Electrical Actuation

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Relays

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Diodes

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Thyristor

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Cont.
Thyristors have three states:
Reverse blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would be blocked by
a diode
Forward blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would cause a diode
to conduct, but the thyristor has not been triggered into conduction
Forward conducting mode — The thyristor has been triggered into conduction and will
remain conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold value known as the
"holding current"

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Triacs

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Triacs and Thyristors

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Cont.

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Cont.

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Bipolar Transistors
BJT (bipolar junction transistor) are widely used an amplifier,
oscillator, switch etc. It is a current-driven device ,the output
current is equal to the input current times a factor which is called
Gain. A basic BJT has three pins: the Base, Collector,
and Emitter

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: Bipolar Transistors

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Saturation: high current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode
corresponds to a closed switch. This could be also used for resistors
simulation in small circuits.
Cut-off: the biasing conditions is the opposite of saturation (both junctions
reverse biased) which corresponds to an open switch. The cut-off and
saturation can be used together to form a digital (1 or 0) type of circuit for
computers.
Forward-active: This is the linear region of the curves (shown as amplification
mode in the diagram). The collector-emitter current is approximately
proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current
variations. BJT amplifiers uses the Forward-active characteristics.

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: MOSFET
MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. The MOSFET has
“gate“, “Drain” and “Source” terminals instead of a
“base”, “collector”, and “emitter” terminals in a bipolar transistor.
By applying voltage at the gate, it generates an electrical field to
control the current flow through the channel between drain and
source, and there is no current flow from the gate into the
MOSFET.

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 Solid state switches: MOSFET
When there is no applying voltage between the Gate-Source , the Drain-
Source resistance is very high, which is almost like a open circuit, so no
current may flow through the Drain-Source.

When Gate-Source potential difference is applied, the Drain-Source resistance

is reduced, and there will be current flowing through Drain-Source, which is
now a closed circuit.

With MOSEFT higher frequency

Switching in possible up to 1 Mhz

M E C H AT R O N I C S
 BJT Vs MOSEFT
MOSFET is voltage controlled. While BJT is current controlled
base resistor needs to be carefully calculated according to the
amount of current being switched in BJT
Not so with a MOSFET. Just apply enough voltage to the gate
and the switch operates.
Because they are voltage controlled, MOSFET have a very high
input impedance.

You need to consider theses elements while choosing

-Load Driving
-Power consumption efficiency

M E C H AT R O N I C S
Drive Systems
 Operating principles
 Electric motors convert voltage and current into
torque and speed
 Opposite magnets attract and same magnets repel
 Magnets move to a position to minimise the
reluctance of flux
 Current in conductors creates an electromagnetic
field similar to a magnet
▪ AC induction motors are commonly used in constant
speed applications
▪ DC motors are commonly used in variable speed
applications
18
 Motor components
 Rotor: moving
component
 Stator: stationary
component
 Housing: to hold
rotors
 Bearings: to support
rotor in housing

 Types of motion
control motors
 DC motors
 AC induction motors
 Stepper motors

19
Motors- control the movement of a robot.

Identified as Actuators there are three common types

•DC Motor
Stepper motor

•Stepper Motor

•Servo motor
DC Motors
 Most common and cheapest

 Powered with two wires from source

 Draws large amounts of current

 Cannot be wired straight from a microcontroller

 Does not offer accuracy or speed control

DC Motors
 Brush type DC motors

 Equivalent circuit and torque-speed characteristics

22
  Characteristic equations
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑘𝑣 𝜔
𝑉−𝑣𝑏 𝑉−𝑘𝑣 𝜔
𝑖= =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑘𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑉− 𝑘𝑣 𝜔
𝑅
 Types

(a) series-wound motor

(b) shunt-wound motor
(c) compound motor
(d) separately excited motor
(e) torque–speed
characteristics

23
 DC-motor control

 Controller + H-bridge
 Speed control by controlling
motor current=torque
 Efficient small components
H-Bridge
Stepper Motors
 Stepper has many electromagnets
 Stepper controlled by sequential turning on and off of
magnets
 Each pulse moves another step, providing a step angle
 Example shows a step angle of 90°

Poor control with a large angle

Better step angle achieved with the toothed disc
 When incremental rotary motion is required in a
robot, it is possible to use stepper motors
 A stepper motor possesses the ability to move a
specified number of revolutions or fraction of a
revolution in order to achieve a fixed and consistent
angular movement
 This is achieved by increasing the numbers of poles on
both rotor and stator
 Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth
on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number
of poles (reluctance motor)
 This figure illustrates the design
of a stepper motor, arranged
with four magnetic poles
arranged around a central rotor
 Note that the teeth on the rotor
have a slightly tighter spacing
to those on the stator, this ensures that the two sets of
teeth are close to each other but not quite aligned
throughout
 Movement is achieved when
power is applied for short
periods to successive magnets

 Where pairs of teeth are least

offset, the electromagnetic
pulse causes alignment and a
small rotation is achieved, typically 1-2o
How Does A Stepper Motor Work?

