanical stability of the in vivo lumbar spine:
implications for injury and chronic low back pain. Clinical Biomechanics, 11: 1-15
3. Daggfeldt, K. and Thorstensson, A. (1997). The role of intra-abdominal pressure in spinal
unloading. Journal of Biomechanics; 30: 1149-1155
4. Daggfeldt, K. & Thorstensson, A. (2003). The mechanics of back-extensor torque production
about the lumbar spine. Journal of Biomechanics; 36: 815-825
5. Hides, J.A, Wilson, S., Stanton, W., McMahon, S., Keto, H., McMahon, K., Bryant, M. &
Richardson, C. (2006). An MRI Investigation into the function of the transversus abdominis muscle
during "Drawing-In" of the abdominal wall. Spine Journal; 31: 175-178
6. Kumar, S., Narayan, Y. & Garand, D. (2002). Electromyography of trunk muscles in isometric
graded axial rotation. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 12: 317-328
7. MacDonald, D.A., Moseley, G.L. & Hodges, P.W. (2006). The lumbar multifidus: Does the
evidence support clinical beliefs? Manual Therapy 11: 254-263
8. Omkar, S. N. & Vishwas, S. (2009). Yoga techniques as a means of core stability training. Journal
of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 13, 98–103
9. Panjabi, M.M. (1992). The stabilizing system of the spine Part 1: Function, dysfunction,
adaptation, and enhancement. Journal of Spinal Disorders, 5: 383-389
10. Ferdinands, R.E.D. (2011). Analysis of segmental kinetic energy in cricket bowling, 5th Asia-
Pacific Congress on Sports Technology (APCST), Procedia Engineering 13, 246–251
11. Richardson, C.A., Jull, G., Hodges, P. & Hides, J. A. (1999). Therapeutic exercise for spinal
segmental stabilization in low back pain: scientific basis and clinical approach, Edinburgh (NY):
Churchill Livingstone
12. Richardson, C.A., Snijders, C.J., Hides, J.A., Damen, L., Pas, M. S. & Storm, J. (2002). The
relation between the transversus abdominis muscles, sacroiliac joint mechanics, and low back pain.
Spine Journal; 27: 399-405
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Увод
omkar@aero.iisc.ernet.in
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Метод
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Резултати
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Introduction
Learning is defined as the ability to alter behaviour on the basis of past experience.
And memory is the ability to recall the past experience. Both learning and memory
are closely related and, both are to be considered together. Mainly two types of
learning one is Non –associative and Associative. In the first type Habituation and
sensitization are the factors which is getting by constantly exposed or doing
something repeatedly .In the second type of Associative learning about relation
between two or more stimuli at a same time.
Corresponding author: sankarigopal@yahoo.com
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1. Input by learning
The research done by Institute for Mind Body Medicine, Harvard Medical School,
and Bruce D’ Hara and his team at the University of Kentucky in Lexington, U.S.,
revealed a positive influence of meditation and pranayama on brain functioning
and performance.
Research subject
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is most needed and very complicated mechanism for learning and memory, it
disturb due to so many factors like stress, poor concentration. Interference of these
factors in the memory process leads to the underprivileged memory.
Method
Results
Results of the research reveal that performance of the group of poor attention
students has improved after bhramari pranayama .It is found that significant at the
0.05 and It indicates differ on the gain scores between Pre-Post test of the
Performers.
In which the mean of Post test (M=32.63) is found to be greater than that of Pre
(M=23.44) Mean and SD’s of the pre and post show the improvement on their
ability to focus the attention.
When the bhramari pranayama practice perform among the poor performance
students, attention and concentration of participants significantly improved. The
finding of this study reveals that the students who experienced bharamari
pranayama improves the behaviour and overall academics performance. Other
researchers found that Bharamari pranayama improves the academic performance
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and enhance the problem solving ability. The XY Scatter explains the overall
performance of the students during the 7 days programme. (fig:1)
Conclusion
Bhramari pranayama reduces stress and other threatening factors of memory and
improves academic performance. The humming bee sound correspondingly with
“M” har chanting mentally causes increased alertness and this practice brings
improvement in competitive performance. Further researches of the effects of
bhramari pranayama practice should be made because of its beneficial influence on
the population of the school students. We can conclude that practice of the certain
yoga techniques can be a good instrument in improvement of the studying efficacy
in children and youth, while those with attention disorders can use them as the new
method to overcome these very unpleasant limitations in studying and
advancement.
References:
1. Bhole, M.V. (1977). Psycho – Physiological importance of some yoga practices. Paper presented
at the international seminar on stress in Health and Diseases. Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University;
1977.
2. Datey, K.K. (1977). Stress and heart diseases and how to control it with newer techniques –
biofeedback and Savanasana. Paper presented at the International seminar on stress in Health and
Diseases.Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University
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3. Dua, J. (1998). Meditation and its effectiveness. In: Pestonjee DM, Pareek U, Aggarwal R,
editors. Studies in Stress and its management. Delhi: Oxford and IBH
4. Effects of neo-humanist based asana and meditation practices on aggressive behaviour of
Mathayom Suksa 3 students of Ban Na in School, Uttaradit Province. Available at:
http://www.chaingmal.ac.th/abstract/1998/abstract/ed/abstract/edu980688.html [cited in 1998]
5. Krejci, M. (1994). Positive influence of yoga exercises for the Adolescents. Medicine, Mind and
Adolescence. 8:2.
6. Kundan, K.Y. (2005). Achieve inner well – being through practice of yoga. The Times of India; p.
14.
7. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1972). The Science and art of living. Los Angeles. New York:
International SRM Publications.
8. Michaels, R.R., Huber, M.J. & McCann, D.S. (1992). Evaluation of Transcendental Meditation as
a Method of reducing stress. Science. 4245:1242–4.
9. Mottowildo, S.J., Packard, J.S. & Manning, M.R. (1986). Occupational Stress: Its causes and
consequences for job performance. J Appl Psychol. 71:618–29. [PubMed]
10. Nagendra, H.R. & Nagarathna, R. (1977). New Perspective in stress management. Bangalore,
India: Vivekananda Kendra Parkashana
11. Sahasi, G., Mohan, D. & Kacker, C. (1989). Effectiveness of yogic techniques in the management
of anxiety. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies.
12. Sailer, H.S., Schlacter, J. & Edwards, M.R. (1982). Stress-causes, consequences and coping
strategies. Personal.59:35–48.
13. Singh, R.H. & Udupa, K.N. (1977). Psychobiological studies on certain hatha yoga practices.
Paper presented at the international seminar on stress in Health and Diseases. Varanasi: Banaras
Hindu University
14. Steers, R.M. (1984). Organizational Behaviour. In: Foresman S, editor. 2nd ed. Gleenview, IL:
15. Tamini, L.K. (1961). The science of yoga. Madras, India: The theosophical Publishing House;
16. Telles, S. & Desiraju, T. (1993). Recording of audioty middle latency evoked potentials during
the practice of meditation on the syllable ‘OM’, Indian J Med Res. 98:237–9. [PubMed]
17. Telles, S., Hanumanthaiah, B.H., Nagarathana, R. & Nagendra, H.R. (1994). Plasticity of motor
control systems demonstrated by yoga training of school children. Perceptual and Motor
Skills. 76:1264–666.[PubMed]
18. Telles, S., Joseph, C., Venkatesh, S. & Desiraju, T. (1992). Alterations of auditory middle latency
evoked potentials during yogic consciously regulated breathing in an attentive state of mind. Int J
Psychophysiol. 14:189–98. [PubMed]
19. Telles, S., Nagarathna, R., Vani, P.R. & Nagendra, H.R. (1997). A combination of focusing and
de-focusing through yoga reduces optical illusion more than focusing alone. Indian J Physiol
Pharmacol. 41:179–82. [PubMed]
20. Telles, S., Reddy, S.K. & Nagendra, H.R. (2000). Oxygen consumption and respiration following
two yoga relaxation techniques. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 25:221–7. [PubMed]
21. Trow, W.C. (1956). Psychology in Teaching and Learning. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company;
22. Udupa, K.B., Singh, R.H. & Dwivedi, K.N. (1977). Biochemical study on meditation. Paper
presented at the international seminar on stress in Health and Diseases. Varanasi: Banaras Hindu
University; 7.
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Увод
sankarigopal@yahoo.com
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5. Складиштење у дугорочној
меморији
Предмет истраживања
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Метод
Резултати истраживања
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Закључак
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Abstract: The emetic reflex often renders impossible carrying out of adequate
dentistry treatment and the further using of the made denture. There can also
appear complications in the form of aspiration asphyxia and difficult social
adaptation of the patient. Research problem is to reveal the factors provoking an
emetic reflex, to develop algorithm of decrease in reactance of vegetative nervous
system at the given patients. Group of patients 8 person from 56 surveyed (6
women of 2 men in the age of from 23 up to 71) which showed complaints
hypersalivation, the raised emetic reflex on reception at the dentist, impossibility
to use earlier made removable dentures. Patients are surveyed for revealing risk of
occurrence of an emetic reflex, revealed and comfortably adapted for the made
designs. The algorithm of revealing, elimination and maintenance of decreased
reactance (inductive reaction) of vegetative nervous system and normalization of
process of adaptation at patients with the expressed emetic reflex, based on
practice of respiratory yoga is developed.
Introduction
Corresponding author: Dimich29@yandex.ru
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It is necessary to define an emetic reflex and to define its value in work of the
dentist and doctors of any clinical practice. Understanding of the pathology defines
a proper concept.
The emetic reflex is the reflex certificate adjustable by the emetic center, located in
an oblong brain with a nausea previous it, involuntary swallowing the movements,
the speeded up breath strengthened by allocation of a saliva and tears. It is
important to remember, that it, first of all, the protective mechanism which is
carrying out the major role in an organism. Moreover, it is a symptom for many
other things heavy diseases that puts its one of the first items of differential
diagnostics in surgery, neurology and infectious diseases.
Therefore, the main task of this paper is not complete repression of the reflex, but
its restoration to the physiological norm.
Research subject
Methods
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Results
After a month of the lead therapy 5 from 5 patients have felt positive dynamics on
the personal sensations. 4 from them on the termination of treatment could adapt
easily, as they said, for an alien design in a mouth; 1 patient could carry earlier
made. Correlation in criteria of an assessment of quality has made following
parameters:
Discussion
Proceeding from the received data and the analysis of results research, it is
possible to deduce following aspects:
1. Among group patients resistant improvement and high parameters of adaptation
to demountable prosthetics is observed.
2. The patients was on reception with objective of treatment secondary adentia and
surveyed for risk of a possible raised emetic reflex, with advantage have been
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revealed and upon termination of treatment comfortably adapted for the made
dentures.
3. The generated group during research conformed to the chosen criteria of an
assessment of quality of spent treatment and has safely passed a rate of adaptation.
4. All patients during treatment marked positive dynamics and accepted active
participation, complying with all manuals of the doctor.
Conclusion
Based on the given clinical experience, the created procedure has shown the
authentic prediction of the results that allow application of its aspects in the future.
During research there, have been developed and allocated methods of prevention
and repression of the expressed emetic reflex before the beginning of
prosthodontic treatment, based on yoga.
References
1. Kerdo I. (1966). An index for the evaluation of vegetative tonus calculated from the data of blood
circulation.Acta Neuroveg;29(2):250-68.
2. Dickinson, C.M. & Fiske, J. (2005). A review of gagging problems in dentistry: I. Aetiology and
classification. Dental update;32(1)26-28,31-32
3. Dickinson, C.M. & Fiske, J. (2005). A review of gagging problems in dentistry: 2. Clinical
assessment and management. Dental update;32(2)74-76,78-7680
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Увод
Dimich29@yandex.ru
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Предмет истраживања
Методe
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Резултати
Дискусија
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Закључак
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Abstract: There are numerous studies that indicate the positive impact of yoga on
health. Among other things, it is known that certain yoga asanas if practiced
continuously and regularly have positive effects on the human body. Primarily on
pulmonary function, cardiac work and endocrine glands. It is believed that yoga
exercises may interact with different somatosensory-neuro-endocrine mechanisms
and hence their therapeutic effect. Our study was aimed at monitoring the effects
of Similiris yoga program on pulmonary function,with lung function tests FEV1
(forced expiratory volume in one second) and PEF (peak expiratory flow rate).
Similiris yoga program involves the practice of hatha yoga asanas and pranayama
practice. The study included 93 patients of both sexes between 18 and 25 years of
age, who during the six-month period regularly and continuously practiced yoga
exercises twice a week for 90 minutes. Lung function measurements were
performed with Microlife digital spirometer in two phases: Phase 1, before and
after the first hour of similiris program, Phase 2 measurements were conducted
last moment after 6 months of exercise. The results obtained in phase 1 show that
there was no statistically significant difference in the change in FEV1 before and
after class, still in phase 2 there is a statistically significant difference compared
to the measurements in the first phase 2, 87 ± 1.07 L / min, while in Phase 2 values
were 3.14 ± 0.87 L / min. When it comes to stage 1 for PEF amounted to 3.22 ± 1.1
L / s, while phase 2 was 5:43 + / - 1.7 L / s. The results obtained in phase1 show
that there was no statistically significant difference in the change in FEV1 and
PEF (p ˃ 0.05), still in phase 2 there was a highly statistically significant
difference compared with measurements of FEV1 and PEF in phase 1 (p ˂ 0.001).
This has shown that the practice of yoga similiris has positive influence on lung
function.
Introduction
Yoga is a branch of ancient Indian philosophy. The root of the Sanskrit word
Corresponding author: nbranka@gmail.com
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"yoga" has many meanings, one of which is "to unite" or "pair", and refers to the
unity of the individual with the universal consciousness beings (or "Absolute").
Yoga also describes the union of the physical body with the mind and spirit, as
well as the method by which transcends the ego and achieve enlightenment
(Ramacharaka, 2002).
In 19th century few Western scientists have been interested in yoga. In 20th
century there was a period of expansion of interest for yoga and beneficial effect
of yoga on stress and its consequences, which the modern man increasingly felt
(Kent, 2002). In addition, articles today indicate important place of yoga in the
prevention and treatment of many health problems in modern man. It is because of
its philosophy and basic principles of moderation, yoga becomes more and more
present in the world.
Yoga, the association of physical, mental and spiritual being, is much more than
practicing. Yoga is essentially a way of life. An integral part of yoga asanas and
meditation (energy recovery) is breathing, and breathing techniques.
Life is completely addicted to the act of breathing. "Breathing is life." Although
there is differencies in the details of the theory and terminology of both East and
West ,they agree on basic principles. Literally,life depends on breathing,generally
breathing is the key. Namely, vitality and health dependent on correct breathing
habits. Conscious control of our breathing power improves the quality of everyday
life, giving us increased vitality and resistance. On contrary, unintelligent and
careless breathing results in a shorter life, vitality and reduce our susceptibility to
disease (Fraser, 2002).
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Method
The study included 93 individuals of both sexes between 18 and 25 years of age,
who during the six month period regularly and continuously practiced yoga
exercises twice a week for 90 minutes. The control group of 87 individuals who
volunteered to join the study, which has not practiced yoga, or deal with any other
sporting activity during the study. Lung function measurements were performed
with Microlife digital spirometer in two phases: Phase 1, before and after the first
hour of similiris Phase 2 measurements were conducted last moment after 6
months of exercise.
Informed consent was taken from all patients who voluntarily signed up for the
study. They were motivated by a certified instructor from the Yoga Federation of
Serbia to practice yoga Similiris program for 6 months. Similiris yoga program
involves a series of asanas of hatha yoga, which is practiced by precisely logic
schedule and logicly followed with energy flow, in combination with certain
pranayama practices (breathing techniques). An integral part of every workout
similiris is the first part of preparation, that involves preparatory positions, then
positions on the floor, Rishikesh series and energy recovery. All similiris asanas
are from hatha yoga ,that complement one another. Activation of muscle agonists-
anatgonisti retains all the natural rhythm of pulsation. In that scedhule Pranayama
techiques are integrated (udjajji breath, nadi shodhana, kapalabhati, bastrika).
Inclusion criteria:
- Healthy individuals who at enrollment had no experience of practicing yoga,
between 18 and 25 years of age. (yoga group)
- Healthy individuals who at enrollment had no experience of practicing yoga,
between 18 and 25 years of age. And that during the 6 months of the study have
not practiced other sports. ( control group)
Exclusion criteria:
- People with a history of systemic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, hipertensio
arterialis, autoimmune disease, connective tissue disease ...
- People who were treated with beta agonists
- Patients with significant kyphosis or scoliosis caused a significant (eye visible)
chest deformity
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centimeters (cm) in the standing position. Body weight was measured with scales,
expressed in kilograms (kg). The same scale is used during the entire study, with
frequent calibration after every 10 patients. Tab.1
Procedure
To all individuals were explained in detail the procedure and measurement . They
were stimulated to breathe force breathing immediately after a deep breath in a
sequel that is an integral part of the spirometer. Exhaling lasted from 3 to 4
seconds. On the nose to each of them it was small pinchholder to prevent the
passage of air through the nostrils. Each individual had three measurements, and
the highest values recorded were taken into account and were included in the
statistical analysis. All measurements were performed in the standing position. In
addition, at the same time, in 7pm, before the start or after the end of classes at
9pm. All measurements were performed in a quiet environment ,so emotional and
physiological response to stress (caused by external influences) toned down.
N 93 N 87
AGE 20.1 ± 0.6 22.0 ± 0,7
BODY HEIGHT(cm) 165.1 ± 7.5 168 ± 6.2
BODY WEIGHT (kg) 57.3 ± 6.0 64,1±4,9
BMI (kg/m2) 21.5 ± 2.2 22,3± 1,7
Results
In the yoga group, the results obtained in Phase 1 show that there was no
statistically significant difference in the change in FEV1 before and after class,
still in phase 2 there is a statistically significant difference compared to the
measurements in the first phase 2, 87 ± 1.07 L / min, in phase 2 values were 3.14 ±
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0.87 L / min. When it comes to phase1 for PEF amounted to 3.22 ± 1.1 L / s, while
phase 2 was 5:43 + / - 1.7 L / s. In the control group there were no significant
changes in the measured parameters at baseline ,compared to those measured after
6 months. Table 2
p˂ 0.05*, p˂ 0.01**
Discussion
Yoga practice leads to improved lung function. Numerous studies have dealt with
the examination of the effects of yoga on the respiratory and cardiovascular
system. That is why Nagarathna and Nagendra (1985), Murthy et al (1984), Kumar
et al (1985), Singh et al (1990), Jain et al (1993) and Singh (1987), in their studies
showed improvement in asthma, the use of pranayama and control breathing
exercises (Nagarathna, Nagendra, 1985; Murthy, Sahay, Sitaramaraju et al, 1984;
Kumar, Kumari, Kumari et al, 1985; Singh, Wisniewski, Britton, Tattersfield,
1990; Jain, Talukdar, 1993; Singh, 1987). However, there are studies that indicate
the absence of pranayama benefits in people with asthma (Khanam, Sachdeva,
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Besides Joshi and his group of researchers suggests improving FEV1 in women,
not in men (Joshi, Joshi, Gokhale, 1992). Similar results are obtained from
Stanescu in Belgium who ‘s study data showed that there was no statistically
significant improvement in FEV1 in the yoga group compared with the control
group (Stanescu, Nemery, Veriter, Marechal, 1981).
Regard to this, our study included a complete program that includes exercises and
asanas, pranayama and energy recovery. Our results in accordance with the results
of those who have shown improvement in lung function. We are taking into
account the healthy individuals and some of the individual studies had to focus
people with respiratory ailments-asthma. Even in people with asthma it was seen
progress toward better. Not only in terms of lung function tests but also when it
comes to the mental stability of patients with asthma. In fact, asthma is a disease
that involves the existence of increased resistance in the airways, forcing a
reduction in respiratory volumes, flow rate, pulmonary hyperventilation and
increased respiratory work and he believes that it is essential mental stability of an
individual suffering from asthma. Just practicing yoga individuals with asthma
increases their sense of control over stress and initiate autonomous factors in
asthma attack (Sodhi, Singh, Dandona, 2009).
The reason for this lies in the fact that yoga balances the work of the autonomic
nervous system, in favor of the parasympathetic nervous system, which is,'' brakes
activated sympathetic nervous system. Several studies have shown that yoga can
rearrange autonomic imbalance, gain control respiratory rate, reaching the control
of inspiratory and expiratory muscles (Ernst, 2000; Ram, Holloway, Jones, 2003) -
primarily controls the diaphragm, which is a key respiratory muscles, with
additional control of intercostal muscles (which reduces the reactivity of the
sympathetic, and essentially represents the biggest challenge of asthmatic
individuals). With yoga, people attained respiratory efficiency, balance of
antagonistic respiratory muscles.
This all makes sense if you start from the fact that yoga is an ancient discipline
“older than archeology” (Kent, 2002), where the mental and physical component
integrated through regular practice. Considering that respiratory function is
dependent on many factors including the function nervous system, respiratory
muscle strength and lung condition come to the place of yoga conditioning, and
proper functioning of the respiratory system integration. That is why
Mandanmohan has showed that the short-term practice of yoga (for 6 weeks)
significantly affected the respiratory muscles to gain strength and increase lung
volume in children (Mandanmohan, Jatiya, Udupa, Bhavanani, 2003).
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Practicing yoga people can also improve muscle strength and flexibility (Raub,
2002), maximum of expiratory tension (Yadav, Das, 2001) and feeling for proper
breathing (Villien, Yu, Barthelemy, Jammes, 2005).
The main function of the lungs is gas exchange (O2 and CO2), for the sake of
adequate cell respiration. Pulmonary gas exchange depends predominantly of
ventilation-perfusion ratio. Physiologically there is a difference in the natural
ventilation-perfusion (V / Q) ratio in different parts of the lungs. Thus, the upper
parts of the lung (upper third, peaks lung), this ratio is in favor of ventilation,
secondary pulmonary parties are approximately equal, while in the lower parts of
the lungs (basal Party) this ratio in favor of perfusion (Guyton, Hall, 2010).
This relationship is not the same in all parts of the lungs especially in shallow
breathing. With Yoga people learn to become aware of all parts of the lung, and
thus knowingly engage in the process of breathing (eg triple yoga breathing). In
this regard, as opposed to an individual who is not practicing yoga and that
predominantly uses peaks lungs breathing, the person practicing yoga using a
significantly larger capacity. Research conducted Chanavirut, shows that the
expansion of the chest wall adds to the better ventilated parts of the lung
(Chanavirut, Khaidjapho, Jaree, Pongnaratorn, 2006).
As Similiris is comprehensive yoga program, we believe that for this reason our
results indicate any research to improve lung function. Similar claims Halvorson,
who says that yoga stretching and balanced movements can lead to improved
muscle strength and flexibility (Halvorson, 2002).
With Yoga we move from dominant chest pass to the predominantly abdominal
breathing. Specifically thorax breathing engage to a greater extent intercostal and
auxiliary respiratory muscles: m.trapezius, mm.scaleni, m. pectoralis major et
minor m.sternocleidomastoideus (Levenson, 1992; Frownfelter, 1987; Chaitow,
Bradely, 2002). Therefore, it is less efficient, it delivers air into the lower lungs,
and engage tired neck muscles and shoulders, and it is associated with anxiety
and tension (Gilbert, 1999). On the other hand predominantly abdominal breathing
engages the diaphragm, which is matched to the shape of the lung. That's why
respiration is done with the least effort, which is associated with a sense of mental
stability and calmness (Chanavirut, Khaidjapho, Jaree, Pongnaratorn, 2006).
Conclusion
Scientific data that we obtained in this study support the existence of the benefits
that yoga has on the respiratory function. The study has shown that practicing yoga
with medium intensive effort of similiris positions and breathing techniques,
significantly affect the volume of the lungs and have a significant impact as an
additional therapeutic tool in the treatment of certain disorders of lung function.
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27. Sodhi, C., Singh, S. & Dandona, P. K. (2009). A study of effects of yoga training on pulmonary
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university students with asthma–a controlled study. Allergy Asthma Proc; 19: 3–9.
30. Villien, F., Yu, M., Barthelemy, P. & Jammes, Y. (2005). Training to yoga respiration selectively
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31. Yadav, R.K. & Das, S. (2001). Effect of yogic practice on pulmonary functions in young females
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Увод
nbranka@gmail.com
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Метод
Инклузиони критеријуми:
– здрави појединци који до почетка студије нису имали искуство
практиковања јоге, између 18 и 25 година старости (особе у групи јоге);
– здрави појединци између 18 и 25 година старости који до почетка студије
нису имали искуство практиковања јоге и који током 6 месеци трајања
студије нису практиковали друге спортове (особе у контролној групи).
Ексклузиони критеријуми:
– особе са историјом системских обољења као сто су diabetes mellitus,
hipertensio arterialis, аутоимуне болести, обољења везивног ткива...;
– особе које су биле на терапији бета агонистима;
– особе са значајним кифозама или сколиозама које проузрокују оком
видљив деформитет грудног коша.
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Процедура
Свим испитаницима је био детаљно објашњен поступак и процедура мерења.
Стимулисани су да дишу форсирано, непосредно након дубоког удаха, у
наставак који је саставни део спирометра. Издисај је трајао од 3 до 4 секунде.
На нос је сваком од њих била постављана мала штипаљка како би се спречио
пролазак ваздуха кроз ноздрве. Сваки појединац је имао по три мерења, и
највеће остварене вредности су узимане у обзир и биле укључене у
статистичку обраду. Сва мерења су извођена у стојећем ставу и у исто време,
тј. у 19 ч пред почетак часа односно након његовог завршетка у 21 ч. Сва
мерења су обављана у тихом окружењу да би се емотивни и физиолошки
одговор на стрес (изазван спољашњим утицајима) што више ублажио.
Резултати
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p˂0.05*, p˂0.01**
Дискусија
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Све ово има смисла ако се пође од чињенице да је јога древна дисциплина
(„старија и од археологије“) (Kent, 2002), где су и психичка и физичка
компонента интегрисане кроз редовно практиковање. Ако узмемо у обзир да
респираторна функција зависи од многих фактора који укључују функцију
нервног система, снагу респираторних мишића и стање плућа, долазимо до
места јоге у кондиционирању, правилном функционисању и интегрисању
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Овај однос није исти у свим деловима плућа, нарочито код површног дисања.
Јогом се освешћују сви делови плућа и самим тим свесно ангажују у процесу
дисања (нпр. трослојно јогинско дисање). С тим у вези, за разлику од
појединца који не вежба јогу и који доминантно користи врхове плућа при
дисању, особа која практикује јогу користи плућа у њиховом значајно већем
капацитету. Истраживање које је спровео Chanavirut показује да експанзија
зида грудног коша додатно доприноси бољој вентилацији базалних делова
плућа (Chanavirut, Khaidjapho, Jaree, Pongnaratorn, 2006).
