Public Speaking: Finding Your Voice

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 Global Global
edition edition

edition
Global
Public Speaking

Public Speaking:
For these Global Editions, the editorial team at Pearson has
collaborated with educators across the world to address a wide range
of subjects and requirements, equipping students with the best possible
learning tools. This Global Edition preserves the cutting-edge approach Finding Your Voice
and pedagogy of the original, but also features alterations, customization
and adaptation from the North American version. TENTH edition

Michael Osborn • Suzanne Osborn • Randall Osborn • Kathleen J.Turner

Finding Your Voice

edition
TENTH
Osborn • Turner
Osborn • Osborn
This is a special edition of an established title widely
used by colleges and universities throughout the world.
Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit
of students outside the United States and Canada. If you
purchased this book within the United States or Canada
you should be aware that it has been imported without
the approval of the Publisher or Author.

Pearson Global Edition

OSBORN_1292059982_mech.indd 1 23/04/14 5:51 PM

 Brief Contents
Part ONE The Foundations of Public Speaking   27

1 Discovering Your Voice   27

2 Understanding and Managing Your Fear of Speaking   47
3 Preparing, Practicing, and Presenting Your First Speech   63
4 The Importance of Listening   85
Part TWO Preparation for Public Speaking 105

5 Understanding Your Audience and the Occasion   105

6 Selecting Your Topic   130
7 Building Responsible Knowledge   148
8 Supporting Your Ideas   173
9 Developing and Structuring Your Speech   193
PArt THREE Developing Presentation Skills  225

10 Presentation Aids   225

11 Putting Words to Work   255
12 Delivering Your Speech   281
Part FOUR Types of Public Speaking  309

13 Informative Speaking  309
14 Persuasive Speaking  332
15 Persuasion in Controversy  363
16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions  388
Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups  411

Appendix B Speeches for Analysis  426

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 7 05/06/14 6:51 PM

 Contents
Preface  14
Instructor and Student Resources  23
Acknowledgments  24

Part ONE    The Foundations of Public Speaking  27

1 3
 Preparing, Practicing,
 Discovering Your
Voice  27 and Presenting Your First
Speech  63
What Public Speaking Has to Offer You  29 Preparing and Presenting Your First Speech   64
Personal Benefits  29 Step 1: Find and Focus Your Topic   65
Social Benefits  30 Step 2: Gather Supporting Material   66
Cultural Benefits  31 Step 3: Organize the Body of Your Speech   69
Step 4: Add an Introduction, Transitions, and a
Introduction to Communication   33 Conclusion  72
Historical Roots of Public Speaking   33 Step 5: Prepare a Formal Outline   72
Communication: Interactive and Dynamic   34 Step 6: Practice, Practice, Practice!   73
What Public Speaking Asks of You  40 Step 7: Present Your Speech   75
Respect for the Integrity of Ideas and Information   41 Managing the Impressions You Make   75
A Genuine Concern for Consequences   44 Competence  75
Integrity  76
Final reflections A Quest that Deserves
Goodwill  76
Commitment  45 Dynamism  77
Speeches of Introduction   77

2
 Understanding and
Final reflections Taking The First Steps   81
Managing Your Fear of
Speaking  47
Understanding Communication Anxiety  50
An Unfamiliar Situation   50
The Importance of the Occasion  50
4  The Importance of
Listening  85
The Power of Negative Thinking   50
The Benefits of Effective Listening   86
Managing Your Communication Anxiety  51
Listening in the Classroom   87
Reality Testing   52 Listening at Work   88
Cognitive Restructuring   54
Selective Relaxation   54 Understanding Listening  89
Attitude Adjustments   55 Comprehensive Listening   89
Visualization  56 Critical Listening   89
Putting It All Together   57 Empathic Listening   90
How You Can Help Your Classmates   59
Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening  90
Final reflections  Climbing Fear Mountain  59 Noise  91

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 Contents 9

Inattention  91 Your Ethical Responsibilities as a Listener   97

Bad Listening Habits   92
Emotional Reactions   93
Biases  93
Becoming a Critical Listener   94
Do Speakers Support Their Claims?   94
Do Speakers Cite Credible Sources?   95
Do Speakers Use Words to Clarify or Obscure?   95
Becoming an Empathic Listener   97
Evaluating Speeches   98
General Considerations   98
Evaluating Substance   100
Evaluating Structure   100
Evaluating Presentation Skills   100
Final reflections The Golden Rule
of Listening   102

Part TWO   Preparation for Public Speaking  105

5 Understanding Your
Audience and the
Occasion  105
6 Selecting Your Topic   130

What Is a Good Topic?   131

Understanding Audience Demographics   107 A Good Topic Involves You   131
Age  108 A Good Topic Involves Your Listeners   132
Gender  109 A Good Topic Is One You Can Manage   132
Education  110
Sociocultural Background   110 Discovering Your Topic Area   133
Group Affiliations   111 Brainstorming  133
Some Words of Caution   113 Interest Charts   133
Media and Internet Prompts   135
Understanding Audience Dynamics   114
Beliefs  114 Exploring Your Topic Area   135
Attitudes  114 Mind Mapping   136
Values  115 Topic Analysis   137
Motives  116
Gathering Information About Audience
Refining Your Topic   139
Dynamics  119 General Purpose   139
Specific Purpose   139
Rewards and Challenges Thesis Statement   142
of Audience Diversity   120
An Overview of the Topic Selection
Become Familiar with Audience Cultures   120
Use Supporting Materials Skillfully   121
Process  143
Speak from Shared Values   121 Final reflections The Great Chain
Choose Your Words Carefully   122
of Communication   144
Avoid Rhetorical Land Mines   122
Adjusting to the Speaking Situation   124
The Occasion   124
The Physical Setting   124
The Psychological Setting   125

Final reflections Looking Beyond the Self   127

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 10 Contents
7
Building Responsible
 Knowledge  148
The Quest for Responsible Knowledge   150
Preparing for Research   150
Planning Your Time   150
Developing the Right Research Attitude   150
Setting Your Research Priorities   151
Recording What You Discover   151
Avoiding Chance Plagiarism   153
Your Quest for General Knowledge   153
Drawing on Personal Experience   154
Certain Sites on the Internet   154
Certain Places in the Library   155
Exploring the Social Media   155
Seeking In-Depth Knowledge   155
Going Deeper on the Internet   156
Going Deeper in the Library   158
Conducting Personal Interviews   160
Evaluating What You Discover   163
Information from the Internet   163
Information from the Library   167
Information from Personal Interviews   168
Final reflections  Empowering Your Voice   169
8 Supporting Your
 Ideas  173
Facts and Statistics   174
Constructing Facts and Figures   175
Testing Facts and Figures   176
Testimony  178
Using Expert Testimony   178
Developing Lay Testimony   179
Constructing Prestige Testimony   180
Designing Testimony: Other Considerations   180
A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 10
Examples  182
Types of Examples   182
Fashioning Powerful Examples   184
Testing Your Examples   185
Narratives  186
Types of Narratives   186
Building Narratives   187
Testing Your Story   188
Selecting and Combining Supporting
Materials  190
Final reflections  Developing a
Well-Supported Voice   191
9 Developing and Structuring
 Your Speech   193
Principles of a Well-Structured Speech   194
Simplicity  194
Order  196
Balance  196
Structuring the Body of Your Speech   197
Selecting Your Main Points   198
Arranging Your Main Points   198
Developing Your Main Points   201
Developing a Working Outline   202
Adding Transitions   204
Introducing and Concluding Your Speech   207
Introducing Your Speech   207
Concluding Your Speech   211
Selecting and Using Introductory and Concluding
Techniques  214
Preparing Your Formal Outline   215
Heading  215
Introduction  217
Body  217
Conclusion  218
Works Cited or Consulted   218
Formal Outlines: A Caution   219
Final reflections  Deep Roots of Structuring
and Outlining   219
28/04/14 12:30 PM

Part Three   Developing Presentation Skills  225
10  Presentation
Aids  225
The Advantages and Disadvantages
of Presentation Aids   227
Advantages of Presentation Aids   227
Disadvantages of Presentation Aids   229
Types of Presentation Aids   230
People  230
Objects and Models   231
Graphics  232
Pictures  235
Presentation Media   236
Traditional Media   236
PowerPoint, Prezi, iPad Apps, and More   239
Preparing Presentation Aids   245
Principles of Design   245
Principles of Color   247
Using Presentation Aids  249
Ethical Considerations for Using
Presentation Aids   250
Final reflections Amplifying Your Voice   252
11  Putting Words
to Work   255
What Words Can Do   256
What Makes Oral Language Special   257
Shaping Perceptions   258
Arousing Feelings   259
Bringing Listeners Together   261
Moving Listeners to Action   261
Celebrating Shared Values   262
The Six C’S of Language Use   263
Clarity  263
Color  265
Concreteness  265
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Contents 11
Correctness  266
Conciseness  268
Cultural Sensitivity   268
How Language Techniques Can
Magnify Your Voice   269
Using Figurative Language   269
Changing the Order of Words   274
Using the Sounds of Words to Reinforce Their
Meaning  275
Final reflections Give Me the Right Word   277
12 Delivering Your
 Speech  281
The Power of Presentation   282
Developing Your Physical Voice   283
Pitch  284
Rate  286
Volume  288
Variety  290
Vocal Problems   290
Developing Your Body Language   292
Facial Expression and Eye Contact   292
Movement and Gestures   293
Personal Appearance   295
Developing Versatility in Presentation   296
Impromptu Speaking   296
Extemporaneous Speaking   298
Reading from a Manuscript   299
Memorized Text Presentation   301
Practicing for Presentation   301
Developing Flexibility in Special Situations   304
Handling Questions and Answers   304
Moderator  305
Making Mediated Presentations   306
Final reflections Holding Court   307
28/04/14 12:30 PM
 12 Contents