The top electromagnet (1) is charged, attracting the

topmost four teeth of a sprocket.
How Does A Stepper Motor Work? (cont…)

The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the

right electromagnet (2) is charged, pulling the
nearest four teeth to the right. This results in a
rotation of 3.6°
How Does A Stepper Motor Work? (cont…)

The bottom electromagnet (3) is charged; another

3.6° rotation occurs.
How Does A Stepper Motor Work? (cont…)

The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating again by

3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is again charged, the
teeth in the sprocket will have rotated by one tooth
position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to
make a full rotation.
 3.6 degree step angle => 100 steps per revolution
 25 teeth, 4 step= 1 tooth => 100 steps for 25teeth
 Controlled using output Blocks on a PIC
 Correct sequence essential
 Reverse sequence - reverse motor
Stepper Motor
 Stepper motors have several advantages:
 Their control is directly compatible with digital
technology
 They can be operated open loop by counting steps, with
an accuracy of 1 step.
 They can be used as holding devices, since they exhibit a
high holding torque when the rotor is stationary
Pulse-Width Modulation
 How does this work?
 We do not change the supplied voltage
 Power is switched on/off at a certain pulse ratio
matching the desired output power
 Signal has very high frequency (e.g. 20kHz)
 Motors are relatively slow to respond
 The only thing that counts is the supplied power
 ⇒ Integral (Summation)
 Pulse-Width Ratio = ton / tperiod
Pulse-Width Modulation
 A/D converters are used for reading analog sensor
signals
 Why not use D/A converter for motor control?
 Too expensive (needs power circuitry)
 Better do it by software, switching power on/off in
intervals
 This is called “Pulse-Width Modulation” or PWM

39
Servos

40
Servos

41
Servos

42
 Servos
 Servo offers smoothest control

 Rotate to a specific point

 Offer good torque and control

 Ideal for powering robot arms etc.

However:
 Degree of revolution is limited

 Not suitable for applications which require

continuous rotation
Servos
 Contain motor, gearbox, driver controller and potentiometer
 Three wires - 0v, 5v and PIC signal
 Potentiometer connected to gearbox - monitors movement
 Provides feedback
 If position is distorted - automatic correction
+ 5V
Electrical Actuators
 easy to control
 from mW to MW
 normally high velocities 1000 - 10000 rpm
 several types
 accurate servo control
 ideal torque for driving
 excellent efficiency
 autonomous power system difficult

45
Hydraulic Actuators
 linear movement
 big forces without gears
 actuators are simple
 in mobile machines
 Bad efficiency
 motor, pump, actuator combination is lighter than
motor, generator, battery, motor & gear combination

46
Pneumatic Actuators
 like hydraulic except power from compressed air
 fast on/off type tasks
 big forces with elasticity
 no leak problems

47
 Open and Closed Loop Control
All control systems contain three elements:
(i) The control
(ii) Current Amplifiers
(iii) Actuator

• The control is the Brain

• Current amplifier receives orders from brain and sends
required signal to the actuator
• Signal sent depends on the whether Open or Closed loop
control is used.
 Open Loop Control

For Open Loop Control:

 The controller is told where the output device needs to be

 Once the controller sends the signal to motor it does not

receive feedback to known if it has reached desired position
Open loop much cheaper than closed loop but less accurate
Open Loop Control
 Closed Loop Control
 Provided feedback to the control unit telling it the actual
position of the motor.
 This actual position is found using an encoder.

 The actual position is compared to the desired.

 Position is changed if necessary

 The Encoder

 Encoders give the control unit information as to the actual

position of the motor.
 Light shines through a slotted disc, the light sensor counts
the speed and number of breaks in the light.
 Allows for the calculation of speed, direction and distance
travelled.
 Closed Loop Control
 The desired value is compared to the actual value.

 Comparator subtracts actual from desired.

 The difference is the error which is fed to the controller

which generates a control action to eliminate the error.
 On - off control
Simplest closed loop:
 When an error is identified the system goes into full
corrective state.
 Can tend to over shoot desired.

 Stops and falls below desired so it never reaches desired

 Proportional control

 Rubber band effect - greater the distance from the

desired more corrective force applied.
 As it approaches the desired, less correction.

 Tend to reduce over shoot but slower reaction.

 Never reaches desired - offset

 Proportional control
System attempts to calculate a Gain K that will try and
stabilise the system at the desired value.