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Закључак
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Corresponding author: neda@yogalite.fr
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Introduction
The Yogic Education teaches the art of living granting the central place to the
notion of relationship with self, with others and with the environment. This notion
may be interpreted as a form of human ecology, interior and exterior, essentially
providing the right environment in which the yogic techniques may be applied in
the endeavour to attain the state of Yoga. The aim of Yogic Education is to enable
each individual to attain the state of an autonomous existence in which it becomes
possible to access our own life force and fulfil our human potentials.
The Yogic Education is rooted in traditional yogic texts (Yoga Sutra, Hatha
Pradipika, Gueranda Samitha) and the actual scientific research achievements and
knowledge about the human being development. It represents a discipline of
awareness, a way of life, a tool for self-knowledge, for self-development of both
body and mind, adapted to the needs of human beings in 21st century. The
educational approach provides a global understanding of human existence and
facilitates the acquisition of knowledge, knowhow and the relationship with
oneself, with others and with the environment.
This work describes the Yogic Education concept and illustrates its practical
implementation with two examples: (i) School Yoga, which has been integrated as
part of the physical and sport education for adolescents in French national
education system, and (ii) Yoga for Office Workers, a programme for management
of stress and upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders in office workers.
Yogic Education
The concept of Yogic Education has emerged from the School Yoga experiment.
The project of School Yoga aimed to introduce the practice of Yoga in French
school environment. The Yoga practice was integrated within the framework of
Physical and Sport Education curriculum for students aged 16 to18. The idea was
to transform the traditional approach to Physical Education in schools in France
into Education for Health in keeping with Life Skills Education defined by the
World Health Organisation (WHO, 1997) and the yogic ethics of Yama and
Nyama. Indeed, according to the documents governing the French national
education system “the objective of the Physical Education in France is to shape a
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cultured citizen, lucid, independent, physically and socially educated. (…) Its aim
is the pursuit of wellbeing, good health (…) and the lifelong independence, by
application of reflexive analysis.” (Ministère de l'Éducation Nationale, 2010). The
School Yoga programme aims to provide adolescents with access to the health
education by implementation of the Yogic Education concept.
The framework for Yogic Education has emerged from the structure of Yoga
described in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. The yogic principles, universal in their nature,
cut across centuries and cultures and can be applied to reformulate the standards of
the modern school education. In this light, The Yogic Education contains the
following elements, as summarised in Table 1: citizenship education, physical
education, emotional education, education for self-awareness, and education for
being. Each element has one main focus.
YOGIC EDUCATION
Education
Yogic concept Objective Focus
concept
Ethics of conduct to attain
Yama balanced relationships with OTHERS
Citizenship others
education Ethics of conduct to attain a
Nyama balanced relationship with SELF
self
Physical Physical techniques to attain
Asana BODY
education physical balance
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Since its beginnings, the concept of Yogic Education has been continuously
developed, documented and formalised. These efforts have paved the way for
integration of Yogic Education within French academic environment. The first
university course, Diploma in Yogic Education, has been set up at the University
of Lille 2. This course does not pretend to replace the yoga teacher training of any
yoga school. Rather, it aims to expand the theoretical and practical knowledge
specific to Yoga, its history and concepts. It establishes relationships between the
Western theories and practices relevant to Yoga: life sciences (biology,
physiology, anatomy), humanities and social sciences (psychology, history), and
education science (philosophy for health education transferable throughout the
life).
The Yogic Education project has a well defined goal – the implementation of the
Yogic Education programme in a given environment and in relation to a particular
problem. The development of the programme starts with familiarising with the
environment in which the programme will be implemented, and identifying the
specific needs of persons involved. Next, the problem is identified and the working
hypothesis is set up in partnership with the participants in order to elaborate a
specific Yogic Education protocol. The participants play an active role in the
learning process: the educative approach is based on the acquisition of autonomy
in the practice via reflexive analysis of the effects of the practice at all levels of
personality. The acquisition of autonomy requires certain time dedicated to
personal practice and certain maturity in the learning process. The apprenticeship
is guided by experimental, scientific, and philosophical knowledge of today,
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which, in our opinion, is a manner of learning the most appropriate for human
beings in Western society today.
While numerous Yoga courses start up everywhere at the moment, offering diverse
practices, traditional as well as much westernised variants, the Yogic Education
remains rooted in the tradition while at the same time bearing in mind the
knowledge accumulated by modern sciences. If the proposed approach of Yogic
Education can help ease the suffering inflicted upon the human beings in the fast
changing and turbulent world of the 21st century - by returning to our primary
nature, rediscovering our true self, in order to reach out to the world, to others - it
will have accomplished its mission.
School Yoga
The tools used to convey the messages of Yogic Education were adapted to the
school environment, such as: anatomical body maps, written accounts on the level
of perceived sensations during the practice with scales form 0 to 10, flash cards,
and group discussions. Using the proposed tools the student experiments, creates
and adopts a short sequence of postures in order to feel and observe different
effects of his or her own actions. Progressively, the student evolves from a passive
listener, via being able to reproduce the seen, via actively receiving the internal
information emitted by nervous receptors, to finally becoming a researcher
exploring his/her own needs, seeking to transform the posture into Asana, thus
attaining the balance between the body and the mind.
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The programme Yogic Education for Office Workers was conceived as part of the
student project for the Diploma in Yogic Education at the University of Lille 2.
The project has since developed and has been formalised as a personal
development programme offered to Human Resource departments in
establishments in the North of France.
The project was motivated by recent reports highlighting the significant increase in
stress related illnesses and musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) reported by office
workers in France. A number of reports published by European and French bodies
monitoring conditions at work have published documents warning about the health
risks threatening this particular segment of working population (European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2004, 2010;
European Working Conditions Observatory, 2010). Statistics reveal alarming
facts: MSD represent 66.7% of all illnesses reported in France (European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2004), MDS
and stress are the two main causes of absence from work in France (European
Working Conditions Observatory, 2010). Although the figures vary across
European countries they clearly show similar levels of stress and MDS among the
European working population (European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions, 2010). Furthermore, the review of literature
published in leading scientific journals demonstrates a possible strong link
between stress and the upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders (UMSD),
including the neck, shoulders, arms and hands (Haufler, 2000; Devereux, 2002;
Lundberg, 2002; Bongers, 2006; Eltayeb, 2009; Devereux, 2011).
Objectives
The office workers seem particularly affected by stressful working conditions due
to specific work demands. In addition, this population is subjected to prolonged
hours of sitting and working with a computer, often throughout the whole working
day. Approximately two thirds of all working people in France work in offices for
most part of their working hours (according to the approximate size of the services
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and IT sectors). Clearly, the health issues affecting this population will impact
heavily on the rest of the society in terms of human and financial costs.
Consequently, the prevention of stress and UMSD in office workers will play a
crucial role in easing the burden on public and private health care funds in future
years.
The objective of Yogic Education is re-education for health, which offers a simple
and cost effective tool to help reduce the risk of stress and UMDS in office
workers. Yogic Education programme aims to provide a toolbox of yogic
techniques which will allow each individual to become the main actor of their own
wellbeing both at workplace and in private life.
Approach
Yogic Education approach implements the education for health, with respect to
“life skills for psychosocial competence” defined by the (WHO, 1997), using the
yogic principles as the educational method of choice. With respect to WHO
psychosocial life skills, the Yogic Education for Office Workers will attempt to
tackle the following three issues: decision making (regarding own well being),
self-awareness (physical and emotional), coping with emotions (for better
functioning in situations of stress), and coping with stress (for better control of
own body and mind). With regard to yogic tradition, the programme engages yogic
the principles of: Yama and Nyama (ethics regarding the environment, the others
and self), Asana (physical practice for balanced body), Pranayama (breathing
practice for balanced nervous system), Pratyahara and Dharana (for balanced
emotions). The envisaged approach will be practical, only the basics of the yogic
principles will be introduced, with the emphasis on the usefulness of the proposed
techniques within the defined context of education for health.
The first phase of the programme was familiarisation with the environments and
the persons concerned by the project. Two establishments were approached, one in
private sector (group E) and one in public sector (group A). After the initial
agreement with the management an email was sent to 70 employees in each
establishment with a short description of the project. The participation in the
project was voluntary, 11 employees form each establishment accepted the
invitation and took part in the project. Finally, the group consisted of 22 adult
women aged between 25 and 60, with no medical restrictions and of average
physical fitness. All participants were of French cultural background and formal
education, of unknown spiritual inclinations; most had no previous experience
with yoga and had very little information about the yogic practices.
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Considerations
Protocol
Taking into account the environment and the persons concerned by the programme
the work protocol is developed in collaboration with the participants and the
management of the establishment. The protocol includes the following
components: hypothesis, assessment, content and tools of the intervention, and
evaluation.
Hypothesis
Yogic Education programme for office workers facilitates the acquisition of skills
and habits which will, upon the completion of the programme, enable the
participants to autonomously apply yoga techniques in order to alleviate the
symptoms of stress and UMSD both at the workplace and in everyday life.
Assessment
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strain and the active behaviour hypotheses. The score, obtained by Karasek Job
Content Questionnaire, defines a person as passive, active, under low strain, or
under high strain, according to where the person is located in one of the quadrants
in the two-dimensional D-L diagram. The Karasek method defines the “high job
strain” as a situation with low decision latitude and strong psychological demand,
where the risk of stress is high. In addition, a low SS score aggravates the risk of
stress. The job strain is identified as isostrain when L is low, D is high and SS is
low
Figure 1 shows the results of stress risk assessment. It is observed that 73% of
employees in the group A are stressed, under high strain, compared to 27% in the
group E. In total, half of the participants are diagnosed as stressed according to
Karasek method. A very high proportion, 78%, of participants in the group A
reported a low social support at work, compared to 30% in the group E. It is
observed that 67% of employees in the group A, compared to 20% in the group E
suffer form isostrain. In total, 36% of all participants are subjected to isostrain and
are diagnosed as being at a very high risk of having a negative effect on their
health due to stressful conditions at work.
The UMSD symptoms are assessed by means of The Maastricht Upper Extremity
Questionnaire (MUEQ) (The Maastricht Upper Extremity Questionnaire, MUEQ,
Eltayeb, 2007). Within the scope of the Yogic Education for Office Workers
programme only the part of MUEQ dealing with UMDS was used. The
participants were asked whether during the past year they perceived discomfort or
pain in the upper extremities which lasted at least one week. The questions
referred to discomfort in seven body regions: neck, shoulder, upper arm, elbow,
lower arm, wrist, and hand. The number of positive answers, the UMDS score,
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The assessment revealed great differences in the wellbeing of the individuals in the
two groups. In the group E only one out of four employees is diagnosed as
stressed, while three out of four in the group A are stressed. Also, the average
UMDS score in group A is almost double that of the group E. In the light of these
findings it can be concluded that the group A is exposed to the higher risk of stress
related health problems than the group E. The Yogic Education content and tools
were adapted accordingly for each group of participants.
The programme consisted of eight weekly sessions. Each session was based on a
routine which consisted of several segments. The routine was developed based on
two underlying principles: (i) the experience of being the observer (Drasta) and
the witness of self (Sakshi), and (ii) the quality of being stable and comfortable in
own body and mind (YSP II-46 Asana). The practice proposed a series of simple
but effective techniques accessible to all participants. The participants were
encouraged to observe their own emotional state and the occurrence of any
changes during and after the practice.
The specific tools were developed and used appropriately in order to attain the
objective of each session.
1. Objective Self Awareness Mind. A visual and written account of one’s
own feelings was used. A list of different facial expressions (collection of
70 “smileys”), and a list of words describing emotions were provided to
help participants define and describe how they feel. The list of emotions,
borrowed from the non-violent communication theory (Association pour
la Communication NonViolente, 2012), contained two groups of words
describing emotions we experience when our needs are satisfied and
emotions we experience when our needs are not satisfied.
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Evaluation
The outcome of the programme was evaluated in two ways. First, the effects of
each session were assessed by means of self-reporting questionnaires where the
participants were asked to evaluate their own state of body and mind before and
after the session. Second, the final outcome of the project was evaluated in relation
to the hypothesis defined at the beginning of the project.
Let us define a notion of an instance as one person attending one session. The
project counted 120 instances in total, 45 in the group E and 75 in the group A. In
terms of evaluation, there were approximately 120 states of mind and body noted
before and after sessions during the course of the intervention (in a few instances a
person did not fill in the questionnaire).
Before and after each session the participants were asked whether they perceived a
discomfort (tensions, cramps, pain …) in various parts of the body. In 72% of
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At the end of the session the participants compared the general perception of the
body before and after the session. In 75% of instances the participants reported
feeling better or much better after the session, in 11% there was no noticeable
change, and in 2% of instances a person didn’t feel as well as before the session,
Table 3.
At the end of the project the outcome of the intervention was evaluated by means
of final questionnaire. The aim of the questionnaire was to asses the validity of the
hypothesis. The final questionnaire consists of four parts. The first part evaluates
the short term effects on the reduction of stress and UMSD symptoms at work,
perceived after each session. The second part evaluates the medium to long term
effects on the reduction of stress and UMDS symptoms perceived in everyday life,
at work and outside work. The third part evaluated whether the participants
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achieved autonomy in their practice. The forth, and the last, part of the
questionnaire addressed the potential change in the attitude towards yoga.
The results of the final evaluation of the programme are listed below:
The evaluation confirmed the anticipated positive effect of the Yogic Education
programme on the reduction of stress and UMSD symptoms. At this point it can
only be suggested that a more regular practice over a longer period of time could
bring long lasting positive effects in terms of relationships with entourage and
reduced absenteeism.
Conclusion
The Yogic Education concept has been implemented through the programmes
Scholl Yoga for adolescents and the Yogic Education for Office Workers. Yoga
calms the mind and relaxes the body which brings more positive perception of one
self and the environment. Even a short practice in school or at workplace may
change the rest of the day in a more positive direction. The evaluation of
programmes has demonstrated very promising results: a rapid improvement of
general wellbeing was observed, the participants integrated the yogic techniques,
attained autonomy in the practice, and expressed an intention to pursue the practice
in future.
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Admittedly, the Yogic Education programme was run over a relatively short
period of time and with a limited number of participants. Yet, the health benefits it
can provide are evident. The majority of the participants noticed a more relaxed
and peaceful state of mind after the practice. However, a long term personal
commitment in the practice is indispensable to ensure long lasting positive effects.
This is true for both the participants in the practice and the decision makers in the
institutions. The good will on its own is insufficient. A significant change in
attitudes towards health, which would guide decisions in the right direction, is
necessary. Fortunately, the trends of changing attitudes in Western society are
visible. The signs of these trends are ever increasing numbers of people practicing
Yoga, the emergence of publications dedicated to Yoga, and a greater tolerance
towards the holistic medicine. In particular, the scientific interest in yogic tools
and techniques has suggested a new approach adapted to the needs of the human
beings in 21st century. It is beyond doubt that this scientific and educational
approach will open up the access to the benefits of Yoga practice to all individuals
in Western society regardless their age, their cultural or social background.
References:
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neda@yogalite.fr
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Увод
Јога образовање подучава умећу живљења при чему се централно место даје
концепту односа са собом, другима и природом. Овај концепт може да се
интерпретира као форма људске екологије, унутрашње и спољашње, која
обезбеђује одговарајуће услове у којима технике јоге могу да се примене са
циљем достизања стања јоге. Циљ јога образовања јесте да се свакој особи
омогући да достигне стање аутономног постојања у којем постаје могуће да
се приступи својим животним силама и да се испуне људски потенцијали.
Јога образовање
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ЈОГА ОБРАЗОВАЊЕ
Концепт
Јога коцепт Циљ Фокус
образовања
Етика понашања за
остварење
yama ДРУГИ
уравнотежених односа
Грађанско са другима
образовање Етика понашања за
остварење
nyama ЈА
уравнотеженог односа
са собом
Телесне технике за
Физичко
asana успостављање телесне ТЕЛО
васпитање
равнотеже
Технике дисања за
Емоционално
pranayama успостављање нервне УМ
образовање
равнотеже
Образовање prathyara Повлачење чула ПАЖЊА
за свесност о
себи dharana Мирна усмерена пажња КОНЦЕНТРАЦИЈА
Континуирана
Образовање dhyana МЕДИТАЦИЈА
концентрација
за
бивствовање samadhi Интеграција ОПШТА ДОБРОБИТ
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Док у свету, у овом тренутку, започињу многобројни курсеви јоге који нуде
различите праксе, и традиционалне и модернизоване варијанте, јога
образовање остаје укорењено у традицији док у исто време има у виду
акумулирано знање модерне науке. Ако предложени приступ јога образовања
може да помогне да се олакшају патње људи до којих долази у турбулентном
свету 21. века, времену брзих промена – враћањем нашој основној природи,
поновним откривањем нашег истинског Ја, да бисмо могли да се окренемо
свету и другима – онда ће његова мисија бити испуњена.
Јога у школама
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Циљеви
Приступ
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Разматрања
Протокол
Хипотезе
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Процена истраживања
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Садржај и средства
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Евалуација
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Перцепција тела
после сесије Група Е Група А Укупно
Много боље 11% 23% 18%
Боље 53% 60% 57%
Без промене 20% 5% 11%
Горе 2% 1% 2%
Много горе - - -
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Закључак
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Abstract: Chronic back pain is a major public health and socio-economic problem
worldwide. Standard pain treatments for chronic back pain are not very effective
and often unsatisfactory. A lot of chronic low back pain (CLBP) patients are
recommended or take help of complementary and alternative therapies including
Yoga therapy.
Critical literature review of yielded quality papers on ‘Efficacy of Yoga on CLBP.
Electronic searches of Cochrane Library, EMBASE, MEDLINE, AMED (Allied
and Complementary Medicine), CINAHL- Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature, Scopus, Zetoc and PEDro for the above purpose. Electronic
searches yielded articles, pilot studies and randomised trials in the web and
journals. Only non descriptive papers were selected for critical review. On the
basis of the reviewed studies yoga seems to be moderately effective in improving
functional disability, flexibility and in reducing symptoms and the usage of pain
medications in CLBP. This review also exposes the need for higher quality yoga
intervention studies for CLBP.
Introduction
Corresponding author: drskpaudel@yahoo.com
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Standard pain treatments for chronic back pain are not very effective and often
unsatisfactory. A wide variety of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)
interventions are available for the treatment of chronic back pain including
physiotherapy, back schools, self-care, massage, acupuncture, yoga, manipulation
etc. (Deyo 2004, Sherman et al. 2005, Slade and Keating 2007). A lot of frustrated
chronic low back pain (CLBP) patients are recommended or take help of above-
mentioned CAM therapies including Yoga therapy (Chou et al 2007, Deyo 2004,
Williams et al 2003).
Method
Aim: To critically evaluate the evidence for effectiveness of yoga in chronic low
back pain management.
Literature Search Strategy: Electronic searches of Cochrane Library, EMBASE,
MEDLINE, AMED (Allied and Complementary Medicine), CINAHL- Cumulative
Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Scopus, Zetoc and PEDro were
carried out.
Key words: yoga, yogic therapy, asana, chronic back pain.
Limits: publication year 1997 to 2010.
Literature review: Literatures reviewed include articles, pilot studies and
randomised trials in the web and journals.
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limits of age set leading to a sample that were not very fit to be included in a
quality study. Previous experience of yoga was not an exclusion criterion, which
could have biased the outcome with positive expectations. The study does not
mention whether it was approved from any ethical committee or any written
consents were obtained. There were differences in baseline demographic and
clinical data as the yoga group had higher functional ability, less disability, lower
catastrophizing than the control group, which might have biased the results
positively. The study also fails to address about the number of patients assigned to
each group. The yoga group had to commit of 14 classes in 16-weeks, which was
achieved by 92% of the patients excluding the dropouts. The measurements were
taken with validated tools however observer was not blinded which could have
biased the results positively. Significant improvements were seen in functional
disability, pain level, flexibility, pain tolerance and usage of pain medication. The
study also indicates at the need of longer intervention period for effectiveness of
yoga in CLBP.
Jacobs et al (2004) compared Hatha (Iyengar) yoga with an educational booklet for
CLBP in a pilot wait-list, randomized controlled trial (RCT). The yoga protocols
designed by a panel of 8 experts and included a combination of 28 postures, which
had to be practiced in 90 minutes semi weekly classes and 30 minutes-5 days a
week at home for 12 weeks. The postures were specifically named and structured
for easy replication. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were structured
excellently in order to obtain a non-specific mechanical low-back-pain population
without any previous yoga experience. Randomization of the 52 patients was
appropriate, 28 were assigned for yoga and 24 for wait-control. Baseline
characteristics including expectation were found similar. The measurement tools
were better than other yoga studies and included Visual Analog Scale (VAS), ODI,
Roland-Morris Back Disability Questionnaire, drug usage and secondary outcome
measures of stress/ depression. Small sample group, short duration, very low
adherence to yoga practice, lack of any measures to make sure of compliance, lack
of blinded observers and no results published were the major limitations of the
study.
In a wait list randomized pilot study, Galantino et al (2004) used Modified Hatha
Yoga (postures, relaxation and meditations) for 6 weeks in a small group of
patients (n= 22; male=4, female=17) with CLBP. The yoga protocol was designed
and modified by a certified yoga instructor but the authors fail to specify any
original names or types of the practices. This would result in standardization and
replication failures of the intervention. The history of surgery was not an exclusion
criterion, which could have affected the study as any failure or success of previous
back surgery could affect the outcome. The randomization was not adequate as
sequential numbers were used for randomization. The administration of yoga
postures including meditation and relaxation within an hour would be difficult to
implement and the participants recorded neither duration nor frequency of the
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practice, which limits both compliance and practical implication of this study. The
very small sample size with huge baseline differences, not powered to reach
statistical significance, high drop out rates, short duration and poor follow-ups
limit the significance of the study. The blinding of the observers was also not
mentioned. Inclusion of Beck Depression Inventory as a measurement tool was a
positive step as Ashburn and Staats (1999) stated that a lot of people with chronic
pain suffer from depression and sleep disturbances. This pilot study indicates that
balance, flexibility, disability and depression might improve by yoga practice and
sets a stage for future randomized controlled trial though.
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of self-efficacy that meant this was a relatively healthy sample, which might have
caused a bias for highly positive outcome. Another major source of bias was the
involvement of principal investigator in yoga instruction that could have positively
biased the study. High rate of withdrawals (30%) and lack of good control group
limited the significance of this study.
Two quality studies on Yoga for CLBP by Williams et al (2005) and Sherman et al
(2005) failed to measure psychological outcomes such as depression/anxiety/stress
in detail. So the purpose of this study by Groessl et al (2005) was to examine the
benefits of yoga for CLBP in military veterans who were found to be more prone
for anxiety/depression and substance abuse by using a questionnaire method.
Another aim of this research was to study the feasibility of conducting a RCT of
yoga for CLBP in the veterans. Patients were evaluated by a physician, trained in
the practice of yoga, at beginning to ensure that they could participate safely.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria were strict enough to exclude the complicated
cases and patients with substance abuse in order to obtain a sample of chronic
benign low-back pain patients. Patients with minimal use of narcotics for back
pain were included into the study. 49 patients satisfying the inclusion criteria were
instructed a series of 32 poses of Anusara Yoga (a type of Hatha yoga) by an
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80 completed the final analysis where as the study design states that only 80 were
randomized which is contradictory; a few spelling and grammar mistakes were
also noted in the paper.
Backward chaining lead to another old study on the effects of yoga practices in
non-specific low back pain by Vidyasagar et al (1989) but full-text/ abstract could
be obtained.
Discussion
Yoga has been found useful in the treatment of many various non-communicable
diseases. (Evans et al 2008, Groessl et al 2008, Nayak and Shankar 2004, Williams
et al 2005). Yoga definitely seems to benefit the back pain patients but lack of
standard yoga therapy practices and protocols were eminent during the review.
Various styles of yoga practiced in the western countries seem to be mostly limited
to asanas (postures) and breathing only and were found very far from the real yoga
described in the traditional texts, which gives more emphasis to purity of mind and
practice beyond the mind. (Cowen and Adams 2005, Groessl et al 2008, Joshi
2004). The best practice being the ‘integrated approach’ directly derived from the
traditional texts by Tekur et al (2008). The numbers of studies found regarding
yoga for CLBP were very less and only a few were rigorous (Sherman et al 2005,
Tekur et al 2008, Williams et al 2005). High quality studies with bigger sample
and longer follow-up period could yield better implications for practice. Large
multicenter studies in different countries would be better to find out the effects of
yoga in people with different culture and ethnicity. In order to make yoga a more
accepted therapy; studies on economy or cost of yoga intervention, its effects on
depression/stress, safety and adverse effects etc need to be studied in depth.
Studies of yoga in conjunction with other compatible therapies like physiotherapy
for CLBP could be another field to be explored and could enhance the efficacy of
the therapy. There has not been much research on the mechanism of action and
physiological effects of each yoga practice either.
Conclusion
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References:
1. Ashburn, M.A. & Staats, P.S. (1999). Management of chronic pain. The Lancet. 353: 1865-69.
2. Chou, R. & Huffman, L.H. (2007). Nonpharmacologic therapies for acute and chronic low back
pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical
practice guideline. Annals of Internal Medicine. 147(7): 492-504.
3. Chou, R., Qaseem, A., Snow, V., et al. (2007). Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint
clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society.
Annals of Internal Medicine. 147(7): 478-91.
4. Cowen, V.S. & Adams, T.B. (2005). Physical and perceptual benefits of yoga asana practice:
results of a pilot study. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 9(3): 211–219.
5. Dagenais, S., Caro, J., Haldeman, S., et al. (2008). A systematic review of low back pain cost of
illness studies in the United States and internationally. The Spine Journal. 8: 8-20.
6. Deyo, R.A. (2004). Treatments for Back Pain: Can We Get Past Trivial Effects? Annals of Internal
Medicine. 141(12): 957- 958.
7. Evans, S., Subramanian, S., Sternlieb, B. et al. (2008). Yoga as treatment for chronic pain condi-
tions: A literature review. International Journal on Disability and Human Development. 7(1): 25-32.
8. Galantino, M.L., Bzdewka, T.M., Eissler-Russo, J.L., et al. (2004). The impact of modified Hatha
yoga on chronic low back pain:a pilot study. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine.10(2):56-
59.
9. Groessl, E.J., Weingart, K.R., Aschbacher, K. et al. (2008). Yoga for Veterans with Chronic Low-
Back Pain. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14(9): 1123 -9.
10. Herman, P.M., Szczurko, O., Cooley, K., et al. (2008). Cost-effectiveness of naturopathic care for
chronic low back pain. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. 14(2): 32 -39.