Part FOUR   Types of Public Speaking  309

Agreement  342

13  Informative
Speaking  309
Enactment  343
Integration  343
The Challenges of Persuasive Speaking   344
Informative Speaking: An Overview   311 Convincing a Reluctant Audience to Listen   345
Removing Barriers to Commitment   350
Forms of Informative Speaking   312 Moving from Attitude to Action   351
Speeches of Description   312 The Challenge of Ethical Persuasion   353
Speeches of Demonstration   312
Designs for Persuasive Speeches   354
Speeches of Explanation   313
Problem–Solution Design   355
Helping Listeners Learn   314 Motivated Sequence Design   356
Motivating Audiences to Listen   314
Final reflections The Case for Persuasion   358
Maintaining Audience Attention   315
Promoting Audience Retention   317

15
Speech Designs   318 Persuasion in
Categorical Design   318  Controversy  363
Comparative Design   319
Spatial Design   320
Sequential Design   322 Reasoned Persuasion Versus Manipulative
Chronological Design   323 Persuasion  365
Causation Design   324 Forming Evidence   365
Developing Proofs   367
Rising to the Challenge of the Informative
Speech  325 The Master Proof   371
Defining Major Issues   371
Briefings: An Application   326 Deductive Reasoning   372
Inductive Reasoning   373
Final reflections Bringing Fire to Your
Analogical Reasoning   374
Listeners  328
Refutative Design   376
Design Combinations   377
Avoiding Defective Persuasion   378

14  Persuasive
Speaking  332
The Gallery of Fallacies   378

Final reflections Persuasion That

Has Legs  383
The Nature of Persuasive Speaking   334
The Types of Persuasive Speaking   336
Speeches That Focus on Facts   336
Speeches That Emphasize Attitudes and Values   338
Speeches That Advocate Action and Policy   339
16  
Ceremonial Speaking
on Special
Occasions  388
The Persuasive Process   340
Techniques of Ceremonial Speaking   390
Awareness  341
Understanding  341 Identification  390
Magnification  392

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 Contents 13

Types of Ceremonial Speeches   394 Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups   411

Speeches of Tribute   394
Appendix B Speeches for Analysis   426
Acceptance Speeches   399
Speeches of Introduction   399 Glossary  449
Speeches of Inspiration   401
After-Dinner Speeches   402 Notes  457
Acting as a Master of Ceremonies   404
Photo Credits 466
Narrative Design   405
Index  467
Prologue  406
Plot  406
Epilogue  407

Final reflections “And in Conclusion

Let Us Say”   407

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 13 28/04/14 12:30 PM

 Preface
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 19

FinAl
reflections A Quest that Deserves Commitment

P What’s New in This Edition?

aleontologists tell us that a dramatic moment in the story of human evolution
occurred several hundred thousand years ago when our early ancestors devel-
oped the capacity for speech. It is interesting to consider that each of us—as we
discover our voices through preparation, practice, Each newsuccess
and ultimate edition offers the chance to improve our book, and the tenth edition
in presenta-
tion—replicates in miniature the experience of our takes
speciesfull advantage
as humans discoveredof this opportunity. Those familiar with previous editions will
their voices and the incredible power of communication.
recognize at least
In some of us, this experience can be quite dramatic. In his biography of seven major changes:
President Lyndon Johnson, Robert Caro tells the story of Johnson’s mother, who
taught communication skills to isolated Hill Country children, and of Johnson’s
cousin, Ava, who studied public speaking with her. ■ WhenNew Mrs. Coauthor.
Johnson began as-We are proud to welcome a dedicated teacher, distinguished
signing speech topics, Ava recalls,
scholar, and officer of the National Communication Association to our writing
team. Professor Kathleen J. Turner of Davidson College has assumed respon-
I said “I just can’t do it, Aunt Rebekah.” And she said, “Oh, yes, you can. There’s
nothing impossible if you put the mind to it. I know you have the ability to
sibility for updating, revising, and refreshing the chapter on the use of presen-
deliver a speech.” And I cried, and I said, “I just can’t do it!” Aunt Rebekah
tation aids (Chapter 10) and the chapter on presenting (Chapter 12), which
said, “Oh, yes, you can.” And she never let up, never let up. Never. Boosting
me along, telling me I could do it. She taught me speaking and elocution, and
gives greater emphasis to impromptu and extemporaneous presentations. The
I went to the state championships with it, and I won a medal, a gold medal, in
successful results of her work are self-evident in these significantly revised
competitions involving the whole state. I owe her a debt that I can never repay.
She made me know that I could do what I never thought I could do.21
chapters.
Our hope for you is that you win your own gold medal, whatever form it may take,
as you find your voice as a public speaker.
■ New
Features. We have developed a self-test,
After Reading This Chapter, You Should Be Able “After Reading This Chapter…,” at the end
To Answer These Questions of each chapter to review and reinforce the
1 What are the three levels of meaning involved in “finding your voice”?
major concepts introduced and developed. Chapter 4 The Importance of Listening 103
2 What is ethnocentrism?
3 What are the three major forms of public speaking and the three main kinds
These reviews measure Learning Outcomes that
of appeals named by Aristotle? after reading
relate to thethis Chapter,
Learning You Should
Objectives providedBe able at
4 What seven elements are central to the nature of public speaking as an tothe
answer theseof
beginning Questions
each chapter. In addition, “For
interactive process?
Discussion
1 how can becomingand Further
a more Exploration”
effective listener benefit you? questions
5 How are identification and community related?
and projects at the end of 2each
6 How can a speaker meet the challenge of responsible knowledge?
chapter
What are the majorencourage
types of listeningthe
usedextension
when listeningand applica-
to speeches?

7 What is plagiarism, and why should it be avoided?tion of chapter content. In3 addition, the book
how you can overcome common offers new
barriers material
to effective on presen-
listening?
tation media and cutting-edge
4 Whattechnologies, such
are the most important skills as presentation
needed programs
for critical listening?
For Discussion And Further exploration for tablets, as well as discussion of you
5 What must research resources
do to become an ethical from
listener?the library to the
1 What personal and social benefits may be lost to societies that do not encourage
Internet to social media. 6 how should you evaluate the speeches you hear?
the free and open exchange of ideas? To prepare for this discussion, read online
John Stuart Mills’ classic treatise, On Liberty. See especially his Chapter II: “Of the 7 how can you provide a helpful yet supportive critique of a speech?
Liberty of Thought and Discussion.”

For Discussion and Further exploration

1 Not everyone is a good listener. To become one, rigorous training and self-
discipline are necessary. The regimen includes keeping oneself highly motivated
to listen to everything carefully. Discuss with your friends the differences be-
tween hearing and listening.
2 Good listening habits are crucial for a successful professional life. Which aspects
of professional life can be altered for good by nurturing good listening habits?
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 19 Would you agree
17/09/13that
11:41poor
PM listeners make poor speakers? Why are good listeners
valued at the work place? Support your argument with examples.
3 Good listening skills help one recognize problems easily, and solve them. Listening
is a voluntary process that goes beyond physical reactions to sound. There are
three types of listening skills—comprehensive listening, critical listening, and em-
pathetic listening. Describe these skills in detail and find suitable examples for
each. There are many factors that affect good listening skills directly or indirectly.
These factors are called barriers to listening. Are you aware of any such barriers?
How can these barriers be removed? Support your arguments with examples.
Nonverbal cues also play a vital role in the listening process. What are these cues
and how can one recognize them in the course of a speech or conversation?
4 Listening skills are a part of good etiquette. Listening attentively is being polite to
the speaker. Share an anecdote with your friends about how being a good listener
brought wonderful rewards for you. Ask others to share their experiences as well.
5 Listening forces us to concentrate. It sharpens our critical thinking skills. The
mind is a tool that requires constant sharpening. Good listening skills prevent
our minds from being idle. Compare a good listener to a bad listener, and list
the differences in their professional lives.
6 Listeners have certain responsibilities as well. One of them is to provide hon-
est feedback to the speaker. What is honest feedback? How can one be honest
without being rude? Has anybody’s honest feedback helped you overcome your
shortcomings?

14

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 polling techniques, those who design these messages are able to derive the
only information they’re interested in receiving from citizens—feedback useful
in fine-tuning their efforts at manipulation.1

Such persuasion does not include careful consideration of supporting evidence and
proofs. It avoids the ethical burden of justifying itself.
Fortunately, realizing that we must compete for the agreement and commit-
ment of our listeners can lead us in a more positive, constructive direction. The path
to this better option was mapped long ago by communication theorists in ancient
Greece. It is the path of reasoned persuasion.

Preface 15
Reasoned Persuasion Versus
Manipulative Persuasion
Reasoned persuasion concentrates on building a case that will justify taking some ■ Clearer Approach to Persuasion. Development of a
action or adopting some point of view with regard to a public controversy. The case
rests upon arguments carefully constructed out of evidence and patterns of reason-
clearer conceptual approach to persuasion: Chapter
ing that make good sense when carefully examined. Reasoned persuasion invites 14 covers the nature of persuasion, and Chapter
rather than avoids careful inspection. It appeals to our judgment rather than to our
impulses. It aims for long-range commitments that will endure in the face of coun- 15 focuses on the social role of persuasion in the
terattacks. It honors civilized deliberation over verbal mudslinging.
Yet reasoned persuasion does not turn us into robotic thinking machines. It ad-
resolution of controversy. New material emphasizes
dresses us in our full humanity as thinking as well as feeling beings. Reason without that reasoned persuasion is the ethical, enlightened
feeling can seem cold and heartless, but feeling without reason is shallow and fleet-
ing. It is the blend of passion and reason that can help you find your voice. alternative to manipulative persuasion.
Chapter 16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions 375
The rest of this chapter will help you meet the challenge and enjoy the conse-
quences of reasoned persuasion. We show how to develop compelling evidence and
■ Expanded Horizons. Expansion of the book’s horizons reflects the reach of
proofs, build patterns of effective reasoning, and avoid defects ofSpeeches of Inspiration
evidence, proof,
and reasoning.
public speaking beyond the classroom. Apursue new case study of speaking and
A speech of inspiration helps an audience appreciate, commit to, and
a goal or set of values or beliefs. These speeches may be religious,
persuasive
Forming evidence practices related to the nationally honored
commercial, political, orWellness
social. When a Program of
sales manager introduces
product to marketing representatives, pointing up its competitive advan-
a new

Nabholz Construction Services company has

tages and been
its
Supporting materials are transformed in the heat of controversy into evidence, the stellaradded
market to Chapters
potential, the speech is 14
both and 16.
inspirational and
foundation of reasoned persuasion. persuasive. The marketing reps should feel inspired to push that product
Numerous new examples from the workplace, including motivational speakers
with great zeal and enthusiasm. Speeches at political conventions, such
as keynote addresses that praise the principles of the party, are inspira-
such as Biz
Facts and Stone,
Figures. the founder
In controversy, facts and of Twitter,
figures andSothe
loom important.
tional. late
They help
also is that Steve Jobs,
great American appear
institution, the through-
commencement
answer a crucial question: Which of the contending sides has the better graspAs reality?2 as these speech occasions may seem, they have im-
of different
out. Examples from the courtroom have
Be sure you supply enough facts to answer that question in your been
address.
added
favor.
portant pointsMoreo- to
in common.
Chapters 10 and 12.
ver, Americans have always been practical people who have a special
First,respect
speechesfor
of inspiration are enthusiastic. Inspirational speakers set
■ More
numbers.Compact
Recent researchand
in persuasion.3
Student
confirms the ongoing Friendly.
importance ofFor many
statistical
an example students,
evidence
through this
their personal has become
commitment and energy.the
speaker and the speech must be active and forceful. Speakers offer a
Both the

Age of Multi-Tasking, a time in which many model demands

for their audiences are being
through their made simultane-
behavior both on and off the
examples. Examples put a human face on situations. They bring speaking
it intoplatform.
focus forThey must practice what they preach.
ously
us. At theon theiroftime.
beginning Partly
his speech toofhelp
at the end suchAustin
this chapter, students,
Second,
Wright uses andan ofpartly
speeches inspiration (we
draw onadmit!)
past successes because
or frustrations to
future accomplishment. In a commencement speech at Stanford
shorter is usually better, we have sought encourage to tighten
University, the latethe
Steve writing,
Jobs, co-founderand streamline
of Apple, told the story of how
and condense certain sections without sacrificing the quality many have come to
he had been fired when he was 30 years old and the company was worth
two billion
reasoned persuasion Persuasion evidence Supporting materials used dollars. “It was devastating,” he said.
associate
that builds a casewith
to justify our book. Examples
its recommen- of this
in persuasive speeches, greater
including facts accessibility are the revised dis-
dations. and figures, examples, narratives,Then
and it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the best thing that
cussion of the “Historicaltestimony. Roots of Public Speaking” in Chapter
could have ever happened 1 andofthe
to me. The heaviness expla-was
being successful
replaced by the lightness of being a beginner again, less sure about eve-
nation of persuasion in Chapters 14 and 15. rything. It freed me to enter one of the most creative periods of my life. Steve Jobs, speaking
During the next five years, I started a company named NeXT, an- at Stanford graduation
other company named Pixar, and fell in love with an amazing woman who ceremonies, gave an in-
■ Social Media Connections. Connections between public speaking and social would become my wife. Pixar went on to create the world’s first computer ani- spiring commencement
address that described
media have been added in the “Finding Your Voice” boxes and end-of-chapter
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 339
mated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio
11/10/13 5:00 PM
in the world. In a remarkable turn of events, Apple bought NeXT, I returned to how past career frustra-
activities, as well as thought-provoking questions and examples throughout. Apple, and the technology we developed at NeXT is at the heart of Apple’s cur-
rent renaissance. And Laurene and I have a wonderful family together.16
tions ultimately led to his
current successes.
Students will find these applications particularly relevant to their daily lives and
The implication was clear: Out of apparent failure can arise spectacular success.
interactions. Third, speeches of inspiration revitalize our appreciation for values or beliefs. In the
later years of his life, after his athletic prowess had faded, Jesse Owens became
■ Development of “Finding Your Voice” known Theme. as a great inspirational speaker. According to a an obituary reported in the
Cogressional The“The
Record, ninth edition
Jesse Owens of Public
best remembered by many Americans was
Speaking introduced a subtitle. “Finding speeches]
Your Voice” focused on a theme that
a public speaker with the ringing, inspirational delivery of an evangelist. . . . [His
praised the virtues of patriotism, clean living and fair play.”17
had been implicit from the first edition: from
that developing
The following as
excerpts, taken a speaker
from can also
a statement protesting America’s withdrawal
the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, illustrate his inspirational style. Jesse
help one develop a sense of purpose andOwens mission.
was unableFinding
to deliver this your voice in
message personally. He the pub-
prepared it shortly before
his death from cancer.
lic speaking class means developing on at least three levels. On the first and most Owens’s introduction sug-
basic level of competence, the student learnsWhat how to analyze audiences, find good
the Berlin games proved . . . was that Hitler’s “supermen” could be
beaten. Ironically, it was one of his blond, blue-eyed, Aryan athletes who
gests the larger meaning of his
victories and sets the stage for
topics, conduct research, design messages, word helped them
do the beating.for maximum effect, and identification.

present them so that they achieve the desired communication goals. The second
level of finding your voice involves self-discovery: helping
speech of inspiration students gain confi-
A ceremonial
speech directed at awakening or reawak-
dence so that they can communicate successfully
ening an audience
set of values.
and
to a goal, find those causes that most
purpose, or

deserve their personal commitment. The third level begins the process of finding
your place in society, helping students develop a sense of the communication roles
that they might play in their communities or in the global workplace.
M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 375 17/10/13 3:42 PM

318 PaRt FOuR Types of Public Speaking

FinDinG YOuR

voice Persuasion in the Raw

The “Letters to the Editor” section of the Sunday newspaper is often a rich source for
the study of persuasive material. Using a recent Sunday paper, analyze the persuasion
attempted in these letters. You might also check blogs with which you’re familiar or that
discuss a topic of interest to you. Do you find the ideas expressed in these persuasive?
Why or why not? Do you evaluate these comments differently from letters to the editor or
from other media sources? Which do you think are most and least effective, and why? How
might these help you find your voice on a topic? Report your findings in class discussion.

the Challenges of Persuasive Speaking

The challenges that persuaders face range from confronting a reluctant audience
to satisfying strong ethical requirements. As you plan a persuasive speech, you
must consider audience members’ position on the topic, how they might react to
you as an advocate, and the situation in which the speech will be presented. Using
the techniques of audience analysis that we introduced in Chapter 5 is crucial to
success.
A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 15 28/04/14 12:30 PM
Begin preparing your speech by considering where your listeners stand on the
 Chapter 16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions 381

epilogue
The epilogue of a narrative reflects on the meaning of the action and offers final
comments on the character of those who participated in it. It is the counterpart of
16 Preface
the conclusion in other speech designs. When used in ceremonial speeches, the
epilogue often conveys a moral. In the Owens example, we see the nobility of Luz
Long reaffirmed in the final scene of the story:
230 PARt tHRee Developing Presentation Skills

‘‘
The new edition develops, integrates, and
A
Luz Long
legislator was was
askedkilled
how heinfeltWorld War II He
about whiskey. and, although
replied, “If, whenI don’t cry often,
Give me the I wept
you when you
say whiskey, I received
mean thehis lastbrew,
Devil’s letter—I knew
the poison it was
scourge, thehis refines this idea throughout the book. Each
last. In it he asked
right word and bloodyme to someday
that defilesfind his son, Karl, reason,
and tocreates
tell him “of how we fought
monster innocence, dethrones misery
well together, and of the good times, and that any two men can become chapter begins with stories and examples that
the right accent,
and I will move
‘‘ and poverty—yes, literally takes the bread from the mouths of little children; if
brothers.”
you mean the drink that topples Christian man and woman from the pinnacle
of righteous, gracious living into the bottomless pit of degradation, despair,
illustrate finding your voice and concludes
with an expanded “Final Reflections” section
the world. shameWhat Owens doesn’t quiteI am
tellagainst
us, but weallcan infer it from what he says, is that
—JoSePH ConRAD
and helplessness, then certainly it with my power.
Long and Owens had become good friends, that they corresponded often, that
and places
that in context the importance of what
Long
“But knew
if, when youthat his endyou
say whiskey, was near.
mean These
the oil inferences
of conversation, philo-strengthen the you
theonly have learned. As each chapter develops,
underlying
lessonwine,
sophic forthe
thealeaudience Owens
that is consumed addressed
when in 1980:
good fellows get together,
that puts a song in their hearts and the warm glow of contentment in their
the “Finding Your Voice” feature offers short
eyes; ifThat
you mean Christmas
is what cheer; if you
the Olympics aremean the stimulating
all about. The roaddrink
tothat
the Olympics does exercises,
not questions, and applications that
lead
puts the to Moscow.
spring It leads tostep
in an old gentleman’s noon city, no country.
a frosty morning; ifItyou
goes
mean challenge students to think about and apply
far beyond Lake Placid
or Moscow,
that drink, the sale ofancient Greece
which pours or treasury
into our Nazi Germany. Theofroad
untold millions to the Olympics leads,
dollars
which in
arethe end,
used to thetender
to provide best within us. crippled children, our blind,
care for our
what they are learning, providing opportu-
our deaf, our dumb, pitiful, aged and infirm, to build highways, hospitals, nities for class discussion and a stimulus to
Just asthen
and schools, the Olympic
certainly I am in spirit
favor of could
it. learning.
thrive in the bigoted atmosphere of Nazi
Germany in 1936, so also could it blossom in the Cold War atmosphere of Moscow
“That is my stand, and I will not compromise.”1
in 1980. Owens’s speech became an argument criticizing America’s 1980 boycott of
the Olympic Games. A video showing this dramatic encounter may be found in the
Public Broadcasting System’s archive of American Experience.
The “Whiskey Speech,” a legend in southern politics, was originally presented some
years ago by N. S. Sweat, Jr., during a heated campaign to legalize the sale of liquor-
by-the-drink in Mississippi. Because about half of his constituents favored the
initiative and the other half were opposed, Representative “Soggy” Sweat decided
to handle the issue with humor. In the process he provided an illustration of how
words can extend or transform meaning.