11. Jacobs, B.P., Mehling, W., Goldberg, H., et al. (2004). Feasibility of conducting a clinical trial on
Hatha yoga for chronic low back pain: methodological lessons. Alternative Therapies in Health and
Medicine. 10(2): 80-83.
12. Joshi, V. (2004). Yogic therapy. Chemical Business. 18: 25-26.
13.Lewis, A., Morris, M.E., Walsh, C. et al. (2008). Are physiotherapy exercises effective in
reducing chronic low back pain? Physical Therapy Reviews. 13(1): 37-44.
14. Malliou, P., Gioftsidou, A., Beneka, A., et al. (2006). Measurements and evaluations in low back
pain patients. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. 16(4): 219–230.
15. Maniadakis, N.& Gray, A. (2000). The economic burden of back pain in the UK. Pain.84:95-103.
16. Michalsen, A., Grossman, P., Acil, A., et al. (2005). Rapid stress reduction and anxiolysis among
distressed women as a consequence of a three-month intensive yoga program. Medical Science
Monitor. 11(12): CR555-561.
17. Monro, R. (1997). Yoga therapy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 1(4): 215-218.
18. Nayak, N.N. & Shankar, K. (2004). Yoga: a therapeutic approach. Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation Clinic of North America. 15(4): 783-98.
19. Sherman, K.J., Cherkin, D.C., Erro, J., et al. (2005). Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care
book for chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 143(12):
849-56.
20. Slade, S.C. & Keating, J.L. (2007). Unloaded movement facilitation exercise compared to no
exercise or alternative therapy on outcomes for people with nonspecific chronic low back pain: a
systematic review. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics. 30(4): 301-311.
21. Vetter, T.R. (2007). A Primer on Health-Related Quality of Life in Chronic Pain Medicine.
Anesthesia and Analgesia. 104(3): 703-718.
22. Williams, K.A., Petronis, J., Smith, D., et al. (2005). Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic
low back pain. Pain. 115:107-17.
23. Williams, K., Steinberg, L., Petronis, J., et al. (2003). Therapeutic application of Iyengar Yoga
for healing Chronic Low Back Pain. International Journal of Yoga Therapy. 13: 55-67.
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Увод
drskpaudel@yahoo.com
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Преглед литературе
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Две студије на тему ефеката јоге код CLBP-а које су извели Williams и
сарадници (2005) и Sherman и сарадници (2005) нису успеле детаљно да
измере психолошке карактеристике као што су депресија, анксиозност и
стрес. Сврха ових истраживања, према Groessl-у и сарадницима (2005) била
је да коришћењем упитника испитају ефекте јоге код CLBP-а у популацији
војних ветерана који су били више склони анксиозности-депресији и
болестима зависности. Други циљ је био испитати изводљивост примене јоге
код ветерана са CLBP-ом. Пацијенте је прегледао лекар обучен за јогу да би
био уверен да безбедно могу да учествују у студији. Критеријуми за
укључивање и искључивање су били довољно строги да искључе
компликоване случајеве и пацијенте са проблемом болести зависности да би
се добио узорак пацијената са хроничним бенигним лумбалним болом.
Укључени су и пацијенти који су минимално користили лекове за бол у
леђима. За 49 пацијената који су задовољили критеријуме направљена је
серија од 32 положаја анусара јоге (варијанта хата јоге) које је осмислио
сертификовани инструктор. Било је потребно да похађају најмање 8 часова
током 10 недеља, уз практиковање код куће, али није било методе којом би
се контролисало кућно практиковање. Процена је вршена кратком серијом
упитника, где су били укључени процена бола уз коришћење VAS-а, процена
депресивности, енергије/умора и квалитет живота базиран на здрављу
(HRQOL). Подаци су скупљени након 10 недеља. 33 пацијената је завршило
програм до краја. Резултати указују да су пацијенти имали велико смањење
степена бола и депресије упоредо са побољшањем статуса енергије и
менталног здравља. Похађање наредних часова јоге је било повезано са
смањењем бола али не и са кућном праксом, и то је указало да је вежбање са
инструктором ефикасније него кућна пракса. Ова студија је била ниског
квалитета што се тиче увида у ефекте јоге на
депресију/анксиозност/стрес/ментално здравље. Истовремено је показала
велики потенцијал јоге као додатне мере у третирању CLBP-а популације са
аспектима психолошких тегоба.
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Abstract: The Advanced Centre for Yoga Therapy Education and Research
(ACYTER), a collaborative venture between JIPMER, Puducherry and Morarji
Desai National Institute of Yoga (MDNIY), New Delhi was established by an MOU
between JIPMER and MDNIY in June 2008 and is focusing primarily on the role
of Yoga in the prevention and management of cardiovascular disorders and
diabetes mellitus. More than 24,000 patients have benefited from Yoga therapy
consultation and attended therapy individual and group sessions in the past three
years and a detailed survey has also been published based on feedback from
patients. With the active collaboration of MDNIY, New Delhi many research
projects are being conducted at JIPMER as collaborative efforts between ACYTER
and the Departments of Physiology, Medicine, Biochemistry and Cardiology. This
paper summarizes some of the important findings from 12 research works at
ACYTER between 2008 and 2012 that provide evidence of the therapeutic
potential of Yoga. These can provide a basis for further studies exploring the
physiological, psychological and biochemical mechanisms such beneficial effects.
Introduction
In recent times, the therapeutic potential of Yoga has captured the imagination of
researchers worldwide and numerous studies are being done on the benefits of
Yoga in various medical conditions (Khalsa, 2004; Bijlani, Vempati, Yadav,
Ray, Gupta, Sharma et al, 2005; Innes, Vincent, 2007; Innes, Bourguignon, Taylor,
2005; Yang, 2007) . Yoga is a popular means of relieving stress and improving
fitness as it decreases stress and anxiety and improves health status. The
application of Yoga as a therapy is simple and inexpensive and can be easily
adopted in most patients without any complications (Vijayalakshmi, Madanmohan,
Corresponding author: yognat@gmail.com
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Bhavanani, Patil, Babu, 2004). It must be emphasized that Yoga therapy or more
correctly Yoga Chikitsa, encompasses the use of asana, pranayama and relaxation
techniques along with dietary advice and Yogic counseling that address the root
cause of the problem rather than merely providing symptomatic relief
(BhavananiB, 2011).
The Advanced Centre for Yoga Therapy Education and Research (ACYTER), a
collaborative venture between JIPMER, Puducherry and Morarji Desai National
Institute of Yoga (MDNIY), New Delhi was established by an MOU between
JIPMER and MDNIY in June 2008 and is focusing primarily on the role of Yoga
in the prevention and management of cardiovascular disorders (CVD) and diabetes
mellitus (DM). More than 24,000 patients have benefited from Yoga therapy
consultation and attended therapy individual and group sessions in the past three
years. A detailed survey has also been published based on feedback from patients
(Madanmohan, Bhavanani, Zeena, Dayanidy, Vithiyalakshmi, Jayasettiaseelon,
2011).With the active collaboration of MDNIY, New Delhi many research projects
are being conducted at JIPMER as collaborative efforts between ACYTER and the
Departments of Physiology, Medicine, Biochemistry and Cardiology. This paper
summarizes some of the important findings from research works at ACYTER
between 2008 and 2012.
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domain analysis revealed an increased HF power with decreased LF/HF ratio i.e.
from 2.1 to 1.5. We conclude that SNP increases sympathetic activity while CNP
increases parasympathetic activity and hence they can be appropriately advocated
in many chronic CVD where autonomic imbalance is one of the primary
derangements.
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DP and MAP is difficult to explain. Further studies with more subjects and control
groups are required to understand the possible mechanisms underlying this
immediate effect of CNP in hypertensive patients.
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not be increasing HR and BP in our subjects because they already had reached a
certain threshold of reactivity. The goal of Yoga is to restore homeostasis. Hence,
if sympathetic reactivity of a subject is already higher than normal, Yogic
techniques will not further increase such a hyper reactivity but rather bring it back
to normal. The small 1-2% decrease in most parameters in our study gives a hint of
this possibility. In conclusion, our study offers evidence that exclusive right nostril
breathing as performed in SNP may be safe in patients of HT. We also conclude
that the cardiovascular effects of SNP in hypertensives are different than those
reported by previous studies done in normal subjects.
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interesting because there were improvements in both groups with respect to certain
parameters. Since exercise can improve NCSs, this could be due to a very good
adherence of control patients to daily brisk walking. However improvements with
respect to tibial DML, and ulnar and median SNAP amplitudes were exclusive to
Yoga. There were 2 instances in Yoga group where H-reflex appeared after
follow-up period despite absent recordings at baseline. Thus Yoga therapy showed
an additive effect to standard medical care by providing more benefits with respect
to electrodiagnostic studies. The results of our study provide preliminary evidence
that Yoga when combined with standard medical care provides additional benefits
in terms of improving clinical outcome, glycaemic control, resting cardiovascular
parameters, cardiovagal modulation of heart and peripheral neurophysiologic
derangements. These results may provide directions for further in-depth research
evaluating efficacy of Yoga as a complementary therapy for DN.
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Conclusion
The selected research studies discussed above provide evidence of the therapeutic
potential of Yoga in HT, DM, CVD and other disorders like hypothyroidism.
These may provide the basis for further studies that can explore the physiological,
psychological and biochemical mechanisms behind such beneficial effects. The
strength of our work is the excellent compliance of our patients as well as the fact
that these studies were been done in actual patient populations as opposed to most
Yoga research studies that are done primarily in normal subjects.
References:
1. Bhavanani, A.B., Madanmohan, Zeena, S., Basavaraddi, I.V. Immediate cardiovascular effects of
pranava pranayama in hypertensive patients. (In press)
2. Bhavanani, A.B., Madanmohan, Zeena, S., Vithiyalakshmi, L. Immediate cardiovascular effects of
pranava relaxation in patients of hypertension and diabetes. (In press)
3. Bhavanani, A.B., Madanmohan, Zeena, S. Immediate effect of chandra nadi pranayama (left
unilateral forced nostril breathing) on cardiovascular parameters in hypertensive patients. (In press)
4. Bhavanani, A.B., Madanmohan, Zeena, S. Suryanadi pranayama (right unilateral nostril breathing)
may be safe for hypertensives. (In press).
5. Bhavanani, A.B., Zeena, S., Madanmohan. (2011). Effect of Yoga on subclinical hypothyroidism:
a case report. Yoga Mimamsa; 43: 102-107.
6. Bhavanani, A.B., Zeena, S., Madanmohan. (2011). Immediate effect of sukha pranayama on
cardiovascular variables in patients of hypertension. International J Yoga Therapy; 21: 4-7.
7. Bhavanani, A.B. (2011). Are we practicing Yoga therapy or Yogopathy? Yoga Therapy Today; 7
(2): 26-28
8. Bijlani, R.L., Vempati, R.P., Yadav, R.K., Ray, R.B., Gupta, V., Sharma, R. et al. (2005). A brief
but comprehensive lifestyle education program based on Yoga reduces risk factors for cardiovascular
disease and diabetes mellitus. J Altern Complement Med; 11 : 267-74.
9. Bandi, H.K., Madanmohan, Balachander, J., Jayasettiaseelon, E., Bhavanani, A.B. (2012).
Immediate effect of Shavasanaa on short term heart rate variability in heart failure patients. Abstracts
of the International Conference on Cardiovascular Research Convergence. AIIMS, New Delhi. Pg
141.
10. Innes, K.E., Vincent, H.K. (2007). The Influence of Yoga-based programs on risk profiles in
adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. eCAM; 4: 469-86.
11. Innes, K.E., Bourguignon, C., Taylor, A.G. (2005). Risk indices associated with the insulin
resistance syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and possible protection with Yoga: a systematic review.
J Am Board Fam Pract; 18: 491-519.
12. Khalsa, S.B.S. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published
research studies. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol; 48: 269-85.
13. Madanmohan, Bhavanani, A.B, Dayanidy, G., Zeena, S., Basavaraddi, I.V. (2012). Effect of
Yoga therapy on reaction time, biochemical parameters and wellness score of peri and post
menopausal diabetic patients. International J Yoga; 5: 10-15.
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14. Madanmohan, Bhavanani, A.B., Zeena, S., Dayanidy, G., Vithiyalakshmi, L., Jayasettiaseelon, E.
(2011). Results of a survey of participant feedback at ACYTER, JIPMER Pondicherry. Yoga Life; 42
(Nov): 11-13.
15. Madanmohan, Bhavanani, A.B., Zeena, S., Vithiyalakshmi, L., Dayanidy, G. Effects of a
comprehensive eight week Yoga therapy programme on cardiovascular health in patients of essential
hypertension. (In press)
16. Rajajeyakumar, M., Madanmohan, Amudharaj, D., Bandi, H.K., Jeyasettiseloune, Bhavanani,
A.B. (2011). Immediate effect of suryanadi and chandranadi on short term heart rate variability in
healthy volunteers. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol; 55 (5 supplement): 43-44.
17. Vijayalakshmi, P., Madanmohan, Bhavanani, A.B., Patil, A, Babu, K., (2004). Modulation of
stress induced by isometric handgrip test in hypertensive patients following Yogic relaxation
training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol; 48: 59-64.
18. Yang, K.A. (2007). Review of Yoga programs for four leading risk factors of chronic diseases.
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med; 4 : 487-91.
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Апстракт. The Advanced Centre for Yoga Therapy Education and Research
(ACYTER), сараднички подухват између JIPMER-а, Puducherry и Morarji
Desai National Institute of Yoga (MDNIY), Њу Делхи, основан је на основу
споразума о сарадњи између JIPMER-а и MDNIY у јуну 2008. и фокусира се
првенствено на улогу јоге у превенцији и лечењу кардиоваскуларних
поремећаја и дијабетеса мелитуса. Преко 24 000 пацијената је осетило
добробити консултација терапије јоге и похађало индивидуалне и групне
часове у протекле три године. Објављен је детаљни извештај базиран на
повратним информацијама пацијената. Са активном сарадњом MDNIY (Њу
Делхи) многи истраживачки пројекти се управо спроводе у JIPMER-у, као
заједнички напор између ACYTER-а и Катедре за физиологију, медицину,
биохемију и кардиологију. Овај рад даје кратак преглед неких важних
резултата 12 истраживачких радова у ACYTER-у између 2008. и 2012, који
пружају доказе терапеутског потенцијала јоге. Они могу послужити као
основ за даље студије које би истраживале физиолошке, психолошке и
биохемијске механизме овако благотворних ефеката.
Увод
yognat@gmail.com
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Закључак
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Abstract: The starting point of this work is the hypothesis that yoga knowledge
may be consider as a basic and universal knowledge with wide applications.
Considering the yoga knowledge from the perspective of religion, philosophy, and
science, we conclude that yoga is the science about development of humans and
their potentials. In this paper we argue why we regard that yoga knowledge is
spatially and temporally universal by nature and applicable in many areas of life.
Also, bearing in mind that the development of human being influences the overall
development and progress of mankind, we additionally argue that the
implementation of yoga knowledge is necessary for mankind to continue moving in
the direction of development with greater awareness and better ability to guide
and manage human and natural resources.
Introduction
Different answers to the question what is yoga can be heard. For someone, yoga is
a religion, for somebody else it is a cult, and for others it is just ordinary mystical
practice or set of complicated postures, breathing exercises and meditations. These
are just several of the incomplete set of views that often are attached to yoga.
Although yoga is known and presented in our society for more than 5000 years,
yoga knowledge still did not receive the value and importance it deserves. Many
sections of yoga knowledge are still waiting to be clarified and integrated in
different areas of society.
Corresponding author: surlan@sunstel.asu.cas.cz
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In recent decades, major efforts have been made by yoga experts to make yoga
knowledge closer to a wider public in the right way, returning to yoga knowledge
the value that it deserves (see Raghuwanshi, 2011, and references therein). Using
the methods of modern science, scientists from different fields conduct research
that shows which positive effects yoga knowledge and techniques can have on
physical, mental and emotional health of a human (e.g., Nikić, 2010, 2011
Janjušević, 2010, 2011; Novaković, 2011), and also, how the implementation of
yoga knowledge may contribute to the development of humans and their potential,
and thus development of the society as a whole (e.g., Adhi, 2010). More and more
scientific authorities indicate the value of yoga knowledge and importance of its
intensive and serious research. Thanks to a growing number of scientifically
confirmed positive effects that yoga has on humans, yoga gains its rightful place, a
place in science where it belongs.
Many yoga teachers and those who practice and study yoga, convey the message
that yoga knowledge is universal knowledge that permeates all areas of existence
(Nagendra, 2005). The universality of yoga knowledge lies in the fact that it is
actually the knowledge about human and what he essentially is, and the human is a
key factor in the overall development of mankind.
To better understand the essence of yoga knowledge, further in this work we will
discuss different perspectives of yoga and we will try to argue why we regard that
yoga is a basic and universal knowledge and why it is important to study and
implement it. We will also argue why we regard that the implementation of yoga
knowledge may lead to a healthier, more satisfied, happier, and more humane
society that will lead mankind towards greater awareness.
Since yoga is often associated with religion, we will first explain why we believe
that yoga is not a religion and that it by its nature goes beyond any religion. We
begin our explanation with the meaning of religion, which is a word of a Latin
origin (Lat. religio) and it means to be obliged, bound by a covenant. Religion is
further defined as a particular system of beliefs and worships, which requires
people to follow scriptures, rituals, laws or dogmas.
A common opinion is that yoga originated from the Hindu religion. But this belief
is a major misconception. Although elements of yoga knowledge may be found in
the Hindu religion, and it can be said that yoga is an integral part of Hinduism, the
roots of yoga knowledge may even be found few centuries before the advent of
Hinduism. Yoga knowledge does not proclaim any belief or any religious rites or
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obligations to follow. Yoga knowledge does not proclaim any external object of
worship or teaching (e.g. God or a divine figure). Yoga is not in conflict with any
religion, it is intended for all humans and admirers of various religious traditions.
The reason for the appearance of elements of yoga knowledge in different
religions is its universality, which represents the knowledge of human self-
improvement. All peoples regardless where and what time they lived had an
incentive for self-improvement
Great yoga teachers or gurus did not equate yoga with religion. They considered
yoga as a mean to explore the internal and external world in order to finally
achieve wisdom and knowledge that can be found in the sacred writings of the
Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Sutras. They also talked about yoga as a spiritual
activity that teaches us about the art of living and about the search for meaning.
Bearing in mind the above described meaning of yoga, we can say that yoga is
completely irreligious knowledge, but still compatible with any religious system.
No commandment of any religion can be found in the ancient texts, but
instructions how to lead a righteous life in order to achieve a state of total
awareness and unity of spirit, body, and mind. As such, yoga is universal and can
be practiced by Christians, Buddhists, Muslims, atheists, or Sufis. By acquiring
yoga knowledge, tolerance and love to both himself and others are awaken in
individuals. Based on yoga education, we are all in essence such that it can be said
that yoga knowledge awakes connection and unity with other people. All this just
reinforces that it can be safely said that yoga is not a religion.
The eight steps of yoga philosophy are instructions how to live a meaningful and
purposeful life. In some sense these steps represent a "recipe" of a universal moral
and ethical code and self-discipline which suggests how we should behave with
respect to ourselves and others. Adopting a moral code of ethics (yama) and
developing self-discipline (niyama), additionally practicing postures (asanas),
exercises of control energy by breathing techniques (pranayama), and mastering
the senses (pratyahara) we create a calm and a clear mind. Further exercises of
concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana) develops awareness. Awareness
brings knowledge and wisdom to distinguish good from bad, right from wrong,
truth from falsehood. This way, situations that are not appropriate for personal
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development can be easily identified. The skill of distinguishing allows for better
concentration. With concentration skills, personal transformation is achieved
through the experience of enlightenment, i.e. samadhi.
From the written above it can be said that yoga sutras form a practical guide how
to reach the highest level of consciousness and complete self-realization through
personal self-improvement. Yoga Sutras also describe what happens when the
instructions are integrated into everyday life. Integrating yoga knowledge leads to
spiritual growth and achieving physical, moral, emotional, and physical health of
the individual and, consequently, of the society as a whole.
Based on the essence of yoga philosophy it can be said that yoga knowledge is
universal and timeless knowledge that can be applied to any historical era and for
all societies and people irrespective of their race, religion, gender or age.
Starting from the fact that yoga is a philosophical system, many people ask what
this has to do with science. But as we have already mentioned, yoga knowledge
may be considered as the science of human self-improvement and his potential.
What we want to emphasize is the fact that many of the effects of yoga practice,
which it has on the human, just can be investigated and verified using existing
scientific methodologies. All those who have integrated yoga knowledge in
everyday life, know which effects this has on their overall physical, mental and
emotional life. From their point of view there is no need to prove that the
knowledge of yoga is valid, because their experience is sufficiently valid. But to be
recognized by the general public and by those who had no contact with the yoga
knowledge before, yoga knowledge must pass appropriate scientific testing and
verification. In this context, yoga knowledge has touching points with science. In
recent decades, more and more needs for scientific study of effects of yoga
practice appeared, so that yoga knowledge became an integral part of science.
From current scientific studies it can be concluded that many of the effects of yoga
practice can be studied and verified, but that there are still many sections of yoga
knowledge that are waiting to be processed and scientifically confirmed. The
subject of frequent controversy and discussion is the question to which area of
science the yoga knowledge can be classified and whether any effects of yoga
theory and practice can be studied by existing scientific methodologies.
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We can say that science is a way of thinking that is based on asking questions and
finding answers. The word science (lat. scientia) means knowledge, and
knowledge can be described as a product of understanding of things and events. It
is the knowledge, which is performed using different scientific methods and which
explains how the general laws of nature work. One of the primary goals of science
is to collect facts, i.e. data. In science, the measurement, observation and
experimentation are used to describe and explain the nature of a specific
phenomenon.
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heard, they are actually completely complementary, and both tend to give an
explanation of the nature and essence of the existence.
As in science, also in yoga various techniques and methods are used (the yoga
techniques such as physical exercises, breathing exercises, separation of sensory
impressions, concentration and meditation). They lead man through different
experiences to the awareness of his inner and outer world. Primary things in yoga
are internal practice, internal observation, and analysis. Yoga is the way of access
to knowledge through ourselves. Adopting the yoga concept of the existence into
everyday life leads to understanding of general life principles and rules among
them. The ultimate goal of yoga is a level of consciousness where the one who
cognizes and the subject of cognition become the one. As we see, yoga knowledge
has all the elements of scientific knowledge in itself but with special approach to
cognition, as what science itself also aims at.
Similarly to how science can be divided into several areas, different ways of self-
improvement exist in yoga, according to the dominant quality that leads human to
cognition. Thus, for example there is a difference between Jnana, Raja, Karma,
Bhakti or Tantra yoga. Every system of yoga recommends certain internal
practices and different techniques that lead to greater self-awareness and a greater
degree of understanding and perception of reality.
When we talk about the scientific study of yoga knowledge we mean the study of
the effects of adopted yoga knowledge which may have on humans and on all
dimensions of its personality. Yoga knowledge can be considered as a science
itself, but the effects of applied yoga techniques and adoption of yoga philosophy
may be studied using existing scientific methodologies. If we like to include yoga
in one of the existing scientific fields, we realize that it is not simple because of the
very essence of yoga knowledge, i.e. the knowledge of self-improvement for
which we consider as the basic knowledge of all other knowledge. All these effects
and phenomena that are developed by adopting yoga knowledge can be studied in
different scientific fields, leading to the conclusion that yoga can be classified as
an interdisciplinary science, but also as a social, natural or applied science. Thus,
the effects of yoga practice and phenomena can be studied in all fields of science,
but because of the universality of yoga knowledge it is difficult to precisely
determine to which scientific area it belongs.
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Multidimensionality of yoga knowledge opens the door for its research in many
areas of science. In this century, the great strides of progress are expected in
defining the scientific methodology to confirm the value of yoga knowledge by
different fields of science and its integration to the society.
All this necessarily leads to posing a question whether our humanity in these
circumstances will still be able to go in the direction of development. Why this is
so and whether this picture of reality can be changed and how, we discuss further
in this paper.
Yoga as a solution
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society. To allow the changes make more permanent trace on our society, we
believe that these changes should begin with the changes of a human on his
physical, emotional, and mental level. The knowledge, which can help to do this
change is the yoga knowledge, which is applicable to all areas of human life
because of its universality. Putting the emphasis on spiritual activities of the
human (i.e, on the process of self-improvement) will necessarily lead to positive
results at all other levels of society. One of the main goals of spiritual practice of a
human is to become aware of himself, his needs and potentials, and to overcome
the sense of separation from the rest of humanity, nature, and cosmos.
Bearing in mind what we said about the yoga knowledge we can say that this is the
knowledge that is missing in all the systems of society.
In the education system which exists today, many things can be learned, but what
is lacking is the knowledge of the art of living and everything other what life
brings. Knowledge how to lead a healthy and vital life, how to deal with life's
challenges, how make pleasure to become a part of everyday life, how to express
own potentials, how to transform own poor quality to high quality, how to live the
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wealth of sentient life, how to love and be loved, how to lead adequate
communication with the environment, how to creatively express personal
uniqueness, how to have a profound contact with oneself and one's true inner self,
how to lead own life in the direction of success with the power of the mind, is
precisely the knowledge that is missing. Instructions how to live the fullness of life
may be found in the ancient knowledge that was left to us by the ancient teachers.
This valuable knowledge for spiritual awakening is waiting to be implemented in
all areas of society. Once yoga knowledge becomes an integral part of the
educational system big changes in our society can be expected, which that will
lead humanity to a new and higher level of development.
Conclusion
In this paper we have considered yoga from the perspective of religion, philosophy
and science. From the above it is concluded that yoga is a philosophical system
which suggests a healthy, meaningful and purposeful life. Central place in the
yoga knowledge is human and its development. Yoga can be seen also as a
universal knowledge that is applicable in any time and age.
Yoga knowledge can be applied to many areas of life and it additionally gives to
yoga knowledge a universal character. Multidimensionality of yoga that does not
touch only the area of science but also art, culture, creativity, and education,
confirms the initial assumption that yoga knowledge is universal.
References:
1. Adhia, H., Nagendra, H.R. & Mahadevan, B. (2010). Impact of yoga way of life on organizational
performance. Int J. Yoga 3, 55-66
2. Chauhan, V. (2010). Yoga, the Science of Joyful Living, International Symposium on Y Ogism
3. Harold N. L. (1943). Phylosophy of Science, vol. 10, No. 2, 67-74
4. Human Development, Report 2011 Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All, 2012, by the
United Nations Development Programme 1 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA
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5. Janjušević, B. (2011). Effects of Yoga Practice on Overcoming the Stress. In: P. Nikić, ed.
Proceedings “Yoga – the Light of Microuniverse” of the International Interdisciplinary Scientific
Conference “Yoga in Science – Future and Perspectives”, Belgrade, Yoga Federation of Serbia, p.
29-40
6. Janjušević, B. (2011). Correlation of the yoga techniques practice with locus of control and anger
management style, International Scientific Yoga Jorunal SENSE, 1(1), Belgrade, Yoga Federation of
Serbia
7. Nagendra, H.R. & Telles, S. (1999). Yoga and memory. Bangalore: Vivekananda Kendra Yoga
Prakashana.
8. Nagendra, H.R. (2005). Yoga, the science of holistic living. p: 103, 5th ed. Bangalore:
Vivekananda Kendra Prakashana Trust.
9. Nikić, P. (2011). Correlation Between Essential and Yoga Competences. In: P.Nikić, ed.
Proceedings “Yoga – the Light of Microuniverse” of the International Interdisciplinary Scientific
Conference “Yoga in Science – Future and Perspectives”, 2010, Belgrade, Serbia. Belgrade: Yoga
Federation of Serbia, p. 19-28
10. Nikić, P. (2011). Concept of the yoga inteligence, International Scientific Yoga Jorunal SENSE,
1(1), Belgrade, Yoga Federation of Serbia
11. Novaković, B., Pavlović, S. & Milovanović, B. (2011). Autonomous Control of Cardiovascular
Function in Yoga Instructors and Effects of Energetic Renewal on Modulation of Autonomic
Function, International Scientific Yoga Jorunal SENSE, 1(1), Belgrade, Yoga Federation of Serbia
12. Paramananda, S. (1918). Science and Practice of yoga, a Crescenta. Calif., Ananda-Ashrama,
Boston, Mass., Vedanta centre
13. Raghuwanshi, А. (2011). A Review: History of Revival of Yoga in 20th Century and
Establishment of Yoga as a Science in the 21st century, International Scientific Yoga Jorunal
SENSE, 1(1), 208-216
14. Rajvanshi, A.K. (2002). Technology and Spirituality go hand in hand, Times of India
15. Rangan, R., Nagendra, H.R. & Ramachandra, B.G. (2009). Еffect of yoga education system and
modern education system on memory, International Journal of Yoga, Jul-Dec; 2(2): 55–61
16. Šurlan, B., Hamann, W.-R., Kubát, J., Oskinova, L. M. & Feldmeier, A. (2012). Three-
dimensional radiative transfer in clumped hot star winds I. Influence of clumping on the resonance
line formation, Astron. Astrophys., Vol. 541, p. A37
17. Zec, Z. (1977). Patanjđali: Izreke o jogi, Beograd: BIGZ
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Увод
Када се говори о јоги, често постављено питање је: да ли знање јоге спада у
домен религије, филозофије или науке. Изналажење одговора на ово питање
може да доведе до заблуде, пре свега зато што се знање јоге често спомиње и
у контексту религије и филозофије, а у задње време то знање је све више
присутно и у науци. Сама његова посебност отежава да се јога класификује у
једну од већ познатих одредница.
surlan@sunstel.asu.cas.cz
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или предавања (као нпр. бога или неки божански лик). Јога није у сукобу ни
са једном религијом, намењена је свим људима па и поштоваоцима
различитих религијских традиција. Разлог појаве елемената знања јоге у
различитим религијама је управо његова универзалност, која представља
знање о самоусавршавању човека (а побуду за самоусавршавањем су имали
сви народи независно где су живели и у ком времену).
Велики учитељи или гуруи јоге нису изједначавали јогу са религијом. Они су
јогу сматрали средством истраживања унутрашњег и спољашњег света да би
се коначно достигла мудрост и знање које се може наћи у светим списима:
Ведама, Упанишадама и Сутрама. Такође су о јоги говорили и као о духовној
активности која учи умећу живљења и потрази за смислом (пролазећи
различита искуства, појединац стиче различите увиде и промене које га
покрећу, дешава се унутрашње буђење и достиже се висок ниво свесности и
самореализације).
Имајући у виду наведено значење јоге, можемо рећи да је знање јоге потпуно
нерелигиозно али ипак компатибилно са било којим религијским системом.
У древним списима се не могу наћи заповести ни једне религије, него
упутства како водити исправан живот да би се постигло стање потпуне
свесности и јединства духа, тела и ума. Као таква, јога је универзална и може
да се практикује од стране хришћанина, будисте, муслимана, суфисте или
атеисте. Усвајањем знања јоге, у појединцима се буди толеранција и љубав
према себи и другима (у суштини смо сви једно, тако да се може рећи да
знање јоге освешћује повезаност и јединство са другим људима). Све ово
само додатно потврђује да се за јогу са сигурношћу може рећи да није
религија.
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Да бисмо разумели зашто знање јоге и из угла науке можемо сагледати као
једно универзално знање које се може изучавати у различитим научним
областима, поћи ћемо прво од тога шта је наука и које су могућности
изучавања јоге постојећим научним методама.
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Као у науци, и у јоги се користе разне технике и методе (тзв. технике јоге као
што су телесне вежбе, вежбе дисања, вежбе одвајања од чулних утисака,
концентрације и медитације), које воде човека кроз различита искуства ка
спознаји свог унутрашњег и спољашњег света. У јоги је примарна
унутрашња пракса, унутрашње посматрање и анализа. Приступ јоге је пут
спознаје кроз нас саме. Усвајањем концепта јоге у свакодневном животу,
долази се до разумевања општих животних принципа и законитости који
међу њима владају. Крајњи циљ у јоги је ниво свесности када онај који
спознаје и предмет спознаје постају једно. Као што видимо, знање јоге има
све елементе научног у себи али са посебним приступом ка спознаји, чему и
сама наука тежи.
Слично као што се наука може поделити у више области, у јоги се могу
разликовати различити путеви самоусавршавања сходно томе који
доминантан квалитет води човека ка спознаји. Тако нпр. разликујемо jnana,
raja, karma, bhakti или tantra јогу (сваки од система јоге предлаже одређену
унутрашњу праксу и различите технике).
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Имајући у виду све оно што смо навели о знању јоге, можемо рећи да је
управо то оно што недостаје у свим системима друштва. Кроз образовни
систем, онакав какав данас постоји, учи се много тога, али оно што недостаје
је знање о умећу живљења и свему оном што живот са собом носи. Знање о
томе како водити здрав и виталан живот, како се носити са животним
изазовима, како да задовољство постане део свакодневице, како изразити све
потенцијале, како неквалитете трансформисати у квалитете, како живети
богатство осећајног живота, како волети и бити вољен, како водити исправну
комуникацију са окружењем, како креативно изразити личну посебност, како
имати дубок контакт са собом и својим унутрашњим бићем, како снагом ума
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водити свој живот у смеру успеха итд. – знање је које управо недостаје.
Упутства како живети пуноћу живота можемо наћи у древном знању које су
нам у наслеђе оставили древни учитељи јоге. Ово вредно знање за духовно
буђење чека да буде имплементирано у све сфере друштва. Када то знање
постане саставни део образовног система, можемо очекивати велике промене
у друштву које ће наше човечанство водити на нови и виши ниво развоја.
Закључак
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Some authors have suggested that the Sanskrit root yuj (harness, connect, unite),
from which the word yoga is derived, is close to the meaning of the Latin re-ligo
or re-ligere – which then signifies different religions (this linguistic connection
was also indicated by our translator of the Yoga Sutras, Zoran Zec, 1977, p. 8).
Based on this, some authors concluded that yoga is also a sort of religion, or they
even gave the title How to Know God to the English translation of Yoga Sutras
(How to Know God - The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali - trans. S. Prabhvananada
and Ch. Isherwood, 1969). Thus, under this title, yoga is an Indian teaching similar
to the Christian concept of deification (theosis), which brings salvation from sin
and death, and entrance into the kingdom of God. There is some difference, since
the Indian understanding, this deification sometimes would mean unification with
Corresponding author: pajin@afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.rs
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the divine, and sometimes it would mean entering the paradise of the given deity.
Of course, this point of view was not based only on the linguistic connection, but
they interpreted the whole teaching of yoga in this manner. However, it really only
applies to only one type of yoga - i.e. bhakti yoga.
In the Yoga Sutras, devotion to God (or Lord – Ishvara) was mentioned in a few
places (1.23/27-2.1 and 45), as one of the ways to achieve samadhi, or to obtain
the powers of samadhi (2.45). From this, we can see that Patanjđali, or a later
author who put this into the corpus of the Yoga Sutras, counted on two different
pathways, or abilities to achieve the same goal:
(a) the pathway of yoga, where the yogi achieves samadhi and liberation through
his own effort and insight;
(b) the pathway of religious devotion (pranidhana, later bhakti), by which
termination of samsara could be achieved, perhaps in the easier way, by
unification with the divine.
These two pathways came to the fore at the beginning of our era in Buddhism, and
the pathway of religious devotion increasingly gained popularity.
In support of his opinion, Radakrishnan (footnote 154) quotes the German author
Garbe (Richard Garbe, 1857-1927), who says that parts of the Yoga Sutras
(1/23/27, 2.1 and 45) that speak about the personality of God have no connection
with the rest of the text - "moreover, they contradict the foundations of the system"
(Garbe: The Philosophy of Ancient India, 1897, p. 15).
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Garbe believes that, by connecting sankhya with yoga, Patanjali wanted to make it
acceptable for the wide audience through erasing the atheism of sankhya. But,
Garbe adds that inclusion of the personal deity has been done in a loose way, so
both the content and purpose of the yoga system would not be affected. His view
that parts of the Yoga Sutras that speak about God are in contradiction with the
system, Garbe explains by pointing out that "the ultimate goal of human strivings,
according to the Yoga Sutras, is not the unity or absorption in God, but absolute
independence (kaivalya) of the spirit from matter (ibid, p. 15).
Interestingly, on the other hand, Eliade and Veljačić represent a different view -
compared with Radakrishnan and Garbe - they even believe that the difference
between sankhya and yoga is domination of atheism in sankhya and theism in
yoga.
Thus, Eliade says: - Unlike Samkhya, Yoga affirms the existence of a God, Ishvara.
(…) Ishvara can hasten the process of deliverance; he helps them toward a more
speedy arrival at samadhi. This God, to whom Patanjali refers, is more especially
a god of yogins. He can come to the help only of a yogin - that is, a man who has
already chosen Yoga. (…) According to Patanjali, this divine aid is not the effect of
a "desire" or a "feeling" for God can have neither desires nor emotions—but of a
"metaphysical sympathy" between Ishvara and the purusha, a sympathy explained
by their structural correspondence. Ishvara is a purusha that has been free since
all eternity, never touched by the kleshas (Yoga sutra, 1. 24). Commenting on this
text, Vyasa adds that the difference between Ishvara and a "liberated spirit" is as
follows: between the latter and psychomental experience, there was once a
relation (even though illusory); whereas Ishvara has always been free.
Further on, Eliade notes a certain difference between the relationship of the yogi
and Ishvara and relationship of believer and deity in bhakti yoga or in the path of
faith, bhakti marga, and he adds:
- God does not submit to being summoned by rituals, or devotion, or faith in his
"mercy"; but his essence instinctively "collaborates," as it were, with the Self that
seeks emancipation through Yoga. What is involved, then, is rather a sympathy,
metaphysical in nature, connecting two kindred entities. One would say that this
sympathy shown by Ishvara toward certain yogins—that is, toward the few men
who seek their deliverance by means of yogic techniques—has exhausted his
capacity to interest himself in the lot of mankind. This is why neither Patanjali nor
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With respect to connecting yoga with faith in God, Čedomil Veljačić goes far
beyond Eliade, and he says: “The vulgar prima facie difference of yoga from
sankhya is in the “faith in God” (Ishvara, the Lord) that we find in yoga without
exception, while that faith penetrates the sankhya only in later periods, perhaps
from yoga, a system that is, towards sankhya, in complementary relation of
practical philosophy towards theoretical background (Veljačić: Crossroads of
Asian Philosophy, Vol. 2, Liber, Zagreb, 1978, p. 123).”
Eliade notes that – according to the sankhya and yoga – it is not possible to rescue
from sansara, if life wasn’t met in its concreteness, i.e. on the one hand sansara
restrains individual, but on the other hand, it chases him towards liberation. Thus,
the human situation is not hopeless, because the experience of living itself refers it
to the liberation. Therefore, deities and other disincarnated beings (videha) that are
not physical don’t have that experience and cannot reach liberation from sansara,
concludes Eliade (Eliade, 1984, p. 59).
In fact, similar conceptions are found in some Upanishads and early Buddhism –
in order to realize Atman (or in Buddhism – attain awakening) has to pass through
the human incarnation as the best starting point for this trip (Gods cannot do that
because they are in a too good position and inferior beings also cannot do that
because they are in a too bad position). In this sense, the human situation - or
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When it comes to the relationship between religion and philosophy, there is one
important principle aspect, which was shown in the domain of terminology. In
fact, as noted by one researcher of the Kashmiri shaivism Kaw (Kaw: The Doctrine
of Recognition, 1967, p. 12-23), religion preceded philosophy in India, thus the
technical terms applied to denote metaphysical principles were the words that were
used as the names of gods and goddesses in religious texts.
In Vedanta, Brahman is the term that signified the absolute reality, while in the
religious context there was the God Brahman (or Brahma). Besides that, in
Vedanta there is a difference between brahman which, as the neuter noun, had a
philosophical meaning and Brahma (masculine noun) which indicates deity, while
in Shaivism Maheshvara was masculine noun, as well as Parama Shiva (i.e. as
well as Shiva).
However, this relationship was also more complex and, as I showed in the chapter
“The characters and concepts” in my book Philosophy of the Upanishads (1980, p.
61-76). Here we will mention only two aspects of the extensive analysis. First, the
process of borrowing the terms and changing their meanings (between the
religious and philosophical sphere) was not a one-way process (as stated by Kaw),
but bi-directional.
2) A kind of concurrence between philosophy and yoga on one side and religion
on the other, can be seen on the example of the term prasada.
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Let's first look the examples of prasada as the grace in the Upanishads. In the
Katha Upanishad (2.20) it says: - He who is without active will sees the atman and
releases himself from pain, when through the grace (prasada) of the Creator
(Dhatr - he was the solar deity of the earth) realizes the magnitude of the atman.
In Svetasvatara Upanishad it was discussed at two places (3.20 and 6.21). At the
first place, the greatness of the Lord (Ish) is perceived through the grace of
Creator, and at the second place it says: - By success of his accomplishment and
grace of the divine (deva-prasada), wise Svetasvatara announced brahman
appropriately.
In the Bhagavad Gita (2.64) it is said that the one who restrains the spirit and
senses and transcends the duality of desire and disgust, that one achieves the
serenity of the self (prasada- atma).
In the Yoga Sutra (1.47) it is said that the inner serenity (adhjatma-prasada) is the
result of serenity and absence of mental confusion.
Thus, in these examples we can see that there was a kind of overlaping of
philosophical, yogic and religious meaning related to the same term.
3) Similar situation with the term faith - sradha - which in the religious context
means faith in the given deity or opinions of the given religion and efficiency of
its rituals and sanctities, and in philosophy, yoga and meditation it means faith in
the given teachings and practice, as well as guru’s instructions.
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In the Yoga Sutra (1.20) it is written that for achieving asamprajnata samadhi
faith (sradha), as well as hustle (virja), memory (smrti), samadhi and wisdom are
needed, but that faith is not belief in a deity, but faith in one’s own eligibility and
efficiency of the yoga practice.
In this regard Eliade, when speaking about why yoga advocates for more specified
spiritual practice (in addition to the knowledge and insight that philosophy of
sankhya speaks about), says:
This is why Yoga practice is indispensable. For it is only after having oneself
experienced the first results of this technique that one can gain faith (sraddha) in
the efficacy of this method. Indeed, Yoga practice demands a long series of
excersises, which must be performed successively, without haste, without
impatience, without any trace of "individual desire" to obtain "conjunction"
(samadhi) quickly (Eliade, 1969, p. 39).
Here, belief is associated with an activist philosophy of yoga, i.e. with philosophy
that - in contrast to sankhya – perceives that a certain practice, and not just
philosophical knowledge and insight, is needed for liberation.
4) As the above terms, so the term pranidhana (devotion, dedication) can appear in
the religious meaning and context, when it means commitment to the given
divinity and religion, and in the philosophical and yogic, when it means devotion
and dedication to the certain ideas and spiritual practices.
5) Shakti-pata literally means lowering the power (shakti), and may indicate the
transfer of spiritual energy from the guru to the student or another person, when it
causes a significant improvement in the spiritual advancement or another
betterment. In a religious context it can mean lowering the power, or the grace,
from the God to believer.
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For the cultural historian it is interesting that in India (at the end of the old and the
beginning of a new era) and in Europe, i.e. in Christianity (during the first
centuries of the new era) are fully spread, and (in the broad classes) gain
predominance the principles such as faith, worship, devotion and love (while
knowledge remains the interest of philosophers).
Bhakti movement in India sometimes refers to the Vedic origins and tradition, and
it is based (as some think, say - Nirad Chaudhuri: Hinduism: A Religion to Live
By, Oxford Un. Press, 1979, p. 257-8) on the wrong interpretation of verses 2-5 in
the 125th sukta, the tenth mandala of the Rg-Veda (X 125.2-5), where - according
to these wrong interpretations - it speaks about personal devotion, and personally
understood deity.
Therefore, religion historians believe that the root and the first text of bhakti
tradition is Bhagavad-Gita (which is chronologically linked to the last centuries of
the old or the first centuries of the new era), and not the Vedic tradition. The Vedic
religiosity was developing in the millennium that preceded the Gita, with the
different type of religiosity, where personal commitment to the deity wasn’t
important, but the implementation of the Brahmin rituals.
With some simplification, it can be said that the bhakti tradition was constituted as
another type of religiosity, different from the Vedic tradition, and it (also) differs
from the tradition of tapas, which was not religious.
a) Vedic tradition is based on the offering of the sacrifices to the Gods and the
specialist knowledge of the ritual practice, which was a social monopoly of the
Brahmin caste and the tradition had Aryan and caste discriminatory background.
b) Bhakti religiosity is based on a personal relationship to the deity, which is
personalized, on the dedication and love for him, and in return one receives the
grace of that deity and achieves union with him, that extends beyond this life.
c) The tradition of tapas (people who have practiced tapas were called tapasa) has
an individual character and was open to everyone. Practicing tapas, i.e. Indian
types of asceticism, brought the different powers (healing, transcending time and
space constraints, etc.), including longevity, or immortality. Tapasa does not gain
his powers and other gifts from the Gods but from the power of tapas, and
sometimes even causes the envy of the Gods, who are trying to turn him from his
way, or lead him to the temptationс, in order to lose gained powerс.
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It is believed that the Bhakti movement – at the transition from the old to the new
era - the era of Hinduism starts, which conceived a new type of religiosity, quite
different from the Vedic tradition, although it considers itself as its legitimate
successor and heir. Bhakti movement is the most important aspect of Hinduism, in
which appear and gain in importance new-old Gods like Vishnu and Shiva and
Goddess like Lakshmi, Uma (or Parvati) and Shakti. They are sometimes
connected, and sometimes are separately viewed, as same as Vishnu and Shiva are
connected with the older Brahma in trinity - Trimurti - that is interpreted with the
Hindu flexibility as one deity with three aspects: Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva.
As for the Bhakti movement, it has its own history and particular phases. For
instance, the backbone of the Bhagavad-Gita makes the resolving of the moral
problems of warrior Arjuna through the new type of religiosity: personal devotion
to the deity that is understood and experienced as personalized. However, the
Bhakti movement, as it develops, since the 8th century onwards, introduces some
new factors, that became more important in the bhakti practice than the moral
problem of the warrior caste, which Gita is dedicated to.
In Hinduism and Bhakti movement, there are different aspects involved - from the
Aryan-Vedic heritage to the local fertility cults. Framing of the new type of deity
and a new type of religiosity is important. Deity becomes personalized - but now
not as transcendent deity with whom one communicates through religious rituals,
but through various earthly incarnations (avatars), and religiosity emphasizes
personal devotion and worship, which has a strong emotional color - love for God
and faith in his omnipotence become backbones of that religiosity. This creates a
specific subject - ideal Bhakta - whose whole life is dedicated and turned to the
God and through that relationship he attains salvation by merging (unifying) with
God, like a drop with the ocean.
Yoga also has an important place in the Bhagavad-Gita, but its meaning in Gita is
significantly different than in Patanjali’s yoga. Eliade, however, seems to overlook
these differences and takes Gita as a common denominator, because he believes
that Gita helps us to understand what function yoga had in the whole of Indian
spirituality. Not only that – he takes the form from the Gita (the union of the
human and the divine soul) as the general goal of yoga and on that grounds he
considers it to be the mystical discipline (which he denied himself in the passage
that we will specify later - in the same book on yoga, p. 28-9). In other words, in
this section (entitled “The message of Bhagavad Gita”) he takes one type of Yoga
- Bhakti yoga, affirmed in the Gita - as the general pattern or definition of yoga.
Thus, Eliade (Yoga, 1969, p. 153-4) explains that Yoga in Bhagavad-Gita is not
the Yoga of Patanjali, but: A Yoga adapted to Vishnuist religious experience – a
method whose end is to gain the unio mystica.(…) Two conclusions follow from
this observation: (1) Yoga can be understood as a mystical discipline whose goal
is the union of the human and divine soul; (2) it is under this aspect – i.e." mystical
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experience" – that yoga was understood and applied in the great popular
"sectarian" trends, which are echoed in the Mahabharata interpolations.
First, we would like to note that in this text we will use the word mystic and
mysticism as synonyms, using them interchangeably in the given contexts.
In the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, East was often associated with
mysticism. Such identification suited to some people from the East, because they
accepted it with pride, as the important determinant of the cultural identity of the
East, as opposed to “materialism” and “rationalism” of the West that they talked
about with the same disgust as some in the West spoke about “oriental despotism”
and “mystics” of the East.
Researchers of the mystic approached it with a very different point of view, often
conflicting, and mystics sometimes also had different reviews. Some saw it as the
sort of psychopathy (in the spirit of orthodox psychoanalysis), and the others saw
it as the peak experience (particularly since the 1960's) - endpoint of the health in
an unhealthy world. While some felt that there is a common core in all kinds of
mystical experiences and all mystical traditions, others have suggested that both
traditions and experiences are different (distribution on natural, monistic and
theistic mysticism, on the secular sacred mysticism, etc.).
While some associate mystical experiences with the right, intuitive, irrational, non-
verbal hemisphere of the brain, others believe that it occurs when the hemispheres
are in perfect balance – equipotential.
Some believe that the mystical experience occurs during intoxication, stupefaction
or starvation of the brain, when the so called higher centers are ineffective, others
associate it with the greatest clarity, sanity, awareness or the highest state of mind
(slang of the 1960's).
Some relate it to the regression and unconscious, the others to the transgression
and subconscious. Some said that the mystics are half insane, or insane, at least
from the point of view of normality - others have suggested that the mystics were
“pretending to be crazy“ when they were threatened to be burned by the normal, or
they “pretended to be normal” (when they were threatened by madness of non-
normal).
Some have argued that the mystical experience is the feeling of merging with the
world, with universal, others have argued that it is the experience of not belonging,
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Types of mysticism
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Eliade in his book Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (London, 1969 - Belgrade,
1984), which was created on the basis of his doctoral thesis, approachеd yoga as a
mystic teaching, in two meanings – one of them Eliade connected to the idea of
liberation (kaivalya) in yoga (or “re-birth in an unconditional way of existence”),
and the second one, when the yogi seeks the help of the Gods.
Regarding the first meaning, Eliade says:
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Mysticism of yoga
There are many books that approach yoga from the perspective of mysticism, and
one of the most famous is the book Mysticism of Hinduism written by Surendranat
Dasgupta (S.N. Dasgupta: Hindu Mysticism, Open Court Publ. Co., Chicago,
1927). Dasgupta is also the author of one of the most comprehensive reviews of
Indian philosophy, written and printed in the range of about 30 years - A History of
Indian Philosophy (5 volumes), Cambridge University Press, London, 1922-1955.
In the preface to this book, Dasgupta first considers the difference between what
he called the lower and higher form of mysticism. In fact, in his opinion, the lower
form of mysticism would be a superstition that is associated with miraculous
achievements, such as divination, necromancy, healing serious illness by amulets
or blessing, and alike. This is a lower form of mysticism, because it is committed
to the secular values. The higher form of mysticism would be connected with
belief that the highest reality and fulfillment cannot be achieved by reason alone,
but there are other ways to that, such as the control of will, development of proper
feelings as the highest function of the mind. And that mysticism faces liberation of
the spirit and achievement of the highest bliss.
The higher mysticism is associated with purity of spirit, striving for moral
perfection, self-denial and concentration on God. But mysticism should be
distinguished from the common belief that God often gives us a vision of himself
in dreams or the faith in infallibility of the scriptures and alike, as it is often only
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Dasgupta said that mysticism can be defined as belief or viewpoint, but that it
means much more. In the mystic, beliefs represent a dynamic, dominant part of
their personality. Therefore, mysticism is not an intellectual theory but formative,
enriching and creative principle of life.
Mysticism means a spiritual grasp of the aims and problems of life in a much more
real and ultimate manner than is possible to mere reason. A developing life of
mysticism means a gradual ascent in the scale of spiritual values, experience, and
spiritual ideals. As such, it is many-sided in its development, and as rich and
complete as life itself. Regarded from this point of view, mysticism is the basis of
all religions--particularly of religion as it appears in the lives of truly religious
men (Dasgupta, 1927, p. IX).
2) In the chapter Yoga Mysticism, Dasgupta says that there are data that
approximately 800-700 year BC people in India have tended to concentrate their
mind on an object in order to stop the movement of the spirit and the senses. He
believes that, in the beginning, they didn’t do that in some metaphysical system,
but it was concentration of the spirit and control of the breath in order to achieve
peace of mind, as well as the miraculous powers that would appear. Dasgupta says
the story from the Mahabharata about how Vipul was hypnotized by Ruji and
concludes that there are many other stories that talk about the miraculous powers
of yoga. So - unlike Eliade and some other authors - in Dasgupta's text this story is
not a proof that yoga and hypnosis are separate things, but they are related. But as
Dasgupta adds, now we will discuss implementation of the yoga practice to
achieve absolute freedom of an individual, as described by Patanjđali (who for the
first time talks about how yoga can be applied for the emancipation of the human
from the ties of the spirit and senses).
Furthermore, Dasgupta points to one aspect of the mystic of yoga. In fact, people
tend to liberate self that is free from the immemorial time, which is separated from
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all the mental functions and creations, but in their confusion people don’t
recognize their connection with the self, and then it seems to them that there are
just thinking, feeling, desire, and the ultimate principle of consciousness is lost of
their sight. So our spirit covers the view of the light of self, while thh senses
pursue the objects. Therefore, it is necessary to control the mind and stop all
mental processes. It is the only way thar the light of self will shine. Termination of
all the mental states is yoga.