FinaL
In this chapter, we discuss how to make language work for you. We explain six

reflections
standards for the effective and ethical use of language in your speeches. We end by
exploring special techniques you can use to magnify the power of your voice.

“and in Conclusion Let Us Say”

What Words Can Do
Consider Joseph Conrad’s eloquent statement about the power of language at the

W
beginning of this chapter. Until speakers find the right words, they will not find
e began our book by encouraging your quest to find your voice. We hope
their voice. Before speakers can move the world, or anyone in it, they must first dis-
cover whatthat
theyyour
believequest
and thehas been of
importance successful and
their subjects. It is that
wordsyou have benefited, are benefit-
that form,
frame,
ing, and
andexpress
willthese understandings.
continue to benefit from it. We end our book with our own speech
Words can reveal the world in many ways. They can arouse or dull our feelings.
of tribute,
They thisthat
can be magnets time totogether
draw us you. or Public
drive us speaking
apart. They can may not
goad us intohave
ac- always been easy for
you.
tion. But
They makeit up
isthe
our hope
rituals that you
that celebrate have
who we grown
are and what we asbelieve.
a person
Clearly, as you have grown as a
words are vital not just in finding our voice but also in helping us express ourselves.
speaker. Our special wishes, expressed in terms of the underlying vision of our
book, are

■ that you have learned to climb the barriers that people sometimes erect to
382 PARt FOuR Types of Public Speaking
separate themselves from each other and that too often prevent meaningful
communication.
■ that you have learned to weave words and evidence into eloquent thoughts
M11_OSBO1095_CH11_p229-254.indd 230 and persuasive ideas. 05/11/13 2:08 PM

epilogue
■ that youThe finallearned
have part of ato
narrative
build and present speeches that enlighten others in
that reflects upon itsand
responsible meaning.
ethical ways.
■ above all, that you have found subjects and causes worthy of your voice.

And so we propose a toast: May you use your new speaking skills to improve the lives
and lift the spirits of those who may listen to you.

M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 381 19/11/13 12:14 PM

After Reading this Chapter, You Should Be Able
to Answer these Questions Some Things Don’t Change; They Just
Study and
Review at
MyCommunicationLab
Get Better
1 What are the values and uses of ceremonial speaking?
2 how can you develop a sense of identification between yourself and
listeners?
3 What purpose So
doesitmagnification
is, we think, with
serve, ourcan
and how book. Foritall
you make the
work? changes from one edition to another,
4 core values remain. With each edition, we try
What are the different kinds of ceremonial speeches, and how should you to state them a little more clearly, a
prepare for them?
little more powerfully. Among these values are the following:
5 What skills are required to be a master of ceremonies?
6 how can you use narrative design to tell an effective story?
■ From ancient times, educators have recognized that the study and practice of pub-
lic speaking belongs at the foundation of a liberal education. What other discipline
For Discussion requires students
and Further to think clearly, be attuned to the needs of listeners, organize
exploration
1 Watch the commencement speech “How to Live and
their thoughts, select Beforecombine wordsatartfully and judiciously, and express
You Die,” offered
Stanford University by the late Steve Jobs. (The speech can be found under
“Inspirational Speeches” on TED.) Look for the processes of identification and
magnification at work in the speech. Do they work effectively?
2 Develop a speech of tribute to yourself as you would like to be remembered.
What do you hope to accomplish? What do you stand for? What values give
meaning to your life?
3 Prepare a speech of tribute in which you honor a person or group that has con-
tributed to the cause advanced in your persuasive speech.
4 For and against magnification: Some might argue that magnification is distor-
tion, that when you select a person’s achievements and accomplishments to
praise in speeches of tribute, you are ignoring less desirable features and short-
comings. The effect is to revise and misrepresent reality. What is your position on
this issue? Is magnification justifiable? Are there moments in which it might not
be desirable?
5 Prepare a speech of introduction for a historical figure you admire, as though that
A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 16 28/04/14 12:30 PM
person will then be speaking to the class. Do you use identification and magnifi-
 Preface 17
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 9
themselves with power and conviction,
all while under the direct scrutiny of an Figure 1.1
audience? The challenge to teach such a Ten Timeless
lessons from the
complex range of abilities has always been Ancient World
difficult, but it also suggests the potential
value of the course to many students. This Old wisdom is sometimes the best wisdom, especially when it has been
tested repeatedly and confirmed time and again in human experience.
book represents our best effort to help Here are ten gold nuggets of advice for the public speaker, mined from
ancient writings:
teachers and students rise to this challenge. 1. If you want to convince listeners that you have a good message for
them, you must first convince them that you are a good person.
2. If you want strong commitment from an audience, you must engage
■ Another core objective of our book is strong feelings.
3. If you want commitment to last, you must be able to show that your
to illuminate the role of public speaking arguments are based on sound, logical interpretations of reality.

in a diverse society. Adjusting to a diverse 4. When speaking on matters of guilt or innocence, you must empha-
size the morality of past actions.

audience is a challenge ancient writers 5. When speaking on matters of future policy, you must stress the
practical advantages of proposed plans of action.
could not have anticipated. The increas- 6. When celebrating great achievements, you must emphasize the
values that make them great.
ing cultural diversity of our society adds to the importance7. Yourofspeech
public
should bespeaking
based on a thorough investigation of a topic,
so that you have the widest possible range of choices as you select
as a force that can express the richness of a diverse society,ideas
asandwell asforcounter
materials emphasis.
8. You should follow an order of ideas that leads listeners to greater
the growing division and incivility that are the disease eating away
illumination at diversity.
and stronger conviction as you speak.

Our renewed emphasis on identification as the antidote 9.toThe division, on the

right words will make your points come to life in images that
your audience will easily remember.

importance of shared stories that express universal values, and on the ethical
10. The more you can speak in a direct, conversational way from a
pattern of ideas imprinted in your mind, rather than by reading a
importance of reasoned discourse as a preferred mode of public deliberation,
prepared text or reciting a memorized script, the better the quality
of communication you will achieve.
all respond to the vital importance of diversity in our society. Thus, cultural
diversity is a theme that remains constant in our book.
■ We continue to believe that a major goal of the public speaking course is to
make students more sensitive to the ethical impact of speaking on the lives of others.
We discuss ethical considerations throughout the book.
interests Forthey
and goals, example,
will be more we
likelydirect
to accept the message. We discuss estab-
the attention of students to ethical concerns as we lishingconsider listening,
your credibility as a speaker inaudience
Chapter 3.

analysis and adaptation, cultural variations, topic selection,

Message. A speakerresearch,
must have a clearways
idea ofofwhat a speech is to accomplish—this
is called its message. You should be able to state your specific purpose in one clear,
structuring speeches, presentation aids, uses of language, andsimpler,
simple sentence—the the consequences
the better. To promote a message, your speech should
of informing and persuading others. Often we use followaa “Finding Your
design and strategy Ethical
appropriate to the subject and to the needs of listeners.
To make the message clear and attractive, your speech must use words artfully and
Voice” feature to highlight these concerns. often may use presentation aids such as graphs, charts, or photographs projected on
a large screen. To make the message credible, your speech should offer convincing
■ We continue to believe that a college course in public speaking should offer both
evidence drawn from reputable sources and sound reasoning. To make your message

practical advice and an understanding of why such advice works. We emphasize

both the how and the why of public speaking—how pathosso Appeals
thatbased
beginners
on feelings. can speaker Initiates the communication message What the speaker wishes to
ethos Appeals based on the charac- process by framing an oral message for accomplish.
achieve success as quickly as possible, and why so that they can manage
ter, competence, and personality of the their
the consideration of others.
new skills wisely. Our approach is eclectic: we draw
speaker.
from the past and present
and from the social sciences and humanities to help students understand and
manage their public speaking experiences.
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 9 18/10/13 12:54 PM
■ The Roman educator Quintilian held forth the ideal of “the good person
speaking well” as a goal of education. Two thousand years later, we join him
in stressing the value of speech training in the development of the whole person. In
addition, understanding the principles of public communication can make students
more resistant to unethical speakers and more critical of the mass-mediated commu-
nication to which they are exposed. The class should help students become both
better consumers and better producers of public communication.

In addition to these core values, we continue to offer features that have remained
constant and distinctive across the many editions of our book.

■ Responsible knowledge as a standard for public speaking. In order to develop a

standard for the quality and depth of information that should be reflected

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 17 28/04/14 12:30 PM

 18 Preface

Chapter 15 Persuasion in Controversy 341

in all speeches, we offer the concept of responsible knowledge. This concept is
Gather more evidence than you think you will need so that
you have a wide range of material to choose from. Be sure
developed in detail in Chapter 7, in which we discuss the foundation of re-
you have facts, figures, or expert testimony for each of yoursearch that should support speeches and provide an updated account of current
major points. Use multiple sources and types of evidence to
strengthen your case. research resources available to speakers, as well as a new system for recording
information as the student conducts research and personal interviews to find
Developing proofs
supporting materials.
As persuaders representing different interests and agendas strug-
gle to win in the competition of ideas, four questions loom as
vital to their success or failure:
■ How to cope with communication anxiety. A separate chapter early in the book
■ Which speaker can we most trust?
addresses communication anxiety and how to control it. Many students come
■ Which speech best arouses emotions favorable to its cause?
to our public speaking classes with anxiety that amounts sometimes to terror.
■ Which advocated action best fits with our society’s values, Our book helps them to confront their feelings and to convert their fear into
dreams, and aspirations? positive energy.
■ Which position offers the best grasp and understanding of
reality? ■ Special preparation for the first speech. As teachers, we realize the importance of
In order to answer these questions, persuaders must de- the first speaking experience to a student’s ultimate success in the course. Yet
velop what the ancient writers called proofs, which manage the
persuasive resources available in each particular situation. Out much useful advice must be delayed until later chapters as the subject of public
of these proofs, you will weave your arguments into a case that speaking develops systematically over a semester. Having experienced this frus-
justifies your position. Much of the rest of this chapter will focus
on how you can develop proofs successfully. tration ourselves while teaching the course, we include an overview of practi-
Developing ethos. What the ancient writers called ethos iscal advice early in the book that previews later chapters and prepares students
212 on
based our thRee
PARt perception of a speaker’s
Developing competence,
Presentation Skills character,more effectively for their first speeches. This overview is provided in Chapter 3.
goodwill, and dynamism. If listeners believe that you know what reasoned persuasion
The
you are talking about and that you are trustworthy, they will listen step-by-step
respectfully to approach
often to preparing the first speech offered in this chapter
depends on expert
When you arrange slides in a carousel, be sure theytestimony.
are in the proper order and
what you have to say. Therefore, you should work ethos-building material into the
introduction of your speech whenever you can. You should explain,hasfor
that none of them is upside down been
and/or strengthenedpersonal
backwards.
example,
Today, most andcomput-
restructured.
ers are packaged with software that allows you to prepare and present slides without a
your personal connection with the topic or what special things you have done to
carousel projector. We discuss this in greater detail in our section on new media.