In the further remarks Dasgupta describes the practice of yoga in order to get back
to the topic of yoga and mysticism, and he says that the basic characteristic of the
mysticism of yoga on the negative side - not only in a disbelief in the ability of
sense-perception and logical thought to comprehend the ultimate truth about the
absolute purity and unattached character of our true self; but also in a disbelief in
the possibility of the realisation of this highest truth so long as the mind itself is
not destroyed. On its positive side, it implies that intuitional wisdom is able to
effect a clear realisation of truth by gradually destroying the so-called intellect.
The destruction of mind, of course, also involves the ultimate destruction of this
intuition itself. So neither the intuition nor our ordinary logical thought is able to
lead us ultimately to self-realisation (Dasgupta, 1971, p. 80).
Conclusion
Yoga was in an interaction with various teachings in the Indian tradition, and one
type of yoga (Patanjali yoga, or samkhya yoga) was very close to samkhya
philosophy. The basis of yoga is that a person ca develop and improve ones own
spiritual and physical capacities and using that as a starting point realize the
ultimate goals, i.e. spiritual emancipation, which is variously defined in various
teachings. In samkhya yoga it means the discriminating knowledge of purusha as
the ultimate identity of a person, and halting of the spinning round in the sphere of
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everyday mind and attachments, i.e. in the samsara realm. However, some Indian
authors, and authors in the West tried to relate and interpret in religious terms, and
context. In particular, they wanted to condition and relate the spiritual
emancipation - which is the goal of yoga – with the divine mercy and help, as an
essential condition and support, asserting that withоut such help the yogi could not
attain spiritual emancipation.
Within the Indian tradition – among other types of yoga – bhakti yoga was
developed (in particularly promoted in the Bhagavad-Gita), which was based on
such ideas, but the largere part of the yoga tradition did not include any particular
relationship with the divinities. It developed a emancipation course, based on
personal powers of the yogi, in which religiousness, religious rituals and divinities
have no particular importance.
References:
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Кључне речи: Јога, религија, bhakti јога, јога није религија, мистицизам.
ЈОГА И РЕЛИГИЈА
pajin@afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.rs
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некад улазак у рај датог божанства. Наравно, тај став нису заснивали само на
овој језичкој вези, него су цело учење јоге тумачили у том духу. Међутим,
како смо видели, то заправо важи само за један тип јоге, тј. за bhakti јогу.
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Свој став да делови из Јога сутре који говоре о богу противрече систему,
Гарбе образлаже тиме што истиче да „крајњи циљ људских стремљења,
према Јога сутри, није јединство или апсорпција у богу, него апсолутно
осамостаљење (kaivаlya) духа од материје (Garbe, 1897).
Иначе, кад јер реч о Ishvara-и који се помиње код Патањђалија и у неким
другим текстовима, треба напоменути да термин означава господа, или
Свевишњег, тј. бога уопште, независно од именованих божанства, као што су
били Indra, Varuna, Brahma, Shiva или Vishnu, али се може јавити и као нека
врста њиховог атрибута. У ведама је термин означавао некад световну,
владарску моћ, а некад божански статус и моћ.
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У погледу везивање јоге за веру у бога, Чедомил Вељачић иде знатно даље
од Eliade-а, па каже: „Вулгарна prima facie разлика јоге од санкје састоји се у
„вјери у бога“ (Ishvara, Господ) коју налазимо у јоги без изузетка, док у
санкју та вјера продире тек у каснијим раздобљима, можда и из јоге,
система који је према sankya-и у комплементарном односу практичне
филозофије према теоријској подлози (Вељачић, Размеђа азијских
филозофија, књ. 2, 1978, стр. 123)
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Међутим, тај однос је био и нешто сложенији, као што сам показао у
поглављу „Ликови и појмови“ у својој књизи Филозофија упанишада (1980,
стр. 61–76). Овде ћемо навести само два аспекта из обимније анализе. Прво,
процес позајмица термина и промене значења (између религијске и
филозофске сфере) није био једносмеран (како поједностављено наводи Коу),
него двосмеран.
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вештином. Пракса јоге ... састоји се од многих вежби које захтевају да буду
извођене једна за другом, без журбе, стрпљиво, да нису мотивисане „личном
жељом“ да се што пре достигне „спрегнутост“ (samadhi).“ (Елијаде, 1984,
стр. 58)
Swami Bharati укратко образлаже зашто јога није религија. Jога није религија
јер нема:
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У Bhagavad Gita- и важно место има и јога, али је њен смисао знантно
другачији него у Патањђалијевој јоги. Eliade, међутим, као да превиђа те
разлике и као да узима Gita-у као заједнички именитељ, јер сматра да нам
Gita помаже да схватимо коју функцију је јога имала у читавој индијској
духовности. Не само то – он образац из Gita-е (сједињење људске и божанске
душе) сада узима као генерални циљ јоге и на основу тога је сматра
мистичком дисциплином (што је иначе сам негирао у одломку који ћемо
касније навести – у тој истој књизи о јоги, на стр. 28–9). Другим речима, у
овом одељку (под насловом „Порука Bhagavad Gita-е“) он један тип јоге –
бакти јогу, афирмисану у Гити – сада узима као генерални образац или
одређење јоге. Тако Eliade (Јога, 1984, стр. 162) каже: „У питању је јога
прилагођена виснуитском религиозном искуству, јога схваћена као пут за
достизање unio mystica. ... Два закључка могу да се изведу из ове
констатације: 1) да је јога мистичка дисциплина чији је циљ сједињење
људске и божанске душе; 2) тако је – тек као »мистичко искуство« – јога
могла да буде прихваћена и примењена у снажним токовима популарних,
»секташких«, култова који су свој одјек нашли у интерполацијама
Махабхарате.
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ЈОГА И МИСТИЦИЗАМ
Крајности у тумачењима
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Врсте мистицизма
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У овом духу је често тумачена и јога као врста мистицизма, а томе је близак
и приступ који је развио Дасгупта (Surendranath Dasgupta, 1885–1952), а он је
иначе био ментор-гуру Mirchi Eliade, кад је овај у Индији радио на
докторској тези о јоги (1928–1932).
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Међутим, као што смо видели, шире схватање мистицизма укључује поред
овог религијског мистицизма и друге видове, као што су натурални и
филозофски, будући да се надилазеће искуство сједињења овде јавља као
везни члан.
Мистицизам јоге
У предговору ове књиге Дасгупта најпре повлачи разлику између оног што
назива нижи и виши облика мистицизма. Наиме, по његовом мишљењу би
нижи облик мистицизма био сујеверје које се везује за чудотворна
постигнућа, као што је прорицање, призивање духова, лечење тешких
болести амајлијама, или благосиљањем и слично. Ово је нижи облик
мистицизма, јер је посвећен световним вредностима. Виши облик
мистицизма би био повезан са веровањем да се највиша реалност и испуњење
не могу постићи самим разумом, него да постоје други путеви ка томе, као
што је контрола воље, развијање исправних осећања као највиших функција
ума. А тај мистицизам је окренут ослобођењу духа и постигнућу највишег
блаженства.
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При томе, Dasgupta подсећа да према учењу упанишада постоји сопство које
се не може сагледати оком и духом, али да оно није везано за неко
екстатичко искуство, а то схватање сопства је по његовом мишљењу корен
индијског мистицизма Док су мисли и осећања променљиви, светло овог
сопства је непроменљиво. Крајњи циљ јоге је да се одвојимо од осећања,
мисли и идеја како бисмо сагледали тај посебан ентитет. При томе, за
индијске мудраце то схватање није само било ствар спекулативне
филозофије, него повезано са праксом ослобађања истинског сопства од
спона идеја, осећања и појмова. Они нису били незадовољни светом јер овај
није имао да им понуди задовољства, него зато што је њихов порив да
досегну своје право сопство био већи до других жеља.
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Закључак
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Introduction
Corresponding author: arun_231248@hotmail.com
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that it can lead not only to a meaningful life for individual, but also have answers
to present day problems of sustainable environment, conflict of interest among
various constituents of the society, particularly rich and poor, terrorism, drug
abuse and many social ills, and consequently can contribute to harmony at global
level.
The secret of the contemporary popularity of yoga lies in the fact that yoga is a
holistic, meaningful way of life and living. Such is the world wide popularity of
yoga that yoga seems to be a culture for the 21st century now. It is heartening that
yoga has acquired global popularity within the last few decades and almost
assumed a form of health culture. Swami Satyananda Saraswati, founder of Bihar
School of Yoga, Bihar, India was a prophet when he said many years ago: “Yoga
is not an ancient myth buried in oblivion. It is the most valuable inheritance of the
present. It is the essential need of today and the culture of tomorrow.” And, there
is little doubt that his prophesy has proved almost right if we look at some of the
developments in recent times.
Yoga is, in real sense, an art of living a balanced, meaningful life and its fullness
(yogic way of living emphasis a conscious and integrated living at all levels of
existence). It is for this reason that Swami Kuvalyananda (1993) summarized yoga
by saying: “Yoga has a complete message for humanity. It has a message for the
human body, a message for the human mind and it also has a message for the
human soul.”
Yoga is a living philosophy and it is reflected in the fact that yoga has different
meanings for different people. For example, for some people yoga is fitness, for
the other it represents health; to some people, it is a nice way of relaxation and to
many others it is the alchemy for transformation and good way to realize
individual’s hidden potentialities. Many consider yoga to be psychology and apply
it as therapy. To some who enjoy in it as a way of life, it is a community.
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“yoga is a system of living with sense and a science of the realization of ultimate
values and altruistic missions of life.”
Radhakrishnan (1967) stated: “In yoga we have all reservoirs of life to draw upon.
It formulates the methods of getting at our deeper functioning levels. Yoga
discipline is nothing more than the purification of the body, mind, and soul and
preparing them for the beatific vision. Since the life of man depends on the nature
of mind (citta), it is always within our reach to transform our nature by controlling
our mind. With faith and concentration we can rid ourselves of diseases. Normal
limits of the human vision are not the limits of the universe. There are other worlds
than that which our senses reveal to us, other senses than those that we share with
the lower animals, other forces than those of material nature. If we have faith in
the soul, then the supernatural is also a part of the natural. Most of us go through
life with eyes half closed, with dull minds and heavy hearts. Even few of those
who have these rare moments of vision and awakening, quickly fall back into
somnolence. It is good to know that the ancient thinkers required us to realize the
possibilities of the soul in solitude and silence and transform flashing and fading
moments of vision into a steady light which could illumine the long years of life.”
In the poem An Essay on Man, Epistle II, Alexander Pope begins with words:
“Know then thyself, presume not God to scan. The proper study of mankind is
Man.” аnd similar quote of Socrates - Know thyself, indicate the basic urge of man
to know himself, i.e. his own true nature. Here yoga can be of great help as it helps
to explore and experience true nature of individual, world and transcendental
consciousness (Brahman) which is the way that all suffering come to an end. The
question is raised in the Vedas: “What is that, knowing which, we shall know
everything?” Naturally, the first thing to know is our own true nature. We used to
try to know the outside world, and by knowing one’s true self and applying
philosophy of Anda-Pinda-Vad everything in the universe becomes knowable
(there is a philosophy known as “anda (universe), pinda (body), vada” which says
that the universe is inside our body: yat anda tat pinda.
The central philosophy of the yoga is based upon the sankhya cosmology,
according to which the purusha (our true nature) is pure (consciousness) and
perfect, and is the only “simple” (ultimate entity) that exists in this universe. The
body and mind are compounds, and yet we are ever identifying ourselves with
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them. This is the great mistake that the distinction has been lost. When this power
of discrimination has been attained, yogi sees that everything in this world, mental
and physical, is a compound, and therefore cannot be the purusha (real “I – true
self”). This pure consciousness is described in the maxim sat-chitt-ananda
(“eternal bliss self-consciousness”). It is a description of the subjective experience
of Brahman (the infinite, supreme soul) or the universal mind. This sublimely,
blissful experience of the boundless, pure consciousness is a glimpse of ultimate
reality. According to Osho, yoga is not only a system of belief but also a scientific
methodology that heightens awareness and makes it possible to live in a constant
state of happiness, harmony and fulfillment (samadhi) – sat-citt-ananda.
In the last Sutra of Patanjali (4.33), that says: “The resolution in the inverse order
of the qualities, bereft of any motive of action for the purusha is kaivalya, or it is
the establishment of the power of knowledge in its own nature.”, one can find the
answer to the question “What is life all about?” or “What is the meaning of it all?”.
Elaborating it, Swami Vivekananda comments: “Nature’s task is done, this
unselfish task which our sweet nurse nature had imposed upon herself. She gently
took the self-forgetting soul by the hand, as it were, and showed him all the
experiences in the universe, all manifestations, bringing him higher and higher
through various bodies, till his lost glory came back, and he remembered his own
nature. Then the kind mother went back the same way she came, for others who
also have lost their way in the trackless desert of life. And thus is she working,
without beginning and without end. And thus through pleasure and pain, through
good and evil, the infinite river of souls is flowing into the ocean of perfection, of
self-realization.” In simple words! All this play of cosmic consciousness happens
for the education/realization and finally liberation of the individualized soul.
The first of Patanjali Yoga Sutras – atha yoganusasanam – emphasizes that yoga
should be followed as discipline, for the full sincerity.
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The eight steps of Patanjali yoga or Raj yoga, paving the golden path of yoga, are
summarized in the sutra – yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, prathyahara,
dharana, dhyana and samadhi, “eight limbs of yoga” (Patanjali, 2.29). This is
considered to be the authentic yoga, as it is an all comprehensive philosophy and
manual of yogic way of living, summarized in 197 aphorisms which can be
practiced in daily life.
An austere and simple life is indispensable, according to yoga. The basic purpose
of yama and niyama is change of behavior of individual, from selfish basic
instinctive behavior to altruistic attitude. Yama and niyama (ten commandments) is
the most poorly understood aspect of yoga in the west. Feuerstein (1996) called
yoga in the west “watered-down version of classical yoga” or “its western
derivatives”. He further states: “Moral aspect is the foundation of the other limbs
of yoga.”
Through yoga integrated way of living, the process of identification of all the
elements causing ill health and the use of appropriate techniques to neutralize their
ill effects became one of the primary concerns of yoga. Thus yoga, which
essentially is a science of personal growth for spiritual experiences, has
simultaneously become a science of health and healing (What is yoga?,
www.kdham.com). Baring this in mind, B.K.S. Iyengar (1989) made this pertinent
remark: ”The original idea of yoga is freedom and beatitude, and the by product,
which come along the way including physical health, are secondary for the
practitioner.”
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and constant vigilance in all aspects of life, daily events and attitudes. Yoga is
saying a big YES to life.
Ecology stands for the law and order of the natural ecosystems. In helping to
maintain this law and order of nature, man can also help to preserve mankind. This
is exactly the Indian concept of conduct of behavior dharma (codes of conduct in
yoga and Indian philosophy), which must not be mistaken for mere religion or
faith, as it’s practice entails/incorporates judicious use of natural resources. The
codes of conduct or dharma that are preached by the traditions in reality are
material prescriptions of organizing life styles to match the supporting capacity of
the earth in just and sustainable manner. Ananda lies in this dharna or dharma. Its
opposite is destruction, ignorance and misery for all concerned.
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Discussion
The above perspective actually represents already existing approach of yogic and
vedantic tradition of holistic way of life and living, as explicitly expressed in the
following verse from Upanishads – “Vidyam cha avidyam cha yastad vedobhayam
saha Avidyaya mrutyum tirtva vidyaya amrutamashnute” (vidya – spiritual science
and avidy – worldly science should be learnt together. One overcomes death
through avidya and attains immortality through vidya (verse 11, Isopanishad).
Here vidya is understood as brahmavidya (yoga) that leads us to the ultimate truth
of immortality of soul (real-being).
Bhagwat (2007) in the article entitled “Yoga and sustainability advocates, yoga as
a sustainable lifestyle” argues that Patanjali’s ashtanga yoga provides a code of
conduct that is believed not only to lead to the spiritual progress of the individual
but also has social, environmental and economic dimensions; and if observed
faithfully, it will lead to a sustainable society. Through a number of examples, he
illustrates how this code of conduct can be applicable to individuals as well as
institutions with respect to sustainable advantage, in the modern-day context.
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hugely affect North America. Yoga must be made more relevant to this issue,
which involves the practice of yoga as a spiritually based and ecologically
sensitive lifestyle.” Yogis are expected to lead a life full of environmental
consciousness and also, play active role in global peace and harmony. And
therefore, to lead a more meaningful life.
Conclusion
Yoga has passed the test of time, through thousands of years of its growth and
expansion as a solid spiritual tradition and almost 100 years of the modern
scientific inquiry of its various aspects, in east and west, in modern times. As a
way of life and living, the living philosophy of yoga inherently has a proposal for a
new global culture.
Worthington (1982), former Secretary General of the British Wheel of Yoga, could
visualize this years ago, while she wrote in her book A History of Yoga: “Each age
and culture has its own particular emphasis and our own is no exception. The
perspective of yoga is wider than any of them. It remains as always a free thinking,
experimental and experiential discipline requiring self-effort, compassion and
knowledge. It has been said that eventually all spiritual teachings of the world will
be united in yoga. Perhaps they will, for whatever benefits to mind and body may
be sought and won on the way (as by-product) the true meaning and sublime
object of yoga is union with the supreme spirit (ultimate reality – Bhraman).”
In the process of fast changes in the environment, in the personal, social and global
life, yoga will show tha pathway for the existing global community and it will help
people to grow into the real “global citizens”, following phylosophy Basudhevab-
Kutumbkam (Earth is One Planet, One Family).
References:
1. Arvill, R. (1978). Man and Environment: Crisis and the Strategy of Choice, Penguin Books.
2. Bhagwat, S.A. (2007). Yoga and Sustainability, Journal of Yoga, 7 (1)
3. Corliss, R. (2001). The Power of Yoga, Times Magazine
4. Feuerstein, G. (1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga, Shambhala, Boston & London
5. Feuerstein, G., Feuerstein, B. (2007). Green Yoga, Traditional Yoga Studies, Saskatchewa
6. Iyengar, B.K.S. (1989). The tree of Yoga, Boston: Shambhala Publications
7. Kuvalayananda, S. (1993). Asanas, Kaivalyadhama Yoga Institute, Lonavla
8. Leopold, A. (1989). A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There, Oxford University
Press.
9. Radhakrishnan, S. (1923). Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, Oxford University Press
10. Raghuwanshi, A. (2010). Educational Response for managing Climate change & Sustainable
development through increasing Awareness using Ethical resources from Indian Philosophy and
Culture, In: Conference proceedings from the 2nd International Conference on “Climate Change &
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources”, December 5-7, 2010, Gwalior: Institute of Allied
Sciences & Computer Applications under ITM Universe.
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11. Rao, K.R. (1998). Two faces of consciousness: a look at eastern and western perspectives,
Journal of Consciousness Studies Contents and Selected Abstracts, 5 (3), pp. 309-327
12. Saraswati, S.S. (1967). Early teachings of Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Bihar School of Yoga
13. Vivekananda, S. (1956). Raj Yoga, Ramakrishna Math.
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Увод
arun_231248@hotmail.com
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Јога је наука личног развоја усмерена ка искуству духовног. Као таква, она
наглашава реализацију духовних истина самог практичара. У „Шест лекција
о раџа јоги“ Swami Vivekananda изјављује: „Раџа јога је једнако наука као и
било која друга. То је умна анализа, сакупљање чињеница надчулног света и
самим тим, изградња духовног света.“
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Осам степеника Патањђалијеве јоге или raja јоге, утирући златни пут јоге,
резимирани су у сутри – yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, prathyahara,
dharana, dhyana и samadhi, „осам удова јоге“ (Патањђали, 2.29). Ово се
сматра аутентичном јогом, и истовремено исцрпном филозофијом и
приручником јогинског начина живота, сумираном у 197 афоризама који се
могу практиковати у свакодневном животу.
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Abstract: Effect of Yoga on the personality of children and trigunas have been
proven. But there are no available studies on the effect of yoga on tridoshas, which
may contribute to the restoration of positive health. Objective of the study was to
understand the effect of Integral Yoga module on the Prakrti of children.
The study was single group pre-post design. During th period of three months, 30
children aged 8-12 yrs, selected from Maxwell public school practiced Integral
Yoga module including asanas, pranayama, nadanusandhana, chanting and
games. Ayurveda child personality inventory was administered before and after.
Paired sample T-test was applied. Vata was decreased significantly and Pitta
increased significantly. Increase in Kapha was not significant. Integral Yoga
Module has the significant effect on the tridoshas in children.
Introduction
Corresponding author: ayursuch@rediffmail.com
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A study have reported significant changes in sattva, rajas, tamas by integral yoga
practice on subjects of age group 17-63 (Khemka, Ramaro, Hankey, 2011). A
randomized controlled study has shown the influence of yoga on gunas and self
esteem in comparison to physical exercise (Berger, Silver, Stein, 2009). Another
study have reported changes in well being of children after yoga (Rangan,
Nagendra, Bhat, 2009). The GES educational program, based around integrated
yoga modules is proven effective in enhancing visual and spatial memory
(Krishnan, Sripriya, 2006). Simplified kundalini yoga have showed significant
effect on personality and achievement (Deshpande, Nagendra, Nagarathna, 2009).
Yoga has proven more effective than physical exercise in attention deficit
hyperactive disorder (Haffner, Roos, Goldstein, Parzer, Resch, 2006). Relaxation
and yoga exercise have reduced anxiety of children and adolescent group
(Platania-Solazzo, Field, Blank, Seligman, Kuhn, Schanberg, Saab, 1992). The
efficacy of integral yoga module as an effective therapeutic tool in the
management of mentally retarded children has been proven (Smith, Greer, Sheets,
Watson, 2011).
Improvement of the physical and mental health and promotion of well-being by six
months of yoga practice in adults has been proved (Uma, Nagendra, Nagarathna,
Vaidehi, Seethalakshmi, 1989). Improvement of cognitive function and quality of
life in women who practiced yoga has been addressed (Hadi, Hadi, 2007). A
study has proved reduction of somatic stress by muscle relaxation (Oken, Zajdel,
Kishivama, Flegal, Dehen, Has, Kraemer, Lawrence, Levya, 2006). Higher scores
in life satisfaction and lower scores in excitability, aggressiveness, openness,
emotionality and somatic complaints was followed by hatha-yoga practice
(Khasky, Smith, 1999).
As there was no published studies available on the effect of yoga on tridosha and
prakrti, need was felt for the present study to be carried out.
Methods
The study was single group pre-post design. Examinees practiced integral yoga
module for three months. They practiced twice a week with yoga teahcer and they
were asked to practice at home every day by themselves. Āyurveda child
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personality inventory was administered at the beginning and at the end of three
months. Vata, pitta, kapha mean scores were analyzed, significance was analyzed
by Paired sample T-test.
Ayurveda child personality inventory which was based on Sanskrit verses quoted
in nine texts had three subscales: vata (A), pitta (B), kapha (C). Associated with
the Cronbach’s alpha for A, B and C scales were 0.77, 0.55 and 0.84 respectively.
The Split-Half reliability scores were 0.66.0.39 and 0.84 respectively. Factor
validity coefficient Scores on each items was above 0.5.
Subjects
Thirty children of the age group 8-12 years old from Maxwell Public School,
Bangalore were included in the study. Children with attention deficit hyperactive
disorder, autism, psychosis and mentally challenged were excluded from the study.
Yoga practices included breathing exercises like ankle stretch breathing, hand-
stretch breathing, dog breathing, rabbit breathing, dynamic exercises like jogging,
forward-backward bending, Surya namaskara, asanas - vrkshasana, veerabhadra-
asana, ustrasana, padahastasana, ostrich pose, blossom, pavanamuktasana kriya,
pranayama techniques - nadishuddhi, bhramari, yogic breathing,
nadanusandhana, yogic games like search engine, find the leader, along with the
stories, vedic chanting, Bhagavad Gita chanting.
Sample N/Mean %/ SD
Gender 12 boys/N-30 40%
Age 9.5 1.4
Education 5.2 1.7
Results
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Discussion
Children who scored high in vata and pitta before yoga, scored high in pitta and
kapha after yoga. Children who scored high in kapha before practice, scored high
in pitta and kapha after yoga. Children, who scored high in vata, scored high in
vata nad pitta after yoga. Totally, vata was reduced significantly, pitta increased
significantly, while increase in kapha was not significant.
Pitta has the characteristic of heat. If body temperature increases, pitta increases
(Brahmananda, 1994). Earlier studies have discussed the effect of yoga on body
temperature and thermoregulation (Madanmohan, Mahadevan, Balakrishnan,
Gopalakrishnan, Prakash, 2008). This study have determined that pitta have
increased by integral yoga practice.
Conclusions
The strength of this study is the first attempt to explore the effect of yoga on
prakrti of children. While, Ayurveda quotes, persons with predominance of single
or double doshas will always be diseased and equilibrium state of tridosha is
health. The present result may point, that yoga helps to move towards positive
health by changing the states of doshas.
The present study have showed, integrated module of yoga have significant effect
on vata and pitta and not necessarily on kapha for children of the age group 8-12
years.
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References
1. Berger, D.L., Silver, E.J. & Stein, R.E. (2009). Effects of yoga on inner-city children's well-being:
a pilot study:Altern Ther Health Med.;15(5):36-42.
2. Brahmānanda, T. (1994). Caraka samhitā: Hindivyākhyā.Third edition. New Delhi: Choukhambā
publications
3. Deshpande, S., Nagendra, H.R. & Nagarathna, R. (2009). A randomized control trial of the effect
of yoga on Gunas (personality) and Self esteem in normal healthy volunteers:Int J Yoga.;2(1):13-21.
4. Dube, K.C., Kumar, A. & Dube, S. (1983). Personality types in Ayurveda; Am J Chin Med.;11(1-
4):25-34
5. Hadi, N. & Hadi, N. (2007). Effects of hatha yoga on well-being in healthy adults in Shiraz,
Islamic Republic of Iran: East Mediterr Health J.;13(4):829-37.
6. Haffner, J., Roos, J., Goldstein, N., Parzer, P. & Resch, F. (2006). The effectiveness of body-
oriented methods of therapy in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):
results of a controlled pilot study: Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother.;34(1):37-47.
7. Khasky, A.D. & Smith, J.C. (1999). Stress, relaxation states, and creativity: Percept Mot
Skills.;88(2):409-16
8. Khemka, S.S., Ramarao, N.H. & Hankey, A. (2011). Effect of integral yoga on psychological and
health variables and their correlations:Int J Yoga.;4(2):93-9.
9. Krishnan, S. (2006). Personality development through Yoga practices: IJTK, Vol.05(4)
10. Madanmohan, Mahadevan, S.K., Balakrishnan, S., Gopalakrishnan, M. & Prakash, E.S. (2008).
Effect of six weeks yoga training on weight loss following step test, respiratory pressures, handgrip
strength and handgrip endurance in young healthy subjects: Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.;52(2):164-
70.
11. Misched, W. (1971). Introduction to Personality: New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston.Inc
12. Oken, B.S., Zajdel, D., Kishiyama, S., Flegal, K., Dehen, C., Haas, M., Kraemer, D.F., Lawrence,
J. & Leyva, J. (2006). Randomized, controlled, six-month trial of yoga in healthy seniors: effects on
cognition and quality of life: Altern Ther Health Med.;12(1):40-7
13. Platania-Solazzo, A., Field, T.M., Blank, J., Seligman, F., Kuhn, C., Schanberg, S. & Saab, P.
(1992) Relaxation therapy reduces anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric patients: Acta
Paedopsychiatr.;55(2):115-20.
14. Rangan, R., Nagendra, H., Bhat, G.R. (2009). Effect of yogic education system and modern
education system on memory: Int J Yoga.;2(2):55-61.
15. Schell, F.J., Allolio, B. & Schonecke, O.W. (1994). Physiological and psychological effects of
Hatha-Yoga exercise in healthy women: Int J Psychosom.;41(1-4):46-52.
16. Smith, J.A., Greer, T., Sheets, T. & Watson, S. (2011). Is there more to yoga than exercise?:
Altern Ther Health Med.;17(3):22-9.
17. Suchitra, S.P. & Nagendra, H.R. Measuring the manasika prakrti of the children (In press)
18. Tapasyananda, S. (2003). Shrimad Bhagavad Gita: Mylapore:Sri Ramakrishna Math
19. Telles, S. & Singh, N. (2011). High frequency yoga breathing increases energy -expenditure from
carbohydrates. Comment to: Assessment of sleep patterns, energy expenditure and circadian rhythms
of skin temperature in patients with acute coronary syndrome: Med Sci Monit.;17(9):LE7-8.
20. Uma, K., Nagendra, H.R., Nagarathna, R., Vaidehi, S. & Seethalakshmi, R. (1989). The
integrated approach of yoga: a therapeutic tool for mentally retarded children: a one-year controlled
study. J Ment Defic Res.;33 ( Pt 5):415-21
21. Vivekananda, S. (2006). Raja Yoga. Kolkata:Advaita Ashrama
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Увод
ayursuch@rediffmail.com
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Метод
Узорак
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Резултати
Дискусија
Деца која су имала висок резултат за vata и pitta пре практиковања јоге,
после јоге су имала висок резултат за pitta и kapha. Деца која су имала висок
kapha пре вежбања, имала су повећан pitta и kapha на крају. Деца са високим
резултатом за vata имала су повећан vata и pitta након практиковања јоге.
Укупно, vata је значајно смањен, pitta је значајно повећан, док повећање
kapha није било значајно.
Pitta има одлике топлоте. Ако телесна температуре расте, расте и pitta
(Brahmananda, 1994). Раније студије су указале на ефекте јоге на телесну
температуру и терморегулацију (Madanmohan, Mahadevan, Balakrishnan,
Gopalakrishnan, Prakash, 2008). Ово истраживање показује да pitta расте
приликом практиковања интегралне јоге.
Закључак
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Иако је модул јоге утицао на значајне промене tridosha (са изузетком kapha),
узорак је био мали, а јога пракса није праћена у континуитету. Узорак није
одабран по принципу случајности. Будуће студије морају укључити и
контролну групу на бази случајног узорка. Практиковање јоге мора бити
праћено континуирано.
Ова студија показује да интегрисани јога модул има значајне ефекте на vata и
pitta, али не и на kapha код деце старости 8–12 година.
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Abstract: In this article we explore the possibility of using yoga to try to perform
research. The author reflects on the fortified knowledge that she approaches
through the practice of yoga, in order to give meaning to the collected data on
women's spiritual group in the rural south. Specificity of this paper is that yoga is
used not only as a means to organize and display data, but also a means to explore
the boundaries between the roles of participant/observer and the yogi/researcher.
Introduction
Although there has been sufficient literature addressing the utility of exploring
one’s subjectivity while doing qualitative inquiry, little scholarship has been done
that focuses on knowledge that emanates from the body. The acceptance of
autoethnography and personal narratives as legitimate forms of research has
advanced the inclusion of non-cognitive knowledge, but it is still limiting. Despite
these limitations, Peshkin (1988) includes some knowledge from within when he
speaks about the processes of locating his subjectivity. He locates the “warm and
cold spots, the emergence of positive and negative feelings, the experiences [he]
wanted more of or wanted to avoid and when [he] felt moved to act in roles
beyond those necessary to fulfill [his] research needs. In short, [he] had to monitor
[himself] to sense how [he] was feeling” (p.18). What Peshkin is describing not an
intellectual endeavor, but a sensory or emotional pursuit. Although there appears
to be some interest to include alternative ways of knowing in research processes,
somatics has not been summoned to do this work.
Corresponding author: olejownik@gmail.com, olejownik.1@osu.edu
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Somatics involves more than just overcoming dualist thought; it overlaps with
ethnomethodology. Ethnomethodologists examine the taken-for-granted
assumptions in everyday life. They take a perspective that is consumed with the
individual and how a person makes sense out of his/her world. Although this
framework is typically applied to sociological or educational structures, it also
applies to somatics. If researchers are consumed with the methods people use to
make sense out their world, then it seems reasonable to conclude that this would
also include making sense of bodily or sensory messages as well. The term
“making sense” implies using all the senses, not just cognitive functions, to reach
decisions and understanding about existence. This especially includes types of data
like sensation and feeling. Employing a somatic perspective involves devising
interpretations about the meaning of all sensory phenomena on all levels
(emotional, intellectual, physical, subtle, spiritual, kinesthetic, etc.).
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Theories, on the other hand, can be adopted and abandoned when needed.
Somatics, however, includes a way of being in the world that is difficult to
abandon. Furthermore, theory is not particularly useful unless it has a successful
application. In this light, somatics seems to thrive because it is always applied.
Research
The application of my own somatic practice, yoga, surfaced while I was revisiting
some data on women’s spirituality. The project initially began as an assignment to
understand the strategies involved while engaging in qualitative research. For
roughly a year and a half, I immersed myself in the traditions, practices, and
celebrations of a women’s circle located in the rural South.
The group I was studying became more involved in my life after this experience,
and there was a nebulous line between my role as participant and observer.
Women seemed to be engaged in the spirituality circle in order to balance out the
years of spiritual inequality found in traditional religious structures. The types of
rituals they created allowed them to poise an individual’s need for introspection
with a collective need to celebrate. The healing components of rituals, like
purging and symbolism, harmonized the negativity brought about by religion,
society, and family life.
This research surfaced again while I was taking another qualitative course when
the analogy that data is like clay to be reworked and shaped in different ways was
presented to me (Richardson, 1997). One day we were given a coding exercise
and we were instructed to label the contents of each line with a single word. This
seemed a lot like an exercise in mindfulness meditation where one identifies the
contents of the mind with a single word. In meditation, one simply witnesses
through the eyes of the detached observer the sensations, thoughts, and feelings
that reside within. The contemplator labels the contents of the body/mind
appropriately, by identifying each sensation or urge as planning, judging, craving,
wondering, etc.
The exercise was similar to meditation since we labeled the contents of the line
just as we do the silent conversation we have in our heads. The practice of
meditation demonstrates that it is difficult to let go of one’s biases and opinions to
review our internal data through the eyes of a detached observer. Nonetheless, this
activity illuminated the various possibilities of using somatic practices/modalities
in the effort of doing research. Somatics, as Peshkin says of subjectivity, is also
like a garment that cannot be removed since it touches everything we do, including
research. The somatic perspective values practice as much as theory, so welcoming
the practice of yoga into my research was appealing. This process also highlighted
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Centering
Sitting in a comfortable, seated position. My sitting bones make contact with the
earth and my spine lengthens so much that the crown of my head extends towards
the sky. My awareness sinks inward.
Dwelling on connectedness. Realizing that all life is interconnected on many
levels. I see that my emotional body is not separate from my physical body. And
the spiritual is not separate from my physical body.
Exhaling. I consider what brings me be back to the practice time and time again. I
realize that it is symbolism, meaning, and growth. I remember a voice once saying
that it wasn’t until the rituals that I knew you could make it meaningful for
yourself. Doing this ritual has moved me out of my fog.
I practice to change, to grow, to move beyond my limitations and habitual patterns.
I clarify my intent to search for meaningful spiritual growth.
Asanas
On my hands and knees, I curl my toes under and walk my hands back to my feet.
Pressing my weight into my hands allows me to stand with soft knees, and now I
am slumped over like a rag doll, slowly noticing the different muscle groups
working to pull me to an upright position.
Planting the soles of my feet firmly into the earth, I ground myself. Hugging the
muscles of the legs together, I engage my arms and inhale them up overhead.
Now, I am standing tall and proud like a mountain.
This posture reminds me that the earth constantly renews itself, as we do. My feet
instinctively melt into the soil and I imagine the sweat lodges. With sweat lodges,
we have the connection with the earth. Nature provides all the elements required
to craft a structure each year. We make offerings as we cut saplings and fashion
an altar out of the moist clay. We dwell in the makeshift womb to return to a
primal state, to find our edges, to cleanse, and to release.
Inhaling my arms overhead into tadasana, or mountain pose, images of the rituals
and the smells around Starcrest return to me. I recall the flickering of the fires, the
crunching sound of the leaves in the fall, and the smell of sweet grass in the
summer. Cedar and sage fill the air. My mind meanders to thoughts of women of
all ages that have impressed me as much as the Talkeentnan Mountains. I
acknowledge my eagerness to return.
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Beginning to shift my weight to one foot, I move into vrkshasana, or the tree.
Trees change with each season just as women’s bodies do. Young maidens
blossom in spring and leaves turn color and wither when wise women become
crones. My foot becomes rooted, and my arms are now lively branches extended
towards the sky. I think of late spring and of the maypole ceremony to honor
maidens. I remember that night when we danced in the woods to celebrate our
fertility. We sang songs and planted seeds in the earth.
Taking an integrative breath in and out, I gently fold my torso downward so that
my head opposes gravity. As my hands meet the floor, I lower my hips and then
my knees. My hands walk away from my body a few inches and now I am resting
on all fours.
My right leg takes a ridiculously large step forward from table position. My hips
square off with the front of my space, and I lower my sitting bones downward
towards the earth. Inhaling my arms overhead, I am now standing confidently in
warrior I, or virabhadrasana.
Warrior I teaches us about strength and courage. I try to let go of conditioning or
the shoulds, as my friend Sherri calls them . . . it’s unlearning everything that
you’ve been taught. You get to a point where you are ready to be yourself, not
what you were groomed to be. Warrior I reminds me to stand on my own with
confidence. I take a cleansing breath to drink the benefits of the posture.
Lunging forward from warrior, I straighten my right leg and place my right hand
on the floor. Exhaling, the left foot floats off the ground and I attempt to stack my
hips, one at a time, as my left arm reaches to the sky. The heart space opens as I
struggle to keep steady in ardha chandrasana, or half moon.
Balancing postures show us if our lives are grounded or not. The days I have a
hard time balancing are those when I question and doubt myself. Other things
undermine my balance, like the mind fodder that is fed to us by the media. That’s
the one thing I don’t like about our culture—how it emphasizes the way that
women should look through the media, the ads, the shows. In our society we are
surrounded by inadequate requests put on women in advertising and the
workplace.
I create an intention to try not to get caught up in the material world- in the
unwanted content that comes out of television and magazines. Sometimes, I lose
my positioning and I resort back to the shoulds and what culture dictates. I find
my balance sometimes on my own and sometimes when I am with my friends.
The group helps get rid of some of that cultural poison.
Back in tadasana, I melt my chin deep into my chest. My shoulders round and my
knees bend while my torso descends gracefully over my legs as if I were putting a
sleeping child to bed. Gradually, my hands meet the floor and walk forward so that
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I am resting on my belly. Rolling over onto my back, I begin to press out through
my heels. My shoulders round towards the earth, my heart is open, and my gaze is
directed back to the past as I enter matsyasana, or the fish.
Breathing.
Heart-opening postures remind us to approach all things with softness and
compassion. I recall exposing my vulnerable side on several occasions to purge
and to heal. I grew comfortable with sharing in my women’s group since everyone
in the group gets to share experiences. Sharing is a big part of the circles. When
women open up and share, you realize, hey, she’s going through some of the same
stuff I was going through or she’s had a totally different experience than me but I
realize how valid and important her story is.
Balancing in this posture, I hear a voice from the circle that once told me that the
balance is linked too far into the patriarchal. We don’t need to do away with
that.... Pressing back through my kidneys to even myself out, I am reminded of the
yogic concept of bramacharya, or personal energy management. Everything in
moderation, including moderation, is the idea behind this concept. Being at one
extreme for too long is unhealthy and unbalanced. The prescription is to take the
middle path. Just like Susan said, we just to need even it out a little. The longer I
am inverted, the more I start to imagine turning everything into its opposite. From
this position I see new perspectives. I see how maybe the women’s movement has
gotten off its tracks a little bit. We needed to make progress in the corporate
world, but we entered a male world. What we should have done was make the
world a little bit more effeminate. I struggle to maintain my balance.
Inversions can be hard on the body, so I take a leisurely rest by melting into
garbasana, or child’s pose. Placing my head below my heart, I stretch my arms
overhead. In child's pose, I subtly acknowledge that the heart comes before the
mind. I am reminded of motherhood and late summer. The idea of creativity also
enters my interior landscape, as the child represents a woman’s ultimate power to
create. Being in this pose reminds me to honor the delicate child within.
Garbasana is about safety, and I think of the security the group provides since
women feel safe with other women. There are certain things that have come up
that I wouldn’t feel so comfortable addressing if men were around. But now, I
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feel the acceptance a mother gives to her child, time and time again. The group
held me like a child after my father’s surgery.
Coming over onto my back, I place the soles of my feet near my buttocks. My
shoulders round back as my heart opens once more. As I am pressing down
through the shoulders and feet, my hips glide upward and my chest reaches
towards the chin. I witness the random thoughts, feelings, and sensations that
move through my core. Using the breath helps me go deeper into the posture. My
edge comes up rather quickly, which tempts me to release. The ujjayi breath
carries me through the edge and finally I release the posture. My body is flooded
with energy and heat.
Setu bandhasana or the bridge, stirs the sexual energy of the second chakra. My
thoughts shift to relationships with men and suddenly I am filled with rage and
anger. Where is this coming from? Why do I feel this way? Suddenly, my
thoughts revert back to degrading conversations and rotted relationships. My body
tenses as I hear my friend’s story echoing through my consciousness.
Reminding myself to soften and open, I continue to witness and begin to let go of
tension. Placing each vertebra on the floor, one at a time, like pearls on the string
of a necklace, gently I release the posture and experience the bliss of nothingness.
As energy circulates through my entire being, I allow the heat to fade. Smiling to
myself, I give thanks for finding the light in dreary places.
I rest now in mrtasana (lying relaxed on my back) with my legs extended and
place my arms out to the side. Palms are breathing upward towards the ceiling.
As my awareness shuts out external stimuli, I begin to notice a paradox—that even
in stillness there is movement. Breath is flowing, blood is circulating and energy
is moving about the body.
Holding onto tension produces disease and creates imbalances. Sometimes I get
real tense, so I have to do something with that energy cause it’s not real beneficial
for the next person. I remind myself to relax and let go. Sometimes in relaxation,
a release is found through tension. Gently, I begin to tighten various parts of my
body, hold for a few cycles of breath and then release.
Tension is channeled through my feet . . . then my legs . . . and my hips . . . my
abdomen . . . my chest . . . my arms . . . hands . . . and face. Slowly I collect any
wandering ideas, fragmented thoughts, and afternoon plans and then release them
as well, like rose petals to the wind. I simmer for one more moment on the
connectedness of all things and how all opposites depend on each other—up needs
down, day needs night, and tension needs release. I begin labeling all the contents
of my mind in a detached manner until I find a balance between effort and
surrender.
Dwelling in yoga nidra, or yogi sleep. Rolling over onto one side, I curl in a ball to
rest and to ponder my period of relaxation. Gently, my body guides me back to a
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seated position and I notice how I feel more at ease, more balanced, and more at
home in my body than I did prior to my session.
To acknowledge the time I spent nurturing my body, I end with a chant. Taking a
breath in. Aum. I notice how the Aum resonates through my entire being before I
bring my hands together over the heart.
Reflections
The possibilities for using this material were endless, but I wanted the style of the
writing to flow like thoughts do during a yoga session for this qualitative analysis.
The practitioner strives to reside in each moment with the sensations of the stretch
and the rhythm of the breath; the sticky part, however, is that the mind’s tendency
is to wander. Traditional qualitative synopses can be somewhat formulaic in
nature and my intention was to employ a more creative yet reflective approach to
complement the essence of this story.
It was also a struggle to use the respondents’ quotes appropriately. Although there
were no respondents during this hypothetical yoga session, I felt a certain
responsibility to cautiously balance my observations with their experience.
Because I was a participant in this group, at times I felt that their words could have
easily been my words. Towards the end of this project, my participant-observer
role was blurred and I was clearly more of a participant than an observer. To show
the distinction between my thoughts and theirs, I used italics to indicate when
someone else was speaking. The path that eventually freed me from my habitual
way of interpreting data was through journaling.
Conclusion
One of my interests in yoga is to take the discipline off the mat. That is, how does
yoga transcend into my life outside of the practice? How does my life affect my
practice? What does my resistance in a posture mean? What happens when I work
through the edges of a posture? The answers to all of these questions sometimes
reveal how a person negotiates through life. The postures are merely reflections of
what is happening in a person’s life on any given day.
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Through this act, I was able to observe my own motivations and attachments.
Doing this allowed me to let go of some of the old issues surrounding this piece so
I could move forward. Writing, which can be viewed as another way of
meditating, provided a means to process just as the statistical analysis software
programs SPSS or SAS do for quantitative inquirers. By simply witnessing my
patterns, I allowed myself to open to flow and to new possibilities. The practice of
yoga truly transcends the mat.
References:
1. Hanna, T. (1980). Somatics: Reawakening the mind’s control of movement, flexibility, and health.
Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
2. Kleinman, S. (1990). Moving into awareness. Somatics, 7(4), 4-7.
3. Peshkin, A. (1988). In search of subjectivity – one’s own. Educational Researcher, 17(7), 17-22.
4. Richardson, L. (1997). Fields of play: Constructing an academic life. New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press.
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Увод
Јога и соматика
olejownik@gmail.com, olejownik.1@osu.edu
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Истраживање
Резултати истраживања
Ово истраживање је опет изашло на светлост дана када сам отишла на још
један курс о квалитативним истраживањима где ми је представљена
аналогија да су подаци као глина на којој треба да се ради и да се обликује на
различите начине (Richardson, 1997). Један дан смо добили вежбу кодирања
и инструкцију да једном речи обележимо садржај сваког реда. Личило је на
вежбе центрираности ума у медитацији, где особа једном речи идентификује
садржај ума. У медитацији, особа посматра сензације, мисли и осећања која
се у њој јављају кроз очи непристрасног посматрача. Посматрач на
одговарајући начин назива садржаје тела/ума, тако што сваки доживљај или
позив назива планирање, суђење, тежња, чуђење итд.
Вежба је била слична медитацији јер смо садржаје редова обележавали на
начин на који смо изводили тихи разговор у нашим главама. Пракса
медитације показује да је тешко пустити своја предубеђења и мишљења да
бисмо могли да посматрамо наше унутрашње податке кроз очи
непристрасног посматрача. Осим тога, ова активност је осветлила различите
могућности употребе соматских пракси/модалитета у извођењу
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Центрирање
Асане
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Моја десна нога прави необично велики корак напред из положаја стола.
Кукови су ми паралелни у односу на простор испред мене и спуштам седалне
кости ка земљи. Са удахом подижем руке изнад главе и сада стојим поуздано
као ратник 1 или virabhadrasana. Ратник 1 нас учи о снази и храбрости.
Покушавам да пустим условљавања или „треба“... тако се одучавам од свега
чему сам научена. Долазим до тачке у којој сам спремна да будем оно што
јесам, а не оно за шта сам била припремана да будем. Ратник 1 ме подсећа
да стојим самостално и самопоуздано. Изводим прочишћујући удах да бих
испила добробити овог пoложаја.
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подижем руке изнад главе. У положају детета мекано признајем да срце има
предност над умом. Присећам се мајчинства и касног лета. И размишљање о
креативности постаје део мог унутрашњег пејзажа, јер дете представља
женину основну моћ да креира. Борављење у овом положају подсећа ме да
уважим нежно дете у својој унутрашности.
Setu bandhasana или мост покреће сексуалну енергију из друге чакре. Мисли
ми се усмеравају на везе са мушкарцима и изненада сам испуњена бесом и
љутњом. Одакле ово долази? Зашто се осећам овако? Изненада, мисли ми се
враћају на понижавајуће разговоре и бесмислене везе. У телу ми се ствара
тензија и чујем причу моје другарице која ми одзвања у свести.
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Разматрање
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речи. Како сам се ближила крају овог пројекта, моја улога учеснице-
посматрачице постајала је нејасна, а онда је било јасно да сам више учесница
него посматрачица. Да бих показала разлику између мојих и њихових
размишљања, користила сам италик слова да бих нагласила кад неко други
говори. Пут који ме је коначно ослободио мог уобичајеног начина
интерпретације података био је детаљно писање дневника.
Закључак
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Abstract: The mandala is a diagram that is used for meditation. In tantra yoga,
mandala is a visual design of the life scale - a symbolic composition, energy
schemes, the matrix code from which everything is built, warehouse of spiritual
essence. Mandala is a summary of the cosmic revelation. Researching mandalas
as arts of the Hindu-Buddhist cultural circle in the geographical territory of the
Republic of Serbia, it was found that in the Belgrade museum collections there are
mandalas originating from Nepal. They are a gift of the President of Nepal handed
over to the then president of FR Yugoslavia.. They are kept in the Museum of
Yugoslav History in Belgrade, Serbia..
Mandala dates from 13th century and appeared in tantric yoga for the first time. It
is symbolism based on relations between a man and the Universe that tantric yoga
owes its special feature. Mandala is an artistic structure of lifetime ladder in tantric
yoga-symbolic composition, energy scheme, matrix code from which cverything is
made, a storage of spiritual essence. It is a summary of cosmic annunciation.
According to the Hinduism, everything that exists in the Universe exists in us as
well-individual and universal make oneness. It is Yoga that offers means, tools,
instrument for connecting with the universal being in us. This connection is
accomplished using universal symbols-mandalas. Mandala contains a symbolism
of characters and shapes, creation of images, by which the structure of the
Universe is created and enables one to follow the path of the Universe and by that
move from spiritually to Divinity. Most commonly, mandala is defined as a
diagram which is used for meditation. Mandala is an instrument of a firm
concentration for meditative infatuation (dhyana). The word mandala originates
from Sanscrit and means ”circle”, something which one is surrounded by. The
Corresponding author: dragica.jovanovic@yuheritage.com
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term ”mandala” has different meanings and they mainly depend on the context.
Mandala drawings has been appearing in all cultures for a long period of time and
nowadays they are often present in all artistic media in various forms. Mandala is a
sacred cosmic diagram, model of a perfect world, symbol of the Universe, having
a connotation of the very essence. Being a two- or three-dimensional idea of the
sacred space filled with shapes and objects, mandala is artistically far richer and
more stylish than yantra, which represents a geometric diagram. Mandala
represents a symbolic diagram, abstract or real, a circle around square with a
symbol in the middle, which can be a shape as well. There is a widespread notion
of mandala as a geometric projection of the world, imago mundi, with which the
sacred space is surrounded, the entrance in the sacred centre, it represents unity of
macrocosm and macrocosm. It denotes the idea of harmony inside macrocosm-
Universe and microcosm, human being, a harmony which is realised by life in a
human being and a nature. Vision of this idea is expressed by shapes of mandala,
which is the reason why there had never been two mandalas, which had been
completely the same. Basis of mandala comprises eight times eight squares-the
order of Heavens, which is established on Earth. The centre of mandala symbolises
the Sun or the gates of heaven, a means of providing access to Heaven. Mandala
has bounded centre and carries that focus on the centre that is the Self. Mandala is
a means of meditation and the object of meditation, when the mandala means
meditation facilitates yogi to transform his consciousness to the divine. By
practicing concentration on the mandala practitioner explores the limits of his
subconscious mind where contrast and assimilation of new integration are
possible.
In Western culture the most common opinion is that the mandala symbolises the
Universe and its energy. Western culture is familiar with the Mandalas principally
through Carl Gustav Jung. By studying mandalas, Jung concluded that they
express a condition in which there was a dressing table, and that the means of
communication at the same time conscious and unconscious, in which the viewer a
sense of serenity and that life has order and its meaning was awakened Using the
mandala forms in psychotherapy, he watched them as "instruments with whose
help the existence of the order was introduced." For Jung the mandala design,
reshaping the eternal sense, eternal conversation, it is the Self, personal integrity,
or quoting verses from Goethe's "Faust" - "Create, change, constant recreation of
the Eternal Spirit.
Relationship of the mandala to the shape is the same as the ratio of the sound of
the mantra. Mandalas enable us to visually get in touch with the universal spiritual
energy and authority. Five major elements of the twenty four have their geometric
symbols are displayed in the form of the mandala. In Vedic architecture, the
elements directly reflect the external shape of the object. In Vastu-tomorrow
Upanishad which is about the meaning of forms, natural elements are related to
the basic elements of geometry. The line represents the principle of separation and
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an initial impulse of creation. The line is a symbol of the Creator who creates
worlds. The straight line is a symbol of the light pulse. Vertical lines, according to
Vastu-sutra, symbolises fire element, the horizontal line symbolises the element of
water, a diagonal element of air. Formed a circle around the cross represents the
Sun, and the symbolism of the cross bears four arms of Vishnu, and only later
taken from the Vedas as a symbol of crucifixion iconography. Figure, line blends,
a rhomboid is leaning in one corner, and it is a symbol of the Earth. Although ether
corresponds with the element of space is not shown in the geometrical shape. In
the diagram, the triangle with the top up - symbolizes fire, and with its top down -
symbolizing water, and the resulting hexagonal shape - a symbol of attraction. The
line is a symbol of separation and corresponds to the metaphysical principle of the
false ego, which is at the basis of the whole material creation. When the original
blend of spirit and matter is breached, the resulting material world is full of
diversity, which attracts our senses and leads us into temptations of various kinds.
Ego is in fact a necessary protective layer that separates spirit from the matter.