Video and Audio Resources. Such video resources as DVDs and videotapes
Your
ethical voiCe
and such audio resources as MP3 or computer recordings and audiotapes can add ■ Situational approach to communication
variety to your presentation. Make sure in advance that the place where you will be
making your presentation Guidelines for the
has the proper ethicaltouse
equipment work ofwith
evidence
your materials. ethics. We have always discussed ethi-
Video resources are useful for transporting the audience to distant, danger-
To use evidence ethically follow these guidelines:
ous, or otherwise unavailable locations. Although you could verbally describe the
cal issues as they arise in the context
beauty of the Montana Rockies, your word-pictures can become more powerful if
1. Provide evidence from credible sources. 6. Do not withhold important evidence. of topics. The “Finding Your Ethical
reinforced with actual scenes projected electronically.
2. Identify your sources of evidence. Using video poses some 7. Use expert
special testimony
problems fortospeakers.
establish facts,
Movingprestige
images attract Voice” feature helps highlight these
testimony
spoken toword,
enhance credibility, and lay testimony
3. Use evidence that can stand up moreunder critical scrutiny.
attention than does the
to create
so they
identification.
can easily upstage you. In a concerns as they develop chapter by
4. Be sure evidence has not beenshort speech,
tainted keep the focus on the speaker by limiting clips to thirty seconds or
by self-interest.
less. A videotape segment must
5. Acknowledge disagreements among experts.
8. Quote or paraphrase
be edited so that testimony accurately.
splices blend cleanly. Such editing chapter.
takes special skill and equipment. A simpler means is to transfer this material onto
a CD, which can be done on most personal computers with a DVD/CD burner. For
certain topics, carefully prepared videos can be more effective than any other type
of presentation aid. A student at Northwest Mississippi Community College who
was a firefighter used videotape in an informative speech on fire hazards in the
home. By customizing the video to fit the precise needs of his speech, he was able
proof An arrangement of the re- to show ethos A form
of of proof
■ thatandrelies onzoom in on various hazards.12 He prepared
sources of persuasion so that it satisfies a
long shots a room The importance of narrative in public speaking. We discuss narrative as an impor-
then
the audience’s perceptions of a speaker’s
the video without sound so that his speech provided the commentary needed to
basic requirement for success and drives
thoughtful listeners toward a conclusion.interpret andgoodwill,
acter, explainandthedynamism. tant form of supporting material and as a previously neglected design option.
leadership qualities of competence, char-
pictures. Using this technique, he made his subject much
more meaningful for listeners.
This material is initially presented in Chapter 3. We also identify appeals to
Audio resources may also be useful as presentation aids. Sabrina Karic started
traditions, heroic symbols, cultural identity, and legends—all built upon
her self-introductory speech on growing up in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina
with a recording of a loud explosion and gunfire, during which she ducked beneath
narrative—as an important, emerging form of proof in persuasive speaking.
the table as the audience jumped (see “A Little Chocolate” at the end of Chapter 3).
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 341 When in doubt about the wisdom or practicality of using such aids, consult your 11/10/13 5:52 PM

instructor.

■ Speaker’s Notes as a major pedagogical tool.

SPeAKeR’S
notes Deciding What Presentation Media to use
When our first edition appeared some
twenty-five years ago we introduced to
Let the following suggestions guide your selection of presentation media.
the field a feature we called “Speaker’s
When you need to . . . try using . . . Notes.” This feature serves as an internal
■ adapt to audience feedback ■ flip charts or chalk or marker boards summary that helps highlight and bring
display maps, charts, graphs, or textual graphics posters or computerized programs
■

■ present complex information or statistical data

■

■ display graphics or photos to a large audience
■ authenticate a point
make your presentation appear more professional
■ ■
■ handouts
into focus important concepts as the
■ slides or transparencies student reads the text. In the new edition,
■ audio and video resources this traditional feature works in col-
computerized programs
laboration with the new “Finding Your
Voice” and “Finding Your Ethical Voice”
features to encourage learning and enrich
the student’s reading experience.

M10_OSBO1095_CH10_p199-228.indd 212 04/11/13 10:42 AM

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 18 28/04/14 12:30 PM

 Preface 19

■ Improving language skills. We introduce students to the power of language, help

them apply standards so that this power is not diminished, and demonstrate
special techniques that can magnify this power at important moments in
speeches. Among the standards is learning how to avoid grammatical errors
that make listeners cringe.
■ Enhanced understanding of ceremonial speaking. We provide coherence and re-
spect for the study of ceremonial speaking by pointing out the importance
of such speaking in society, and by indicating how two powerful concepts,
one offered by Aristotle and the other by Kenneth Burke, can combine to
generate successful ceremonial speeches, especially speeches of tribute and
inspiration.

Plan of the Book

Public Speaking: Finding Your Voice is designed to help beginning students build
cumulative knowledge and skills. Positive initial speaking experiences are especially
important. For this reason, Chapter 2 helps apprehensive students manage commu-
nication anxiety as they stand to speak for the first time. Chapter 3 offers an over-
view of advice to help students design and present successful first speeches.
In the chapters that follow, students learn how to listen critically and empa-
thetically; analyze their audiences; select, refine, and research speech topics; de-
velop supporting materials; arrange these materials in appropriate structures; and
create effective presentation aids. They also learn how to use language effectively
and present their messages well. Students become acquainted with the nature of
information and how to present it, the process of persuasion and how to engage
it, and the importance of ceremonial speaking in its various forms. Appendix A,
“Communicating in Small Groups,” describes how to use public communication
skills to participate effectively in small group interactions.
Teachers may adapt the sequence of chapters to any course plan, because each
chapter covers a topic thoroughly and completely.

Detailed Plan of the Book

Part One, “The Foundations of Public Speaking,” provides basic information that
students need for their first speaking and listening experiences. Chapter 1 defines
public speaking and the significance of “finding your voice,” highlights the per-
sonal, social, and cultural benefits of being able to speak effectively in public, and
emphasizes the ethical responsibilities of speakers. Chapter 2 helps students come
to terms with communication anxiety, so that they can control this problem early
in the course. Chapter 3 offers practical advice for organizing, practicing, and pre-
senting first speeches. Chapter 4 identifies common listening problems and ways to
overcome them, helps students sharpen critical listening skills, and presents criteria
for the constructive evaluation of speeches.
Part Two, “Preparation for Public Speaking,” introduces the basic skills needed
to develop effective speeches. Chapter 5 emphasizes the importance of the audi-
ence, indicating how to adapt a message and how to adjust to factors in the speak-
ing situation. Chapter 6 provides a systematic way to discover, evaluate, and refine
speech topics. Chapter 7 shows how to research these topics, emphasizing the im-
portance of acquiring responsible knowledge. Chapter 8 identifies the major types of

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 19 28/04/14 12:30 PM

 20 Preface

supporting materials fashioned from such research, includ-

ing facts and statistics, examples, testimony, and narratives.
Objectives
Chapter 9 shows how to develop simple, balanced, and or-
this chapter will help you
1 understand how
derly speech designs, select and shape main points, use tran-
persuasive speaking
differs from informative
speaking.
sitions, prepare effective introductions and conclusions, and
2 Master the types of
persuasive speaking
3 Grasp how the develop outlines.
persuasive process
works
Part Three, “Developing Presentation Skills,” brings the
4 Soften the opposition of
reluctant listeners
speaker to the point of presentation. Chapter 10 explains the
5 Remove barriers that
block commitment

types, media, and preparation of presentation aids. Chapter 11

6 turn agreement into
action
7 Select appropriate
designs for your provides an understanding of the role of language in com-
persuasive speeches

munication and offers practical suggestions for using words

Outline
effectively. Chapter 12 offers concepts and exercises for the
improvement of voice and body language to help students
the nature of Persuasive
Speaking

develop an extemporaneous style that is adaptable to most

the types of Persuasive
Speaking

speaking situations.
the Persuasive Process

the Challenges of Persuasive

Speaking

Designs for Persuasive

Part Four, “Types of Public Speaking,” discusses informa-
Speeches
tive, persuasive, and ceremonial speaking. Chapter 13 cov-
Final Reflections The Case for
Persuasion
ers speeches designed to share information and increase un-
derstanding. The chapter discusses the types of informative

14
speeches and presents the major designs that can structure
Persuasive them. Chapter 14 describes the persuasive process, focusing
Speaking on how to meet the many challenges of persuasive situa-
tions. Chapter 15 examines the work of persuasion in contro-
332
versy. The chapter encourages reasoned persuasion, helping
students develop strong arguments to support their positions.
M14_OSBO9982_CH14_p332-362.indd 332
The chapter also identifies the major forms of fallacies so that
05/06/14 6:46 PM

student speakers can avoid them and detect them in the messages of others. Chapter
16 explains how to prepare effective ceremonial presentations, including speeches of
tribute and inspiration, speeches introducing others, eulogies, after-dinner speeches,
and speeches presenting and accepting awards. The chapter shows how to use narra-
tives and narrative design, often found in ceremonial speeches.
Appendix A, “Communicating in Small Groups,” introduces students to the
problem-solving process and to the responsibilities of both group leaders and
group participants. This appendix also provides guidelines for managing meet-
ings, including virtual meetings, and explains the basic concepts of parliamentary
procedure. Appendix B provides a number of student and professional speeches for
additional analysis.