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and Nepal, as they the closest to a modern viewer. Two mandalas that are kept in
the Museum of Yugoslav History in Belgrade, originate from Nepal. They are gifts
form the President of Nepal to then-Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito in 1974. In
respond, Tito ritually gave present to the President of Nepal-the name of this ritual
is a reciprocal gift. What is a reciprocal gift?
Customs of giving have been known since ancient times. Bestowal, exchange of
gifts, it is the exchange of goods that are valued in a society just as reciprocal
values, regardless of their tangible and intangible cultural emanation, is considered
to be a universal human activity present in all societies, regardless of their level of
development, and variations are only a matter of local cultural paradigms. Theme
of giving, exchange of gifts and reciprocity, s reciprocal transactions, are
introduced by Bronislaw Malinowski with his ethnographic study “Argonauts of
the Western Pacific”, and Marcel Mauss with one of the most famous
anthropological papers – “An Essay on the Gift”: The Form and Meaning of
Exchange in Archaic Societies.” These two parts make the basis of all subsequent
scientific papers on the subject of giving and exchanging gifts.
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The two mandalas, which make the subject of this paper, and which are kept in the
Museum of History of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, are the ones which the Prime-
Minister of Nepal, Magendra Prasad Rijal, gave the President of the SFRY, Josip
Broz-Tito in 1974. Then Tito gave the Prime Minister of Nepal a silver table
cigarette box with silver embossed facsimile of Jajce and crystal and Flowerpot
Idrija lace was given to his wife. The whole ritual should be seen as a political
exchange. The collection of gifts that were given to President Tito, which is
located in the Museum of History of Yugoslavia, is extremely valuable , especially
one that consists of items from the Far East. There is no Museum of the Far East in
Belgrade and Serbia. There is the biggest collection of artifacts Far East in this
area at Tito's Gift Fund at the Museum of History of Yugoslavia. One part of the
collection are the two mandalas. They were shown to the public for the first time at
the “The Death of Treasury” exhibition in 2009. The exhibits that had never before
seen the light of day were exhibited at that exhibition - they had been all the time
in the vault of the Museum. Mandalas are large, sculptural shapes, made of metal
alloy, opal, pearl and glass.
They were made in the State of Nepal craft workshop in 1974, obviously exactly
with the purpose of giving them to Tito. Mandala (abstract cosmic publication, the
path to liberation, liberator substance) is usually a two-dimensional, like drawing
or painting, or drawing on the ground, in the sand. We're talking about a three-
dimensional representation of the world. Mandala of the eight deities that surround
the central deity seated among the earliest of most widespread examples show
mandala in Asia, and has most of the structure of the palace architecture. These
compositions comprise the inner circle in which the supreme deity (or several)
surrounded the palace square shape with structured outputs of walls on all four
sides. The palace is located in the multilayer circuit, and additional figures (monks
of followers) can be found outside of this circle. In the focus, there is always a
sublime being presented with a manlike figure. This deity is pursued and all the
circles represent the time scale to it. The circles range from large to small, because
it's all about the center pursued. So, the focus is directed towards the center - to the
deity of the liberation of the circle into the central mandala in the first and in the
second square, which is coming through the loops that go to the center. These
mandalas are made of materials that are not normally do and precious stones,
because they were made as a gift to a great statesman Josip Broz Tito. They are
made of embossed metal alloy, with inserts dropped, pearl and glass. Their
dimensions are quite large for the mandala. The height of the first 78 cm 53 cm
diameter circle, the other is slightly smaller, 60 cm high with a diameter of 50 cm
circle. Both mandalas are very well preserved, although some pieces of gemstones
are missing. The structure consists of concentric circles of the mandala, sectioned
transverse lines. They start from the centre and reach the four corners, so that the
surface is divided into four triangles. In the center of each triangle in the center of
the circle is a symbol or figure of the deity. Mandala is usually surrounded by four
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rounds. The first round was done as a continuous line represents the Mountain of
Fire, flame barrier, which at first glance not allowed on the mandala, but which in
fact represents a consciousness that has to burn banish the darkness of ignorance
and error to bring us to the knowledge we all strive for. The second round of the
Diamond girdle or Vajras. Diamond symbolises supreme knowledge, Bodhi,
Enlightenment, Essence exactly Absolute Cosmic Consciousness, which once
reached more is lost. It is like a diamond, is unchangeable. Then comes the third
round in which he presented eight cemeteries, especially dedicated to the mandala
deities. The last lap is made of lotus signifies rebirth. Lotus petals are open to the
outside, because nothing on this level is not brought to an end - a beginner needs to
find the secret gnosis in his soul.
Figure 1. Figure 2.
Mandala, metal alloy, opal, pearl, glass, sign. Mandala, metal alloy, opal, pearl, glass, sign.
Nepal Handicraft Palace, 1974, h60cm R50cm, Nepal Handicraft Palace, 1974, h78cm R53cm,
Museum of Yugoslav History, Belgrade, Serbia Museum of Yugoslav History, Belgrade, Serbia
Presents of the President of Nepal, Nagendra Prasad Rijal to the President of the SFRY,
Jospi Broz Tito, handed in Belgrade, Serbia, in 1974.
The gods, however, sitting on a lotus closed, because events other planes - they are
in the end times. The petals facing outward marks the entry into the living rebirth,
and the central bud of a lotus, which is closed, symbolising the unity of the
original. In the middle of this circle is drawn mandala palace, where are placed the
performances of the gods. In the mandala from the Museum of History of
Yugoslavia we see the traditional elements: a lotus flower, lotus petals, Toran -
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kind of arch, being exalted figure in the gates. Their pedestals are made in the
shape of feet, and the larger mandala at the top of a bell with petals.
The structure of the first mandala which is a circle, one recognises the idea of an
open flower petals on which are symbolically represented deities whom the first
round eight and the other six, in order to reach the center circle of a deity. Since
the three-dimensional mandala, one can imagine the stairs going to the centre of
the circle. A goal of yoga is the centre or - samadhi-arrival to the core. Mandala
second consists of two circles of petals (the petals are red stones) exactly
quadrangle in the center. Right, left, up and down are placed into the centre, in
which the deity is placed. Both first mandala and second mandala have leg that rest
on the ground (the man is a temple, every man wearing a deity in itself) so that
they can be free-standing in the space, they do not have to be leaning on the wall.
While the first mandala more three-dimensional - sculptoral and complex content,
mandala 2, although three-dimensional, was more made as a mosaic.Donors from
Nepal, who are of Hindu religion, created gifts that serve to guiding of
consciousness. The path to liberation is symbolically presented.. This path is
shown on the mandala layers and if the mandala laid the on the ground, it would be
steps toward the centre of is shown on most forward on the surface of the the first
mandala. In this political gift exchange exactly reciprocity immaterial is the most
basic exchange of goods, display value. In the modern times, something very
valuable from the donor culture is given, such as the Americans gave Tito those
years the stone from the Moon then. Nepalis donated the first mandala as part of
their cultural heritage, but those years specially designed for the occasion in Nepali
national workshop, meticulous machining and metal inlay of very valuable , opal,
pearl and glass. The stones are red, blue and white, which represented the colours
of what was then the state flag of Yugoslavia. Great skill and imagination,
creativity has been invested in the design and implementation of gifts to Tito by
the government of Nepal. Expressions are a great respect for the authority of the
then Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, who reveled in the world. They are kept
in the Museum History of Yugoslavia there in Belgrade.his path is shown on the
mandala layers and if the mandala laid the on the ground, it would be steps toward
the centre of is shown on most forward on the surface of the the first mandala. In
this political gift exchange, it is reciprocity that is the most basic exchange of
goods, display value. In the modern times, something very valuable from the
donour’s culture is usually given, such as the Americans gave Tito the stone from
the Moon then. Nepalis donated the first mandala as part of their cultural heritage,
but those years specially designed for the occasion in Nepali national workshop,
meticulous machining and metal inlay of very valuable , opal, pearl and glass. The
stones are red, blue exactly white colors of what was then the state flag of
Yugoslavia. Great skill and imagination, creativity has been invested in the design
and implementation of gifts to Tito by the government of Nepal. They were
expression of a great respect for the authority of the then Yugoslav President Josip
Broz Tito had in the world. They are kept in the Museum History of Yugoslavia
here in Belgrade.
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There are no information about the destiny of the objects, which Tito have been
giving to the foreign statesmen during his presidency , including the objects which
Tito had given to the Prime-Minister of Nepal in 1974 and his wife- stone silver
cigarette box with silver embossed facsimile of Jajce, and crystal Flowerpot Idrija
lace. It is assumed that both these cases were found in any of the museums in
Nepal.
Conclusion
In tantra yoga, mandala is a visual design of the life scale, the matrix code from
which everything is built. It is the repository of spiritual essence, diagram that is
used for meditation. By researching mandala as the part of Hindu-Buddhist
cultural circle, in the geographical area of the Republic of Serbia, we found out
that in Belgrade’s museum collections there are two mandalas from Nepal. They
are gift of the President of Nepal to the President of the SFRY Josip Broz Tito.
They are kept in the Museum Yugoslav History in Belgrade.
References:
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Историју мандала пратимо од 13. века, а први се пут појавила у тантра јоги.
Свој посебан тон тантра јога дугује симболици која је заснована на односима
између човека и васељене. Остваривање начела тантра јоге заснива се на
основама јоге тог времена (јога значи обуздавање, упрезање), а то је
специфичан метод хармонизације телa и психе настао у Индији. Мандала
садржи у себи симболизам ликова и фигура, прављење слика које
репродукују структуру васељене и омогућује да се, идући путевима те
васељене, човек душевно креће ка божанству.
Тантра јогу сагледавамо као релативно новији (3. и 4. век) покрет јоге која је
одбацивала аскетизам традиционалних школа. Док су аскетске школе за тело
и телесне жеље сматрале да су препрека ослобођењу, практичари тантра јоге
су, супротно томе, сматрали да се ради о потенцијалном средству, будући да
су на тело гледали као на микрокосмос којим владају исти принципи као и
dragica.jovanovic@yuheritage.com
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изражавају визију ове идеје и зато никада у историји нису конструисане две
исте мандале. Основу мандале чини осам пута осам квадрата – поредак
небеског света успостављен на земљи. Може бити и девет пута девет
квадрата који воде у свемир и ограђују га. Средиште мандале представља
сунчева или небеска врата, средство које омогућава приступ небеском.
Мандала има омеђано средиште и носи фокус на центар, тј. на сопство.
Однос мандале према облику исти је као однос мантре према звуку. Мандале
нам омогућују да визуелно дођемо у контакт са универзалним духовним
енергијама и ауторитетима. Пет великих елемената, од укупно двадесет
четири, имају своје геометријске симболе приказане у виду мандале. У
ведској архитектури елементи директно одсликавају спољашњи облик
објекта. У Васту сутра упанишади која говори о значењу форме, природни
елементи су повезани са основним елементима геометрије. Линија
представља принцип одвајања и даје почетни импулс креацији, она је симбол
Креатора који креира светове. Права линија је симбол светлосног зрака;
вертикална линија, према Васту сутри, представља симбол елемента ватре;
хоризонтална линија представља елеменат воде, а дијагонална елеменат
ваздуха. Круг око формираног крста представља сунце, док крст носи
симболику четири руке Вишне, а тек је касније преузет из Веда као симбол за
распеће у иконографији. Фигура настала комбинацијом линија је ромбоид
ослоњен на један угао и он је симбол елемента земље. Иако етар
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Мандале и несвесно
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Став Моса (Mauss, 1983) је да дар неизбежно укључује и појам кредита, што
онда у економију примитивних друштава укључује једну од најбитнијих
институција савремене економије. Подразумева се, свакако, да се ради о
културно другачије обликованом кредиту, али је постојање одложеног
плаћања свакако присутно, па тиме и аналогија са савременим кредитом.
Примитивнима није непозната ни економска инструментализација веровања
и ритуала, а чинови тобожње дарежљивости се могу свести на логику
рационалног сопственог интереса. Мос у свом Огледу о дару излаже концепт
по коме је даривање облик еквивалентне размене. Претпоставка даривања у
древним и племенским друштвима по Мосу јесте обавеза примања и
узвраћања дарова. За разлику од робне размене, даривање функционише кроз
мрежу трајних и личних интерперсоналних односа заснованих на сложеним
социјалним правилима. Добра која се размењују немају економску вредност
у буквалном смислу те речи, тј. еквивалентност овде не подразумева трампу,
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Слика 1. Слика 2.
Мандала, легура метала, опал, седеф, Мандала, легура метала, опал, седеф,
стакло, сигн. Nepal handicraft palace, стакло, сигн. Nepal handicraft palace,
1974, h60цм R50цм, Музеј историје 1974, h78цм R53цм, Музеј историје
Југославије, Београд, Србија. Југославије, Београд, Србија.
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Титу мандале у које су уткали камење. Камење је црвене, плаве и беле боје
каква је била тадашња застава државе СФРЈ. Велико умеће и маштовитост,
креативност уложено је у осмишљавање и реализацију поклона за Тита. Он је
на поклон узвратио племенитим сребром (табакера и рељеф) и кристалом.
Инсистирао је на неговању традиције нове државе СФРЈ која је проглашена у
Јајцу, и отуда је поклонио рељеф Јајца. Идријска чипка је део фолклорне
традиције тадашње државе. Титово уздарје је садржавало и његов факсимил
– као израз моћи његове личности у свету. Ова уздарја су била уобичајени
гестови председника Тита и тадашње државе СФРЈ у скоро свим приликама
политичке размене дарова.
Закључак
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Abstract: In this paper, the term yoga means a complete set of (techniques,
knowledge, experiences) directed “unities” (samadhi). It was presumed that yoga,
as a specific form of symbolic behavior, represents an element of the organization
of cultural space and time, or the symbolic arrangement of individual’s world.
Testing the hypothesis that yoga class symbolically arranges individual’s world,
i.e. that the marginal (liminal phase) is an element of the organization of cultural
time and space. A subject of analysis was a yoga class of the instructor of the Yoga
Federation of Serbia. The subject of the research was presented through the
idealistic model in terms of the ideal functioning of the model. Through the
symbol, natural models become cultural models. For participant (participant at
the yoga class) nature of the situation imposes a model to organize the space and
time. Each yoga class achieves differentiation of time and space. In this perception
of time and space, division into sacred and profane space and time is followed by
the clear demarcation. In the border zone (liminal phase) participant tries to
organize his/her world and to master the unknown world by interacting (or at least
one of its parts); i.e. this way, yoga class participant symbolically arranges his/her
world. As a specific form of symbolic behavior, yoga class may be included in the
means by which the transformation is achieved. In other words, through yoga
class there isbuild a model of the space related to the time interval in which there
is performed symbolic organization of the individual’s world. We can conclude
that yoga class participants share communication experience while taking it
through different sensory channels, they perform regulated sequence of exercises
(prescribed series of Yoga Federation of Serbia) following development within a
space of their own and within a certain time. Verbal conduction of the class, three-
layer breathing, yoga asanas, relaxation, equally constitute components of the
overall message. Taking part in yoga class, participants recognize all these
messages and at the same time they integrate them into a single experience.
Corresponding author: dragica.k@sbb.rs
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Introduction
In this paper, what is meant by the term yoga is a comprehensive set of yoga
practice end result (technique, knowledge, experience), which is "oneness"
(samadhi) - or final deliverance. The very definition of yoga will be taken from
Patanjali: “Yoga is the suppression of the [dimmed particular] fluctuations of the
mind chitta vritti)” (Patanjali, 1977).
In order to achieve the ultimate goal should be to practice the eight so-called
"members" of yoga, to remove impurities from the mind. Patanjali says: “When by
the progressive mastery of yoga methods impure is removed - there is [in
proportion to the mastery] and the light of knowledge [which ends on the peak]
cognitive insight (vivekakhyati). In the Gita, Krishna says: “Having ruled out
external impressions, eye brow governed, and established rhythm between
inhalation and exhalation in the nostrils, controlling his senses, the heart and mind,
finding liberation as the highest goal - such a wise man, who rejected the eternal
greed, fear and anger, is truly liberated” (Leach, 1972).
1. Yoga is one of the segments of Culture, which primarily serves the man to build
and express their world view. We started from the assumption in this paper that the
Yoga as a specific form of symbolic behaviour, is the element of the cultural
organization of space and time cultural and symbolic arrangement of man's world.
It is necessary above all to point to the fact that our considerations do not apply to
the cultural space and cultural time at all, but only to the cultural space and time
that is tied to a specific time frame in this case the yoga class. The very term yoga
will be treated as a kind of symbol, because if one builds a system using a
symbolic representation of organized time and space, then yoga is integral part of
the system. The thesis is that class whole human world is regulated by Yoga class,
i.e. that the marginal (liminal stage) is an element of the cultural organization of
space and time.
As a case study, the yoga class of yoga instructor of the Yoga Federationof Serbia
is analysed. The report includes a certified yoga instructors Yoga Federation of
Serbia, which is registered in the Ministry of the Republic of Serbia, European,
international and global yoga federations. Ethnographic material used in this paper
as the source is available on the website of Yoga Federation of Serbia. I will show
the subject of the ideal-type model in terms of ideal functioning of the model.
Ideal-type descriptions would be ideal-type in terms of an ideal representation of
the yoga lesson, which means it will not take into account the quality and quantity
of the individual hours of certified yoga instructor. Because there is no
anthropological material that covers this subject, I am forced to use my primary
work experience was created undirected observation.
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2. One learns everything he/she knows about the outside world through his/her
senses. The phenomena, which we observe, are the attributes that are attached to
them depending on the manner in which our senses operate and the way the human
mind is built that the classify and interpret the received stimuli. In accordance with
the dispositions of his/her mind, one classifies all beings, objects, phenomena,
events, with which it comes into contact and uses verbal and non-verbal symbols
in order to organize his/her world (Leach, 1972). A significant feature of a
classification process is the fact that the segments share a continuum of space and
time, by which we are surrounded, and are therefore destined to envision such a
huge number of special sets of elements belonging to the designated classes and
the passing of time is understood as a series of separate events (Leach, 1972). The
assumption is that this vision of time and space continuum and transferred to the
level of culture as a culturally accepted model of space and time.
The main argument lies in the fact that the messages one receives (sense of touch,
sight, hearing, smell, taste) is easily transformed in other ways. Leach says that it
is obvious that at a deeper abstract level, all our senses, though different, are
encoded in the same way, so there must be some kind of "logic" mechanism that
allows us to transform the visual messages in the auditory or tactile, and vice
versa.
When dealing with the relationship between observable patterns in the outside
world and unobservable patterns in mind, one talks about the meaning of
expressive behaviour. Words such as acoustic images explain the event when we
use words without saying them. For a combination of acoustic images (indicating)
and the concept (signified) one uses the term sign language, it is a single entity
such as the two sides of the sheet of paper. Just as one can think with words not
pronouncing them, one can use sight without touching anything; one uses the
visual and tactile images to think. Then one speaks about sensory images. Sensory
images is essentially related to the concept in mind, these are two sides to the coin.
The relationship between sensory images and objects in the outside world is
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arbitrary to some extent, which means that the link is symbolic (metaphorical)
(Leach, 1983). (Picture 1).
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operation” (Bhagavad Gita, 1984). In Yoga, asana is the first step of the very
body; it is straight ekagrati, concentrating on one point: the body is being focused
on one position.
Ekagrata ends volatility and dispersion of the "state of consciousness" and the
asana ends body mobility and readiness to take any other position, reducing the
myriad of possible positions on a single, archetypical one (Eliade, 1984). Human
conditionality is successfully lifted by asana, pranayama and ekagrata, at least for
the duration of exercise. Being still, having equated rhythm of his breathing and
focusing eyes and attention on one point, the yogi becomes concentrated, unified
(Eliade, 1984). Retracting the senses and centralisation of consciousness go
together: When the five ((sensory) functions, and humble spirit, and intellectual
ability (buddhi) is at rest – that is, said to be the most sublime way. It is
considered yoga: firm restraint of the senses. Then one is not disturbed (Katha
Upanishad). The concentration is a binding of consciousness to a specific place:
centre of the navel, the lotus of the heart, light in the head, nose, tip of the tongue,
or similar places, or an external object (Vivekananda, 1998).
Closing all these gates (bodies), keeping in the spirit and achieving focus of the
spirit on one point, one comes to the supreme ( being). This centralisation of
consciousness is known as ekagrata (focus on only one point) (Vivekananda,
1998). Yoga, meditation according to Pantanjali's definition, is a "unified stream
of thought" allowing penetration into the essence of objects. The goal of
meditation (dhyana) is to stop fluctuations (vrtti) of consciousness. If
concentration is compared to the dot, meditative absorption can be considered an
extension of linear. The subject, which dwells during maintaining of concentration,
becomes the very centre of attention in order to fulfill the wholeness of
consciousness (Vivekananda, 1998).
Patanjali describes this stage as the "continuity of consciousness (pratyaya) in that
(state of concentration): When contemplation as it disappears into a form that it is
specific (Svarupa) [specifically, when the subject is the effort to follow the
meaning that emanates from the object] and only this emission point
(arthamatranirbhasa) is left - this is called - the union (samadhi). The house and the
human body have the an opening at the top, which enables a symbolic passage into
another world. The name of the highest opening in the Indian pagoda , among
other names, is brahmarandhrua. The same phrase means the Patanjali describes
this stage as the "continuity of consciousness (pratyaya) in that (state of
concentration): When contemplation as it disappears into a form that it is specific
(Svarupa) [specifically, when the subject is the effort to follow the meaning that
emanates from the object] and only this emission point (arthamatranirbhasa) is left
- this is called - the unity (samadhi) (Patanjali, 1977). The house and the human
body have the an opening at the top, which enables a symbolic passage into
another world. The name of the highest opening in the Indian pagoda, among
other names, is brahmarandhrua. The same phrase means the "hole" located on the
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vertex of the scull, which has a significant place in the yoga techniques." (Eliade,
2003).
[In "harmony of consciousness"] the light [that lies] in the [top] head, the perfect
vision of the Yogi (siddha) [will appear before the Yogi]) (Patanjali, 1977). The
area that is meant by the term "head" (murdha), the end of the main "channels"
called sushumna, so called. "Brahma’s hole" (Brahmarandhra). Exemption is given
a double image: Penetration of the roof and ascent into the air. At the symbolic
level, that is the rise of the soul through Brahmarandh; on a metaphysical level, it
is about the abolishing the conditioned world (Eliade, 2003).
Through the symbols, Natural models become Cultural ones. Thus, the very nature
of the situation, imposing one the model, which will organize the space and time.
In and around himself, in his own life and "life" of the universe, man is the natural
model that builds his vision of space and time. According to Levi-Strauss, we ,as
human beings, support their understanding of nature - the products of our culture
are segmented into segments and classified in the same manner in which we
assume to be segmented and classified products of Nature (Leach, 1972). The
natural model transposed into a symbol of the culture can be described as a
Cultural model.
Eliade noted the difference between the general concept of cultural time and space,
the profane and the sacred, therefore, one classifies temporal and spatial intervals
on the continuum of profane and sacred intervals. For Eliade, sacred has an
ontological status: it will only reveal. The concept of the holy, that is basically
what is sacred, is opposed to the profane, ordinary life in the world, what is really
in the true sense of the word, is sacred. Nothing that belongs to the profane does
not participate in Being, as the profane is ontologically based Eliade considered.
"Lively consciousness captures reality through symbols, before every thought, and
symbols always mean the transformation of the world in ontologically realistic
structures and forms" (Eliade, 2003). In short, the only element of the sacred
structure of consciousness, not some degree of history of consciousness (Eliade,
1991). According to this concept, there are essentially two different mutually
independent streams: sacred and profane. On the conceptual basis of the sense of
time and space was construed. The assumption is that the profane concept is based
on the homogeneity of time and space. According to this concept, in qualitative
terms, there is only one time and one space, regardless of how we share it
quantitatively. On the other hand, the time and space in which the presumed
presence of the sacred reality is present, runs the other way and is independent of
time and space in which such a reality is absent.
3. When one uses the symbols (either verbal or nonverbal) to distinguish one class
of objects or actions of others, artificial boundaries are made in the field which is
naturally continuous, the label takes up space, because in principle no limit
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dimension. The significance of the symbolic limiter of time and cultural space is
indicated by Leach. He noted that the border of separation of two zones of cultural
time and cultural space that were normal, time-limited, clear, in the centre and
profane, but it it the spatial and time stamps that mark the boundaries of abnormal,
timeless, vague categories, on the outskirts of the holy. The nature of these
boundaries that they are ambiguous and that ambiguity is a source of conflict and
anxiety, the principle is that the limits are artificial interruptions of a naturally
continuous nature. Therefore, the crossing of such borders is always marked with
ritual. Thus, space and time arising from the symbolic / ritual thought and behavior
are the result of human activity surrounding discontinuous reality, not its
properties (Leach, 1983). In the border zone one tries to organise a (A) world, and
expressing (communicating) master the unfamiliar world (or at least one of his
offense, so one symbolic arrangement of your world by entering the cultural
boundaries of space and time (Leach, 1983). and the part of the cultural time and
space that belongs to both categories is a sacred area and is subject to
symbolic/ritual actions.
Van Gennep’s scheme of rites of crossing can be used as a frame of reference for
deciphering the elements /yoga lesson (Van Gennep, 2004).
According to him, the same process takes place in three phases: separation, we
observe the ritual, ritual, and ritual marginal aggregation, as well as the stop
between these phases. Minimal definition of ritual separation includes the
establishment of isolation in which the Participant is at the initial space-time point
from which the first stage in the rite of transition begins. The central part of the
transition rites, called liminal or marginal, begins by setting up isolation from the
everyday. Marginal ritual, liminal phase is the relative state of isolation in society -
the absence. In relation to the Participant, it is non-mental state. Inside, Participant
ceases to exist, except as a physical being. This is a necessity for a completely new
personality is needed for a new cultural role. Aggregation is, individually and
psychologically observed, the establishment of a new physical and mental integrity
of person. Previous knowledge is not forgotten, but the new quality arising from
the consciousness of the possibility of non-existence is added. With this
awareness, the Participant shall acquire new knowledge, which differently defines
a world that is returned (Prošić-Dvornić, 1972).
Victor Turner (1969) pays special attention to the central,liminal phase of rituals
and transitions places it in opposite relationship to a structured system of social
status.
4. One started from the assumption that yoga, as a specific form of symbolic
behaviour, is an element of the organization of cultural space and time cultural and
symbolic arrangement of one's world. The thesis is that yoga class symbolically
governs one's world, i.e. that the marginal ritual (liminal stage) is an element of the
cultural organization of space and time. As a case study, the yoga class held by
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yoga instructor of the Yoga Federation of Serbia will be analysed. In the current
presentation, one tried to indicate some general theoretical positions, by which
such an assumption is justified. However, in order for a hypothesis to be able to be
represented with more certainty, it is necessary for it to be verified. As the subject
of analysis, there will be noted states made by the certified yoga teachers of the
Yoga Federation of Serbia taken from the web site 2 .