Learning Tools
To help students master the material, we offer a number of special learning tools.

■ We open each chapter with a chapter outline and learning objectives that pre-
pare students for productive reading.
■ The epigrams and vignettes that start each chapter help point out the topic’s
significance and motivate readers to learn more.
■ We conclude each chapter with a “Final Reflections” summary, a self-test to
­review key concepts and assess how the learning objectives were met, and
questions and activities to explore chapter content in greater detail.

A01_OSBO9982_FM_p001-026.indd 20 05/06/14 6:55 PM

 orating presidential palaces or money flowing down a rat
hole. This one percent is digging waterholes to provide
clean water.9

An extended example provides more detail, which al-

lows the speaker to more fully develop the example. Chris
Christie, governor of New Jersey, used this technique when
he described how one child responded to Hurricane Sandy
in his 2013 State of the State Address:

I met nine-year-old Ginjer. Having a 9-year-old girl my-

self, her height and manner of speaking was immediately
familiar and evocative. Having confronted so many cry-
Chris Christie, governor
of new Jersey.
Preface 21
ing adults at that point I felt ready to deal with anything.
Then Ginjer looked at me, began to cry and told me she was scared. She told
me she had lost everything; she had lost her home and her belongings. She
■ We use contemporary artwork and photographs to illustrate ideas, engage stu-
asked me to help her.
As my eyes filled with tears, I took a deep breath and thought about what
dent interest, and add to the visual appeal of the book.
I would say to my Bridget if she said the same thing to me. If she had the same
look on her face. If she had the same tears in her eyes. I asked her where her
mom was and she pointed right behind her. I asked her if her dad was okay.
■ Examples illustrate the content in a clear, lively, and often entertaining way.
She told me he was. So I told Ginjer, you haven’t lost your home; you’ve just CHAPteR 15 Persuasion in Controversy 355
lost a house. A house we can replace, your home is with your mom and dad.
■ Special embedded features help stu-
I hugged her and told her not to cry—that the adults are in charge now and
there was nothing to be afraid of anymore. Ginjer is here today—we’ve kept in
dents read productively. “Speaker’s
touch—and I want to thank her for giving voice to New Jersey’s children dur- FinDinG YOuR

voice
ing Sandy and helping to create a memory of humanity in a sea of despair.10
Notes” offer guidelines to help stu-
A factual example is based on an actual event or the experiences of a real person. Find the Fallacies
dents focusprovide
Factual examples on the strongessentials; “Finding
support for your ideas because they actually did
happen: They authenticate the point you are trying to make. Joseph Jimenez, CEO Look for examples of fallacies in the “Letters to the Editor” section of your local
Your Voice”
of Novartis, used the offers exercises
following factual example to and ap-
support a more positive view of newspaper or in opinions expressed in blogs. Consider how these fallacies affect the

plications that stimulate the learning

his pharmaceutical company: credibility or character of the people who commit them. Did you ever commit such
an error? Do you think this damaged your credibility? Might personal fallacies be an
process;
We believeand. . . it is“Finding
our obligation to Your Ethical
offer low-cost generics to lower health- obstacle to finding your voice?
care costs around the world.
Voice”Here’s heightens
just one example.ethical
We introducedsensitivity.
generic enoxaparin in this country
last year. This is a medicine that helps prevent blood clots. It matters because clots
can break free, and cause a deadly blockage in the lung. When we introduced a
generic version, it saved the U.S. government $700 million. That’s a big deal.11

A hypothetical example is not offered as “real” so much as representative of actual Begging the Question. The begging the question fallacy occurs when
people, situations, or events. This kind of example can be useful when factual exam- speakers neglect their responsibilities to prove their points. Instead, they make
ples are not available or when their use would not be appropriate. While generally claims and barge ahead as though ■ A Glossary runs through the book at
the claims didn’t need to be proven. This fal-
not as authoritative as their factual counterparts, hypothetical examples can still be lacy often relies on colorful language to disguise the lack of proof. The words used
very effective. They can be the fiction that reveals reality. Consider the following the bottom of each page, helping
seem to justify the conclusion. Sometimes this fallacy occurs when speakers rely
solely on mythos to support an argument. A conclusion such as “Be patriotic!
hypothetical example, which illustrates the growing problem of childhood obesity:
students focus on key terms as they
Support our American way of life. Vote against gun control” begs the question
are introduced. In addition, all the
because the speaker has not demonstrated that being against gun control is a form
of patriotism.
extended example A more detailed
example that speakers use to illustrate or
factual example An example based
on something that actually happened or
hypothetical example An example
offered not as real but as representative
key terms and their definitions are
Straw Man. Theofstraw man fallacy occurs when the persuader creates a like-
develop a point. really exists. actual people, situations, or events. gathered
ness of the opposition’s position that makes in aextreme,
it seem trivial, completeor easy toGlossary at
refute. Referring to health care reform as “socialized medicine” and to banking
regulations as “a government takeover”the endexamples
are recent of the book.
of such fallacies. As
an ethical persuasive speaker, you should represent opposing positions fairly and
fully. The straw man fallacy is an implicit admission of weakness or desperation
on the part of its user.
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■ Sample classroom speeches found at the end of many chapters

Faulty Premise. illustrate im-fallacy occurs when the major premise
The faulty premise
of an argument is not sound. If the major premise is faulty, the entire argument may
portant concepts. The annotated speech texts show how crumble.the concepts
We once apply
heard a student begin in
a line of argument with the following
statement of principle: “College athletes are not really here to learn.” She was in-
actual speaking situations. Appendix B contains additional speeches
stantly in trouble. thatwas
When her speech offer
over, the class assailed her with questions:
an interesting array of topics, contexts, and speakers.How did she define athletes? Was she talking about intercollegiate or intramural
athletes? How about the tennis team? How did she define learning? Was she aware
of the negative stereotype at the center of her premise? Wasn’t she being unfair,
not to mention
ChAPteR 16 Ceremonial arrogant?
Speaking It’s safe
on Special to say that
Occasions 383the speaker did not persuade many
people that day.
To learn more about the fascinating subject of fallacies, go to Fallacy Files,
an online site containing an extensive collection of fallacies and bad arguments.
SAMPle CeReMOniAl SPeeCh Developed by Gary N. Curtis, the site offers definitions and examples and is well or-
ganized and entertaining. See especially “Stalking the Wild Fallacy,” offered under
Simone Mullinax presented this speech of tribute to her grandmother in a the “Examples” feature on the menu.
public speaking class at the University of Arkansas. The speech develops a
master narrative based on an extended metaphor and paints an endearing
portrait of a complex person who–like key lime pie—combines the qualities
of sweetness and tartness.
begging the question fal- straw man fallacy Understating, faulty premise fallacy A reasoning
lacy Assuming that an argument has distorting, or otherwise misrepresenting error that occurs when an argument is
been proved without actually presenting the the position of opponents for ease based on a flawed major premise.
Baked-in traditions evidence. of refutation.

SimONE mULLiNAx

Have you ever baked a pie? No, I don’t mean one you get from the freezer this brief opening does a
section at the grocery store—I’m talking about one you bake from scratch. I great deal of work. Simone
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 355 11/10/13 5:00 PM
learned to bake a pie at an early age. And what I learned, early on, is that there opens with a rhetorical
are three things you have to master: the crust, the filler, and the topping. You question and a defini-
can’t have a pie if you lack any of these. tion and establishes her
So where do you start? You start of course in the kitchen, which is where I personal ethos. She then
meet my grandmother every time we get together. I would like to tell you she’s hints of a clever categori-
that sweet, picturesque, grandmotherly grandmother you see on television, but cal design that will follow
she’s not. Rather, she’s that opinionated, bold, “her-way-or-the-highway” type the three main ingredients
that scares some people off. Her salvation is that she’s also insanely funny and of a pie.
you fall in love with her stories, her cooking, and her opinions, even when you
don’t agree with all of them. Just when you’re ready to pack up and move on,
she does or says something that makes you want to hang around. this paragraph completes
She’s the woman who marches to the front of the line when her “ba- the sketch that introduces
bies” don’t get what they need. She’s the woman who sends us care packages Simone’s grandmother.
made up of “goodies” from Dollar General. She’s the woman who offers her Simone paints this portrait
opinions to everyone on any occasion, whether they want them or not. She’s by offering a few glimpses
also the woman who gathered all the family recipes together—some of them of her grandmother in ac-
unique and over a hundred years old—and gave them to me for a Christmas tion, small slices of life that
present. She’s my grandmother and my best friend. depict character.
But back to baking pies. My signature pie is a key lime pie. It really isn’t
my signature at all because I frequently forge my grandmother’s. People often As she tells us more about
think of it as a hot weather treat, but every time we are together, even if it’s pies, Simone also reveals
23 degrees outside, we make that key lime pie. Last year before I competed more about herself. We
in the Miss Oklahoma pageant, a reporter called and asked what I was most learn that she has been a
looking forward to eating after the competition, and I said, “A key lime pie. A beauty pageant contestant
whole key lime pie.” It was in bold headlines the next day: “Miss Tulsa looking who has a particular fond-
forward to eating a pie.” For weeks afterwards people asked me, “So did you ness for key lime pies.
get your key lime pie?” And I was able to answer, “Sure did.” Because after the this begins an elabora-
pageant my grandmother had two pies sitting on the counter, one for now, and tion of the pie as extended
one for later. metaphor in order to reveal
Grammy taught me you can’t have the pie without the crust. Everything the value and values of her
in her life is built on a firm foundation, from the love of her family to the grandmother. Family con-
strength of her husband and the companionship of her friends. She stands nectedness is an underly-
behind her word, her love, and her family. She is the crust that keeps us all ing theme.

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 Instructor and Student
Resources
Key instructor resources include an Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint
Presentation Package. These supplements are available at www.pearsonglobaledi-
tions.com/Osborn (instructor login required).
For a complete list of the instructor and student resources available with the text, please
visit www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/Osborn.

23

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 Acknowledgments
Many people have helped our book evolve and succeed over its twenty-five years
of existence. Margaret Seawell and George Hoffman, communication editors at
Houghton Mifflin, and Nader Dareshori, president of the company, were warm and
helpful friends who enjoyed early good fortune with us.
More recently, for special assistance in the preparation of the tenth edition, we
especially thank the following:

■ Anne Osborn Tomasso, who offered creative, dedicated, and extended help in
revising our chapter on research.
■ Jayme Mayo, Chris Goldsby, and all the gang at Nabholz for their patience and
enthusiasm in supporting our case study of persuasion at work in their work-
place.
■ David Horan, who helped us at the last minute enhance some photographs we
really wanted to use in the book.
■ Pat Baker, who constantly energizes her colleagues with her innovation and
passion.
■ And (most especially) Hilary Jackson, our brilliant development editor, who
guided us, encouraged us, inspired us, and occasionally goaded us to complete
this revision. Revising a book is not quite like going on the Lewis and Clark
expedition, but to the extent that it is, Hilary has been our Sacagawea!
■ We also thank our colleagues over all the years who have reviewed our book
and helped us to make it better.

For the tenth edition, we are grateful to those listed below whose critical readings
have inspired improvements:

Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University

Haley Draper, Odessa College
Sheryl Hurner, CSU Stanislaus
Nick Linardopoulos, Rutgers University
Mark May, Clayton State University
Crystal Rolison, Cisco College
David Testone, University of Bridgeport

24

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 Public Speaking: Finding Your Voice welcomes the following
new student contributors to the pages of the tenth edition:
Lindsey Yoder, The University of Memphis
Nick Orobello, Davidson College
Maria Tomasso, Texas State University
Landon West, The University of Memphis
Olivia Jackson, Phillips Exeter Academy
Brandon Marshall, The University of Memphis
Jessica Floyd, The University of Memphis
Geron Johnson, The University of Memphis

Pearson would like to thank the following persons for their contribution to the Global Edition:
Contributor
Gatha Sharma, Shiv Nadar University
Reviewers
Urmishree Bedamatta, Ravenshaw University
Paromita Mitra Bhaumik, Belle Vue Clinic

25

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 PART one The Foundations of Public Speaking

Objectives
This chapter will help you
1 Understand the personal
benefits of the course
2 Understand the social
benefits of the course
3 Understand the cultural
benefits of the course
4 Appreciate the historical
roots of public speaking
5 Understand the seven
elements of interactive
public speaking
6 Understand public
speaking as a dynamic
process
7 Appreciate the
importance of public
speaking ethics

Outline
What Public Speaking Has
to Offer You

Introduction to Communication

What Public Speaking Asks

of You

Final Reflections A Quest That

Deserves Commitment

1 Discovering
Your Voice
27

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 28 Part 1 The Foundations of Public Speaking

‘‘ C arolyn didn’t see why she needed to take a public speaking course.
I wanna be She was majoring in engineering and didn’t plan on being active in
somebody politics. She wondered what this course would offer her. At the first class
that somebody meeting, Carolyn saw twenty-five other students who looked like they

‘‘
listens to. I
wanna be a
weren’t sure they wanted to be there either.

Her first assignment was a speech of self-introduction. As she prepared

her speech, it dawned on her why a career in engineering was important
voice.
to her. She had initially thought it was because jobs were readily available.
—Geron Johnson
But now she recognized that she found the subject fascinating and wanted
to prove she could succeed in a nontraditional field for women. Her journey
toward finding her voice had begun. As she spoke, she became more en-
thusiastic about her topic. This helped ease her nervousness.

After the course, Carolyn found many uses for the skills she had learned.
Along with some other female students in the engineering courses, she took
the lead in organizing a campus support group for females in nontraditional
disciplines. She felt more at ease making oral presentations in other classes.
When she interviewed for an internship, she was able to present her ideas
clearly and concisely. She had found her voice.

What does finding your voice mean? Clearly, it goes beyond opening your mouth
and making sounds. There are at least three different aspects of finding your voice:
becoming a competent speaker, discovering your self-identity, and finding your
place in society.
The first aspect involves learning to be a competent speaker. To “find your
voice” you have to know how to make a speech. Despite popular beliefs, speakers
are made, not born. They have to learn—through study, practice, and experience—
the art and principles that go into speech-making. Every chapter in this book elabo-
rates an important dimension of this knowledge.
The second level of meaning involves self-discovery: As you “find your voice,”
you become more confident in yourself. You develop self-esteem and your own style
as a speaker. You also develop an increased understanding of why you are speaking.
As she spoke successfully, Carolyn not only found her voice but also developed a re-
newed appreciation for her career goals, which enhanced her sense of identity.
At a third level, “finding your voice” means finding your place in society, learn-
ing the value of the views and contributions of others, and discovering your ethical
obligation to listeners. As you listen to others and as they respond to your words,
you develop a sense of your mutual dependency. You learn, as the conservative in-
tellectual Richard Weaver once noted, that “ideas [and the words that convey them]
have consequences,” and that what you say (or don’t say) can be important.1 We

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 Chapter 1 Discovering Your Voice 29

do live in a social world, and our speech or our silence can improve or degrade our
surroundings.
“Finding your voice” is a quest that deserves your commitment. This chapter
will explain further what this course has to offer and what it asks of you in return.

What Public Speaking Has to Offer You

The ability to communicate well in public settings will help establish your creden-
tials as a competent, well-educated person. Learning to present yourself and your
ideas effectively can help prepare you for some of the important moments in your
life: times when you need to protect your interests, when your values are threatened,
or when you need approval to undertake a project. The principles you will learn in
this class should also make you a more astute consumer of public messages. They
will help you sort through the information and misinformation that bombard us on
a daily basis. Beyond these important considerations, the public speaking course also
offers other personal, social, and cultural benefits. This chapter will introduce these
and will help you understand the tradition and processes of public communication.

Personal Benefits
As you put together speeches on topics that you care about, you will explore your
own interests and values, expand your base of knowledge, and develop your skills
of creative expression. In short, you will be finding your own voice as a unique
individual—a voice distinct from all others. As Roderick Hart has put the matter:
“Communication is the ultimate people-making discipline. . . . To become eloquent
is to activate one’s humanity, to apply the imagination, and to solve the practical
problems of human living.”2
Your public speaking course should help you develop an array of basic com-
munication skills, from managing your communication anxiety to expressing
your ideas with power and conviction. These skills should help you succeed both
in school and in your professional life. Each year, the National Association of
Colleges and Employers (NACE) surveys hundreds of corporate recruiting special-
ists. According to this organization,

Employers responding to NACE’s survey named communication abil-

ity and integrity as a job seeker’s most important skills and qualities.
“Communication skills have topped the list for eight years.” NACE advises:
“Learn to speak clearly, confidently, and concisely.”3

In its Job Outlook 2013 report, NACE confirms: “What sets two equally qualified job
candidates apart can be as simple as who has the better communication skills.”4
Paul Baruda, an employment expert for the Monster.com jobs site, agrees that
“articulating thoughts clearly and concisely will make a difference in both a job in-
terview and subsequent job performance”:

The point is, you can be the best physicist in the world, but if you can’t tell
people what you do or communicate it to your coworkers, what good is all of
that knowledge? I can’t think of an occupation, short of living in a cave, where
being able to say what you think cogently at some point in your life isn’t going
to be important.5

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 30 Part 1 The Foundations of Public Speaking

So unless you plan to live in a cave, what you learn in this course can be vital to
your future.

Social Benefits
The benefits of developing your public speaking skills also extend to your life as
a responsible citizen. All of us feel compelled to “speak out” from time to time
to defend our interests and values. As you speak out on topics of concern, you
will be enacting the citizenship role envisioned for you by those who framed the
Constitution of the United States:

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or pro-

hibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the
press; or the right of people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the govern-
ment for a redress of grievances. (Amendment I to the U.S. Constitution)

The political system of the United States is built on faith in open and robust public
communication. Indeed, Thomas Jefferson emphasized the importance of allowing
freedom of speech as basic to the health and survival of a democratic society. He
reasoned that if citizens are the repositories of political power, then their under-
standing must be nourished by a full and free flow of information and exchange of
opinions so that they can make good decisions on matters such as who should lead
and which public policies should be adopted.

SPEAKER’S
notes
This course can
Personal Benefits of the Public Speaking Course

■ help reveal you as a competent, well-educated person. ■ help you develop basic communication skills.
■ help you prepare for important communication situations. ■ help you control communication anxiety.
■ help you become a better communication consumer. ■ help you succeed in college and career.

In your classes, you might speak for or against stronger immigration laws, gov-
ernment domestic surveillance policies, the rights of gay people to marry, or the
staging of public rallies by “hate” groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. On campus,
you might find yourself speaking out about attempts to alter your college’s affirma-
tive admissions policy, to fire a popular but controversial professor, or to allow
religious groups to stage protests and distribute literature on school grounds. In the
community, you might find yourself wanting to speak at a school board meeting
about a proposal to remove “controversial” books such as the Harry Potter series
or The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn from reading lists or the school library. Or you
may wish to speak at a city council meeting concerning attempts to rezone your
neighborhood for commercial development.
Public speaking classes therefore become laboratories for the democratic process.6
Developing, presenting, and listening to speeches should help you develop your
citizenship skills. Preparation for your role as citizen is a benefit that serves not just
you but also the society in which you live.