“Today, there is a worldwide spread and generally accepted part of hatha yoga
which is based on physical exercises, breathing and mastering energy flows.”
(A.M.)
“Yoga exercises engage and relax every muscle of the body and thus leads to
better blood circulation and nutrition of every muscle in one's body. This maintains
the natural pulsation and back muscles in a natural and healthy state and reduce
tension in the body. Relaxation exercises the muscles supplied with fresh new
energy and concentration on the movements of amplifies the effect of exercise
calms the mind and releasing our tensions. By practicing breathing and relaxation
techniques to yoga classes in a natural way one awakes and deepen breathing,
which is shallow in most people, which badly affects the physical, mental and
emotional health of individuals. Deep-balanced (three-layer) breathing body gets
more oxygen and increase their lung efficiency, which leads to improvement of all
body functions.” (V.P.)
“Although some people due to their physical limitations cannot perform all the
exercises in yoga, if they did not work even one exercise that they can do, they
would miss many benefits that yoga provides. After practicing yoga, a person feels
rested, renewed and mentally relieved, one is rewarded for effort after an class of
yoga. Instructor experience made me even more convinced of the importance and
benefits that yoga provides. Yoga is a complementary activity in modern
civilization. By practicing yoga, one overcomes overemphasised extroversion of
the modern world. With regular practice of yoga, one awakes internal events in
2
www.yogasavezsrbije.com, accessed on February 22, 2012
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“I started being interested in Yoga during my academic studies. Since then, I have
been integrating Yoga knowledge in my personal life and professional life as well.
Nowadays, I walk a lot more stable and safer steps, and the more I feel closer to
the required answers to my questions. Somehow, I know now that there is another
path, whose name is Yoga. It is the path, on which I learned that only when I got
acquainted with my personal Universe could I understand the other Universes. By
practicing yoga, I even learned how to approach science comprehensively. Today,
as a yoga instructor, I am happy to have the opportunity to share with others all
that yoga taught me. I try to show my co-workers how to integrate at least a part
integrating yoga into your life. Smiling faces, comfort and satisfaction of co-
workers after completing class of yoga, arouses a great joy to me because I know
that for a moment they felt and experienced contact with the substance.” (B.Š.)
“Several years ago I accidentally came in the hall where the people were sitting on
mats, having been performing some moves carefully. The eyes of the trainees were
closed, only the instructor was periodically monitoring whether all follow his
instructions. His calm, quiet voice explained every move, breath, exhale and spot
of attention In the beginning it was going a little harder to overcome because
unvaried body but it was all compensated by the growing sense of inner peace,
satisfaction and fulfillment. Once I had mastered the skill exercises, I could
completely devote to following of my feelings and thoughts and draw my attention
to the inner. As though the flower full of petals had spread, which were blinking
with pleasant feelings of beauty, joy, dedication, compassion… The road is long,
arduous, but it's worth. So try, since the noun yoga itself means union, which is its
ultimate goal and that is something to which we should all aspire to. Yoga changed
my life. Practicing yoga, I had first come in touch with my body and accepted it.
Then slowly, one by one, revealing my inner world, the more I felt its essence, i.e.
the road is long, arduous, but it's worth. So try, since the very name yoga means
union, which is its ultimate goal and that is something to which we should all
aspire to. Yoga has changed my life. Practicing yoga, I first came into contact with
your body and accept it. Then slowly, one by one, revealing my inner world, the
more I feel its essence, ie.my real me and I accepted myself in this new light. I
merged body and spirit, which is the essence of yoga, which in Sanskrit word for
the Unity.” (S.Đ.)
“I really didn’t have a clue that, not only physical exercises, but also attitude
toward them can change my attitude toward life. Everything is different now: it
just shows me to what extent yoga is a process and very complex combination of
differences, in my world of impressions. Yoga opened a space for me to
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”Yoga gave me one of the amazing findings - that was not the centre of the
universe, but now, after a while, it turns out that I was, like all of us, the centre of
the universe, but not in one of my old, self-centred ways, but in a wonderful,
simple, real way.” (J.O.)
“By praciticing yoga, that became part of my life, I realized that it teaches us how
to breath with our whole being and it always nurtures our soul.” (A.D.)
“I found yoga having been looking for the missing piece. There is no coincidence,
one finds only what he looks for and one looks only for hidden and deepest part of
one’s heart.” (J.J.)
5. Ideally organised yoga class will be used as the subject of analysis. It comprises
following elements:
One comes to yoga class and the very act begins. That act consists of preparation
for class, which is done by change of clothing, but what can happen is that some
Participants change their clothes before they come to yoga class. After that, the
Participant comes into the yoga class premises, obeying the rules of etiquette in
terms of turning mobile telephone off.
Yoga class usually lasts up to 90 minutes. From the enclosures of Yoga Instructor
of the Yoga Federation of Serbia, we could notice that the commonly accepted part
of hata yoga was based on physical exercises, breathing and mastering energy
flows. From the description we can see that the first phase of the ritual separation
of the participant begins with change of clothes for yoga, which, in this case,
meets the requirement for practicing yoga in the classroom, it is a more important
for the participant to leave his/her everyday life at the at the door of the hall and
that he/she enters the world of experiences yoga can bring him/her.
Marginal ritual makes the central and most important part of yoga class. The phase
of liminality is first reported here in character of the organization and structure of
the class: yoga class consists of physical exercises, breathing techniques and
relaxation. Detachment of the Participant makes the liminal phase, for the
Participant has no status outside society, out of time. Breathing and mindfulness of
body, mind and spirit during exercise, focus the mind and body in the present.The
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eyes of the trainees are closed, only the instructor periodically monitors whether
all accompanying instructions, explains every move, breath, exhale and spot of
attention. As the empiric material, the point around which to structure the space
and therefore represents the centre of the whole space, the centre is man himself:
"This approach allows us to make contact with our inner being, the unity us, to
plunge into ourselves undisturbed by outer events and recognize our inner beauty
and possibilities." Yoga provides one of the incredible knowledge that each of us
is the centre of the universe, to make physical exercise and attitude towards this
practice can change the attitude towards life, opening space to one to see oneself as
a whole and understand oneself and one’s processes, and then there is the reverse
process where one launches one’s interior and it still affects the complete human
being and our physical health. By practicing yoga, the Participant of the class of
yoga first comes in contact with his/her body and, accepting it gradually,
introduces and reveals the inner world and accept himself in a new light. “By
practicing of yoga techniques, balance with nature is achieved, our hidden
potentials are awaken and joy and beauty of life are felt.” “It is the path, on which
I learned that only when I got acquainted with my personal Universe could I
understand the other Universes.”
As Turner noted liminal phase contains opposite elements of the system status
from the materials; one could notice that yoga class brings equality, anonymity,
reduced the differences between the sexes, the lack of rank, ease in liminal phase-
other elements that are listed may or may not have to be expressed (uniformed
clothing, foolishness, humility, sacred knowledge, the sacredness, the suspension
of kindred rights and obligations, acceptance of pain and suffering).
After yoga class participants wear their usual clothes, and turnes on a mobile
phone. In this case, however here there is no ritual of aggregation because the
status of the Participant is not changed.. It is evident from the enclosures that
after exercise in the class of yoga participant feels rested, renewed and mentally
relieved.
The fundamental question posed by this scheme is that how there was such a
structuring related to yoga class. What can be concluded from Van Gennep's
attitude i described a setting of symbolic / ritualistic behavior in the diachronic
structure "rite de passage". If one considers the elements, which constitute the
structure of the rite of separation over marginal ritual rite of aggregation, there is a
picture of diachronic structure of the lesson of yoga. The goal of yoga class,
among other challenges, is to move from everyday to unusual at the beginning o
class of yoga and another move from unusual to usual at the end of the class. As it
is seen in Leach’s texts, boundary separates two zones of cultural space and time
are daily, time-bound clearly demarcated, the centre, secular, occur in the time
before and after the class of yoga, the border zone is extraordinary, timeless,
ambiguous, the edge of the world and takes place during the class of yoga. As a
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further analytical tool, relations of profane and sacred will be used. In order to
understand it better, it is necessary to relate a structured space with diachronic
structure of the lesson of yoga. Combining spatial and diachronic structure shows
that yoga class, which accompanies the transition from one type of space (profane)
in the second type (saint) is located in the border zone. In the scheme it is seen
what was showed in the diachronic structure ie. transition from the profane to the
sacred place in the marginal ritual, liminal phase,in which it switches from the
profane (outside) in the sacred time and space (inside). In the border zone (liminal
stage), the participant tries to organize his/her world and master the unfamiliar
world of communicating (or at least one of his part) and thus Participant of the
class of yoga symbolically regulates his world.
References:
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16. Van Gennep, A. (1960). The Rites of passage, Routledge&Kegan Paul, London
17. Vivekananda, S. (2004). Karma Joga i Bakti Joga, Beograd
18. Vivekananda, S. (1998). Radža Joga, Milan Gligorijević-Gaon, Beograd
19.http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2058&chapter=15
4920&layout=html&Itemid=27, accessed on March 3, 2012
20. www.joga-akademija.com, accessed on March 17, 2012
21. www.yogasavezsrbije.com/lat/gde-vezbati-jogu.html, accessed on March 17, 2012
22. www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rvi10.htm, accessed on April 8, 2012
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Увод
dragica.k@sbb.rs
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Поглед на свет
1. Јогу можемо сагледати као један од сегмената културе који може послужи-
ти човеку да изгради и изрази свој поглед на свет. У овом раду смо пошли од
претпоставке да јога као специфична форма симболичког понашања
представља елемент организације културног простора и културног времена,
односно симболичног уређења човековог света. Потребно је пре свега
указати на чињеницу да се наша разматрања не односе на културни простор
и културно време уопште, већ само на културни простор и време који је
везан за одређени временски оквир, у овом случају час јоге. Сам појам јоге
третираћемо као врсту симбола, јер ако човек помоћу симболичких система
изграђује организовану представу о времену и простору, онда јога
представља интегрални део тог система. Пошли смо од тезе да час јоге
симболично уређује свет учесницима (полазницима) часа јоге, односно да
маргинални ритуал (лиминална фаза) представља елемент организације
културног времена и простора.
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2. Човек преко својих чула сазнаје све оно што зна о спољном свету. Појаве
које опажамо имају она својства која им придајемо, зависно од начина на
који наша чула дејствују, као и начина на који је људски ум саздан да
разврстава и тумачи приспеле надражаје. Сагласно предиспозицијама свога
ума, човек означава и разврстава сва бића, предмете, појаве, догађаје са
којима долази у додир и служи се вербалним и невербалним симболима да
би организовао свој свет (Лич, 1972). Значајно обележје процеса разврста-
вања јесте чињеница да на сегменте делимо континууме простора и времена
којима смо окружени, те смо самим тим предодређени да своју околину
замишљамо као скупове огромног броја посебних елемената који припадају
именованим класама и да пролажење времена схватамо као низове одвојених
догађајa (Лич, 1972). Претпоставка је да се овакво виђење временског и
просторног континуума преноси и на ниво културе, као култур-но прихваћен
модел времена и простора.
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На нивоу тела, у јоги је asana први корак, она је равна екаграти, концентра-
цији на једну тачку – тело је усредсређено на један положај. Као што екаграта
окончава несталност и дисперзију„стања свести“, тако асана окончава покрет
љивост и спремност тела да заузме било који други положај, сводећи безброј
могућих положаја на један једини, архетипски (Елијаде, 1984). Asana,
pranayama и ekagrata успевају да, бар док траје вежба, укину људску услов-
љеност. Уједначивши ритам свог дисања и усредсредивши поглед и пажњу н
а једну тачку, непомичан јогин постаје концентрисан, обједињен (Елијаде,
1984). Увлачење чула и централизација свести иду једно с другим – када су
пет (чулних) функција и дух смирени, а интелектуална способност (buddhi)
мирује – то је, кажу, најузвишенији пут. То сматрају јогом: чврсто
обуздавање чула. Тада човек бива неометeн. Концентрација је везивање
свести за једно место: центар пупка, лотос срца, светлост у глави, врх носа,
врх језика и слично, или неки спољашњи предмет (Vivekananda,
1998). Затварајући све ове капије (тела), задржавајући се у духу и
остварујући усредсређеност духа на једну тачку, долази се до овог
најузвишенијег бивства. Ова централизација свести позната је и као екаграта
(усредсређеност на само једну тачку) (Vivekananda, 1998). Јогистичка
медитација, „ток обједињене мисли“, према Патанђалијевој дефиницији омо-
гућује продирање у суштину објеката. Циљ медитације (dhyana) је
заустављање колебања (vrtti) свести. Ако концентрацију упоредимо са
тачком, медитативну задубљеност можемо сматрати њеним линарним
продужетком. Предмет који се приликом концентрације задржава долази
потом у сам центар пажње, да би напокон испунио читав „простор“ свести
(Vivekananda, 1998). Патањђали описује овај стадијум као „непрекидност
свесности (pratyaya) у том стању концентрације: када контемплација
(напор субјекта да следи значење које зрачи из објекта) такорећи нестаје у
облику који јој је специфичан (svarupa), и само ово значење смисла
(arthamatranиrbhasa) преостаје, то се назива – сједињеност (samadhi)
(Patanjali, 1977).
И кућа и људско тело имају један отвор на врху, који симболично омогућује
прелаз у други свет. Највиши отвор на индијској пагоди носи, поред осталих
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пољу А и пољу не-А. У тој граничној зони човек настоји да организује свој
свет (А), и да исказујући (комуницирајући) овлада непознатим светом (или
макар једним његовим делом). Тако човек симболично уређује свој свет
уносећи границе културног простора и времена (Лич, 1983), а онај део
културног времена и простора који припада обема категоријама
представља зону светога и то је субјект симболичних/ритуалних радњи.
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Једноставност Комплексност
Прихватање боли и патње Избегавање боли и патње
3
www.yogasavezsrbije.com, pristupano 22.2.2012.
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благодети које јога пружа. Након вежбања јоге особа се осећа одморно,
обновљено и психички растерећено, награда за труд се осећа након сваког
часа јоге. Инструкторско искуство ме је још више уверило у значај и
добробит коју јога пружа. Јога је комплементарна активност у савременој ци
вилизацији. Вежбањем јоге превазилазимо пренаглашену екстровертност сав
ременог света. Редовним вежбањем јоге освешћујемо унутрашња догађања у
себи, повезујемо се са телом, упознајемо себе, појачавамо концентрацију и п
омерамо границе својих могућности: физичких, емотивних, менталних.
Пријатност и лакоћа која се стиче после часа јоге је права награда за одвојено
време и уложен труд.“ (Г. М. Т.)
„Интересовање за јогу јавило се још у току мојих основних студија. Од тог
периода, знање јоге сам почела да интегришем у свој живот укључујући и
професионалну свакодневицу. Сада корачам много стабилнијим и
сигурнијим корацима, и све више осећам да сам ближе траженим
одговорима. Сада знам да постоји и други пут који се зове – јога. То је пут
који ме је научио да тек кад упознам свој унутрашњи универзум могу боље
да разумем и друге универзуме. Кроз јогу сам још научила како да научном
стварању приступам свеобухватније. Данас, као интруктор јоге, срећна сам
што имам могућност да и са другима делим све оно чему ме је јога научила.
Трудим се да колегама са којим радим својим примером покажем како да бар
делић јоге интегришу у свој живот. Насмејана лица, покренута пријатност и
задовољство колега након завршеног часа, буде у мени велику радост јер
знам да су бар на тренутак осетили и доживели контакт са суштином.“ (Б.
Ш.)
„Пре неколико година случај је хтео да уђем у салу у којој су људи седели на
простиркама, пажљиво изводећи неке покрете. Очи вежбача биле су
затворене, само је инструктор повремено надгледао да ли сви прате његова
упутства. Његов смирен глас тихо је објашњавао сваки покрет, удах, издах и
место пажње. У почетку је ишло мало теже због савладавања неразгибаног
тела, али то је све надоместило растуће осећање унутрашњег мира,
задовољства и испуњености. Када сам савладала технике извођења вежби,
так тада сам могла потпуно да се посветим праћењу својих осећања и мисли
и да сву своју пажњу скренем ка унутрашњем. У мени као да се отворио
велики цвет пун латица, које су трепериле пријатним осећањима лепоте,
радости, преданости, саосећања... Што сам више напредовала, нестајале су и
топиле се све моје негативне стране личности као што су бес, незадовољство,
љубомора. Сваким даном све сам више осећала како нестају дуалности и
моја унутрашњост или душа постаје једно са мном. Пут је дуг, напоран али
вреди. Зато покушајте, јер и само име јога значи јединство, што је и њен
крајњи циљ, а то је оно ка чему сви треба да тежимо. Јога је променила мој
живот. Вежбајући јогу, прво сам дошла у контакт са својим телом и прихвати
ла га. Затим се полако, један по један, откривао мој унутрашњи свет, све сам
више осећала своју суштину, тј. своје право „ја“ и прихватала себе у том
новом светлу. Спојила сам тело и дух, што и јесте суштина јоге.“ (С. Ђ.)
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„Заиста нисам имала представу да, не само физичке вежбе, него и став према
њима може да ми промени и став према животу. Сада је скроз другачије: то
ми само говори колико је јога у мом свету доживљаја један процес и врло
комплексан сплет различитог. Јога ми је отворила простор да сагледам себе у
целини и да себе и своје процесе боље разумем. Самим тим, креће обрнути
процес где, покренувши своју нутрину, она даље утиче на моје комплетно
биће, а самим тим и на моје физичко здравље.“ (Х. Р.)
„Јога ми је пружила једно од неверованих сазнања – да нисам центар
универзума (иако се сада, после неког времена, испоставља да јесам, као што
је свако од нас центар универзума, али не на неки мој стари, егоцентрични
начин, него на неки дивни, једноставни, истински).“ (Ј. О.)
„Након година бављења различитим физичким активностима схватила сам да
је јога једини начин вежбања који ме потпуно испуњава. Она је мом животу
дала пуноћу и целину. Вежбајући јогу, пронашла сам свој унутрашњи мир и
склад.“ (Х. К.)
„Бављењем јогом, која је постала део мог живота, схватила сам да је она та
која нас учи да дишемо читавим нашим бићем и која нам непрестано негује
душу.“ (А. Д.)
„Јога нас учи да препознамо и повратимо поверење у сопствене потенцијале,
сопствене лепоте и неисцрпне могућности.“ (М. С.)
„Практиковањем јога техника долазимо у равнотежу са природом, будимо
успаване потенцијале, освешћујемо радост и лепоту живота.“ (И. П.)
„Јогу сам пронашла трагајући за комадићем који недостаје. Не постоји
случајност, човек налази само оно за чиме трага, а трага само за оним што је
скривено у најдубљем и најскривенијем куту његовог срца.“ (Ј. Ј.)
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остави пред вратима сале и да на часу уђе у свој свет доживљавања онога
што вежбе јоге доносе.
Маргинални ритуал чини средишњи и најважнији део. Сам час јоге, сама
фаза лиминалности је прво исказана у карактеру организованости и
структуре самог часа: час се састоји од физичких вежби, техника дисања и
опуштања. Издвојеност учесника чини лиминалну фазу. Учесник је без
статуса, изван друштва, изван времена. Дисање и свесност о телу, духу и
уму за време вежбања фокусирају ум и тело у садашњост. Очи вежбача су
затворене, само инструктор повремено надгледа да ли сви прате упутства,
објашњава сваки покрет, удах, издах и место пажње. Како показује
емпиријски материјал, тачка око које се простор структуира (и самим тим
представља центар целокупног простора, средиште) налази се у самом
човеку. „Овај приступ нам омогућава да успоставимо контакт са нашим
унутрашњим бићем, са јединством у нама, да уронимо у себе неометано
спољашњим дешавањима и да препознамо своје унутрашње лепоте и
могућности.“ Јога пружа једно од неверованих сазнања да је свако од нас
центар универзума, а то може водити закључку да вежбе јоге и став према
вежбању могу да промене и став према животу, отворе простор да човек
сагледа себе у целини и да себе и своје процесе боље разуме. Након тога
креће обрнути процес где, покренувши своју нутрину, она даље утиче на
човеково комплетно биће, а самим тим и на физичко здравље.
Као што је Тарнер уочио, лиминална фаза у себи садржи опозитне елементе
према статусном систему: из самог материјала могли смо да видимо да час
јоге у овој фази доноси једнакост, анонимност, смањене разлике међу
половима, непостојање ранга, једноставност; остали елементи који су
наведени могу али не морају да се испоље (униформирано одевање, лудост,
понизност, свете спознаје, сакралност, суспензија родбинских права и
дужности, прихватање боли и патње).
После часа учесник облачи своју уобичајену одећу и укључује мобилни
телефон. У овом случају, међутим, не постоји ритуал агрегације јер учесник
овим не мења свој статус. Како се из приложеног материјала уочава, после
вежбања учесник се осећа одморно, обновљено и психички растерећено.
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Неструктурирано : структурирано
Свакидашње : несвакидашње
Бука : тишина
профано : свето
споља: унутра
везаност за време : безвремено
А/не-А : двосмислена гранична зона „света“
Закључак
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CONTRIBUTOR’S NOTES
International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense affirms researches in the field of yoga, in different
scientific disciplines. All articles published in the journal are available in major libraries in the world.
International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense which is published once a year in English and Serbian
language and gathers yoga researchers from different scientific fields. We invite all scientific
researchers to submit their articles. Scientific articles can be sent to the following address:
world.yoga.science@gmail.com
For all further information you can contact us through the phone +381 63 8398 120, our web
site www.yoga-science.rs or the above mentioned email address.
ABSTRACT GUIDELINES
Abstract should contain: 1. Title of thematic field that the paper belongs to; 2. Title of the paper,
author’s name and surname, address (including e-mail), name of institution; 3. Scope of abstract:
abstract should not exceed 300 words, Font 11, Times New Roman, key words should not exceed 5
words.
GUIDELINES FOR TECHNICAL PREPARATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC PAPER
1. SCOPE OF PAPER: 8 to 10 pages; 2. MARGINS: File – Page Setup – Margins – Top, Bottom:
3,5 cm, left, right – 3,0 cm, header, footer – 4,8 cm; 3. PAPER SIZE: A4; 4. FONT: Times New
Roman (latin) – 11 pt; 5. LINE SPACING: Format – Paragraph – indents and spacing: indentation:
left, Right 0; 6. SPECIAL: First line 1,27; 7. SPACING: Before 6 pt, After 0 pt; 8. LINE SPACING:
Single; 9. TABLES should be made in Word for Windows, photos in JPG.
FORM OF THE PAPER: 1. Title of the paper: Bold, Uppercase – 14 pt, Centered; 2. Title, name
and surname: Lowercase – 11 pt, Centered; 3. Under the name: Title of the institution; 4. Abstract
and key words: Font Italic – 11 pt; 5. Subtitles: Bold, Lowercase – 11 pt, Centered; 6. Text of the
scientific work: Introduction, Elaboration and Conclusion – 11 pt; 7. Literature: 10 pt; 8. Reference
list / In-text: APA style; 9. Use Word for Windows to write the paper.
Paper must be original and published for the first time. Journal is the owner of the copyrights.
Authors whose papers are financed by the third party, should state the source of funds. In scientific
papers with more than one author, there should be submitted explanation of all authors’ contribution.
Journal supports the scientific dishonesty prevention in accordance to the document published on the
web page: http://www.yoga-science.rs/eng/pdf/prevention-of-scientific-dishonesty.pdf
CONFLICT-OF-INTEREST STATEMENT
In order to prevent conflict of interest and maintain credibility of the journal, reviewers are not
familiar with personal and professional data of the manuscripts’ authors, and authors of the
manuscripts are not informed about the names of reviewers. Reviewers are not paid for their work,
and authors submit their articles without their personal and professional data.
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УПУТСТВО АУТОРИМА
Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао афирмише истраживања из области јоге у
различитим научним дисциплинама. Сви чланци објављени у часопису доступни су у свим
већим библиотекама света. Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао излази једном
годишње на енглеском и српском језику и окупља истраживаче јоге из различитих научних
области. Позивамо све научне истраживаче да пошаљу своје радове. Научни радови могу се
послати на следећу адресу: world.yoga.science@gmail.com
За све додатне информације може се остварити контакт путем телефона +381 63 8398 120,
нашег веб сајта www.yoga-science.rs или преко горе наведене електронске адресе.
Рад мора бити оригиналан и први пут објављиван. Сва ауторска права прелазе на часопис.
Аутори којима је финансиран рад треба да наведу извор финансирања. Код научног рада са
више аутора треба да се достави изјава у којој се исказује допринос сваког од аутора. Часопис
подржава превенцију научне неискрености у складу са документом који је објављен на страни
http://www.yoga-science.rs/pdf/prevencija-naucne-neiskrenosti.pdf
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is the national branch federation that was founded with the goal to improve the
quality of the yoga practice. YFS conducts programs of continual yoga education
for certified instructors. Members of the YFS made consent upon the Statute,
Regulations and Ethical codex, as well as the manner of the certified yoga
instructors register maintenance, with intention to establish standards, support
continual improvement and a common cooperation. All members of the YFS
established the standards declared by the World and European Yoga Federation,
whose member is YFS. Having this goal, Yoga Federation of Serbia initiated
founding of the International Yoga Academy. Yoga is understood as a discipline,
science, experience and philosophy of life. www.yogasavezsrbije.com
has been carried out under the guidance of Prof. Predrag Nikic, PhD – a doyen of
yoga in Serbia, president of the Yoga Federation of Serbia and International Yoga
Master, with participation of the greatest international yoga authorities, guest
professors and practitioners of yoga. There has been established cooperation with
the greatest high educational institutions in the field of yoga, in the world.
International Yoga Academy gathers individuals interested in education for Yoga
Instructors through gaining knowledge, practical exercises and accepting
philosophy and moral standards that Yoga recommends. Education of candidates
for Yoga Teachers includes 200 hours of theory of yoga, practice of yoga,
colloquia, exam and the final exam with a demonstration of graduate class in front
of a commission made of three members. Academy adjusted standards of
education with requested standards of International Yoga Federation and its
certificate is recognized in all countries in the world. www.joga-akademija.com
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ACCREDITED PROGRAMS
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АКРЕДИТОВАНИ ПРОГРАМИ
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796.41:233-852.5Y
СМИСАО
Међународни научни часопис о jоги
SENSE
International Scientific Yoga Journal /
уредник Предраг Никић, год. 1, бр. 1
(дец. 2011) Београд (Гандијева101):
Међународно друштво за научна
интердисциплинарна истраживања у области јоге,
2011 – (Београд: Стандард 2) – 24cm
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