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 Chapter 1 Discovering Your Voice 31

Cultural Benefits
As you learn to adapt to diverse audiences, you will also
develop a heightened sensitivity to the interests and needs
of others—what one might call an “other-orientation.” The
public speaking class teaches us to listen to one another,
to savor what makes each of us unique, and to develop an
appreciation for the different ways people live. Your experi-
ences should bring you closer to meeting one of the major
goals of higher education: “to expand the mind and heart
beyond fear of the unknown, opening them to the whole
range of human experience.”7
This is not only an ethical concern; it is also quite prac-
tical. In the world beyond the classroom, as you begin your
career, you may well encounter diversity in the workplace.
How well you can relate to others of different cultural
backgrounds may well influence the speed and the extent
of your success. Public speaking is vital
As you expand your cultural horizons, you will gain to the maintenance of
a richer and more sophisticated appreciation of the world a free society. The right
around you. You will be encouraged to seek out and consider multiple perspec- to assemble and speak
tives on controversial issues before committing yourself. Public speaking classes on public issues is
are unique in that they make you an active participant in your own education. You guaranteed by the Bill of
don’t just sit in class, absorbing lectures. You communicate. And as you communi- Rights.
cate, you help your class become a learning community. It is no accident that the
words communication and community are closely connected.

Barriers to Cultural Growth.  Today’s typical college public speaking class will

expose you to a sampling of different races, religions, and cultural backgrounds from
which you can learn. However, there are barriers that may stand in the way of your
cultural growth.
One barrier might be ethnocentrism, our tendency to presume that our own
cultural ways of seeing and doing things are proper and that other worldviews
and behaviors are, at best, suspect and, at worst, inferior. There is nothing inher-
ently wrong with being a proud American or a proud Native American or a proud
Californian. But if we allow this pride to harden into arrogance, condescension, and
hostility toward others, it becomes a formidable barrier to communication.

FINDING YOUR

voice The Story of Your Quest

Keep a diary in which you record your experiences as you navigate this class. As one
of your first entries, consider what you think “finding your voice” might mean in your life
and career. Formulate at least three personal-growth goals that you hope to reach during
the course. Then for each of your speeches, keep a record of how you select your topic,
develop your ideas, and prepare your presentation. What are your feelings as you plan
and present your speech? Are you making progress toward your goals?

ethnocentrism The tendency of any

nation, race, religion, or group to believe
that its way of looking at and doing things
is right and that other perspectives are
wrong.

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 32 Part 1 The Foundations of Public Speaking

A few decades ago, you might have encountered the assumption that our
country is a “melting pot” that fuses the cultures of immigrants into a superior al-
loy called “the American character.” The “ideal American” suggested by this phrase
often had a white, male face. Historically, women and many minority groups were
excluded from the public dialogue that shaped our values and policies. Moreover,
the idea of a melting pot may not prepare us for the diversity of audiences we en-
counter both in classes and in later life. Elizabeth Lozano criticizes the melting pot
image and proposes an alternative view of American culture:

The “melting pot” is not an adequate metaphor for a country which is com-
prised of a multiplicity of cultural backgrounds . . . . [W]e might better think of
the United States in terms of a “cultural bouillabaisse” in which all ingredients
conserve their unique flavor, while also transforming and being transformed
by the adjacent textures and scents.8

A public speaking class is an ideal place to savor this rich broth of cultures. As
we hear others speak, we discover the many different flavors of the American
experience. And as you examine your own identity and that of the people
around you, you may discover that most of us are indeed “multicultural,” a
Sensitivity toward
blend of many voices and backgrounds. If you want to speak effectively before
and appreciation of
American audiences, sensitivity toward and appreciation of cultural diversity is
cultural diversity
truly necessary.
will help you
A second barrier can arise in the form of stereotypes, those generalizations
speak effectively
that purport to represent the essential nature of races, genders, religious affiliations,
to a wide range of
sexual orientations, and so on. Before we get to know the individual members of
audiences.
our audience, we may use such stereotypes to anticipate how they might react to
our words. Even positive stereotypes—Asian Americans are good at math, Mexican
Americans have a strong devotion to family—can be hurtful if they block us from
experiencing the unique humanity of someone different from us. So pack your ste-
reotypes away as you experience the public speaking class.
One of our favorite ways of depicting the complex culture of the United States
was introduced in the conclusion of Abraham Lincoln’s first inaugural address, as
Lincoln sought to hold the nation together on the eve of the Civil War:

The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot
grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet
swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by
the better angels of our nature.9

Lincoln’s image of America as a harmonious chorus implied that the individual

voices of Americans will create a music together far more beautiful than any one
voice alone. Lincoln’s vision holds forth a continuing dream of a society in which
individualism and the common good not only will survive but also will enhance
each other.
In your class and within this book, you will hear many voices: Native Americans
and new Americans, women and men, conservatives and liberals, Americans of all
different colors and lifestyles. Despite their many differences, all of them are a part
of the vital chorus of our nation. Public speaking gives you the opportunity to hear
these voices and add yours to them.

stereotypes Generalized pictures of

a race, gender, or group that supposedly
represent its essential characteristics.

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 Chapter 1 Discovering Your Voice 33

FINDING YOUR

voice Ways of Thinking About the American Identity

Examine your personal tendencies toward ethnocentrism and stereotyping. Have these
ever helped you communicate more effectively, or have they been a barrier? What can
you do to change or manage these tendencies?

Introduction to Communication
Historical Roots of Public Speaking
The study of public speaking goes back thousands of years, perhaps to those mo-
ments when leaders, sitting around ancient campfires, learned that they could
influence and convince others through the spoken word. Especially noteworthy in
advancing our understanding were those who built—more than two thousand years
ago—a civilization in Athens we still admire as the Golden Age of Greece.
These are the people who introduced democracy to Western civilization. They
also left us a deep appreciation for the importance of public speaking, which served
them as the major means of disseminating ideas and information. There were no
professional lawyers in that era, and citizens were expected to speak for themselves
in legal proceedings and to join in the deliberations that shaped public policy. One
of their leaders, Pericles, concluded that the ability to speak and reason together
was the key to their great civilization:

For we alone think that a man that does not take part in public affairs is good
for nothing, while others only say that he is “minding his own business.” We
are the ones who develop policy, or at least decide what is to be done, for we
believe that what spoils action is not speeches, but going into action without
first being instructed through speeches. In this too we excel over others: ours is
the bravery of people who think through what they will take in hand, and dis-
cuss it thoroughly; with other men, ignorance makes them brave and thinking
makes them cowards.10

We are heirs to this tradition of “participative democracy” enabled by “participative

communication.”11 When citizens gather today to discuss and debate the policies
that may govern their lives, they are enacting Pericles’ dream of an empowered
citizenship. As we explore ideas together, we often enrich our options, learn what
causes are important to us, and shape our positions on vital issues. In essence, we
are “finding our voices.”
Perhaps the most important contribution of the Greeks to the study of commu-
nication was Aristotle’s On Rhetoric, which taught the art of public speaking to the
citizens of Athens. Aristotle brought system and order to the study of public speaking.

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 34 Part 1 The Foundations of Public Speaking

He described three major forms of speeches: deliberative, used in law-

making; forensic, used in the courts; and ceremonial, used during
public ceremonies that celebrated great deeds and honored heroes. He
also identified three major types of appeals: logos, appeals based on
logic; pathos, appeals based on emotion; and ethos, appeals based on
the character of the speaker. Aristotle also stressed the importance of us-
ing evidence, examples, and stories to support conclusions. He made it
clear that “finding your voice” means not only finding yourself but also
learning more about those with whom we communicate.
Another influential Greek, the philosopher Plato, wrote two dia-
logues that deal specifically with the power of the public oration. The
first, Gorgias, offers Plato’s dark vision of the subject. (Read the Gorgias
online.) He charged that the public speakers of his time pandered to the
ignorance and prejudices of the masses instead of advancing the truth.
Too often, these orators told their listeners what they wanted to hear
rather than what they needed to hear. Sound familiar?
In a second dialogue, Phaedrus, Plato paints his ideal of the virtu-
ous speaker whose words will help listeners become better citizens and
people. (Read this classic online.) Such speakers can be both ethical and
effective, even though, Plato observed wryly, this balance may be hard
for many speakers to achieve. Plato’s vision of the ideal speaker would
remain a challenge for the ages of communicators that would follow.
Throughout this book, we draw upon the classic tradition to help us
understand both how to communicate and how we ought to communicate. The
ancients can help us develop both the techniques and the ethics of speak-
ing in public, whether face-to-face or in cyberspace (see a sampling of this
wisdom in Figure 1.1).

Greek philosopher
Aristotle shaped
the study and Communication: Interactive and Dynamic
practice of public
speaking with his Contemporary scientists and philosophers continue to enrich our understanding
influential work of the communication process: how communication works as an interactive and
On Rhetoric. dynamic force in shaping our lives.

Public Speaking as an Interactive Process. Our natural tendency is to

think of a speech as words imposed by one person upon others. Actually, a speech
is a complex interaction among seven elements: speaker, message, channel, interfer-
ence, setting, audience, and feedback.

Speaker. The speaker initiates the communication process by framing an oral mes-
sage for the consideration of others. Speakers should have a message of value that
has been carefully prepared and that deserves serious attention from listeners in
face-to-face communication situations. Because the fate of speeches depends on how
listeners respond, effective speakers must be audience-centered, alert to the needs,
interests, and capacities of their listeners. Ethical speakers believe their messages will
improve the lives of listeners, helping their audiences think critically, creatively, and
constructively about issues.
Whether listeners accept a speaker as credible is crucial to the interaction: If
listeners think a speaker is competent, likable, and trustworthy and shares their

deliberative speeches Used to
propose, discuss, debate, and decide
future policies and laws.
forensic speeches Used to deter-
mine the rightness and wrongness of past
actions, often in courts of law.
logos Appeals based on logic and
evidence.
ceremonial speeches In ancient
Greece, used to celebrate and commemo-
rate heroic deeds, great events, and the
honored dead.

M01_OSBO9982_CH01_p027-046.indd 34 28/04/14 10:20 AM

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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN