Reference and Information Services An Introduction Ebook PDF

Reference and Information Services :
An Introduction (Ebook PDF)

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/reference-and-information-services-an-introduction-e
book-pdf/
F I G U R E S A N D TA B L E S
FIGURES
3.1 Database Search Strategy Worksheet 47
3.2 Form Interface for a Database 48
3.3 Refining a Database Search 49
3.4 Screenshot of the LibGuide page for MacPhádín Library at Stonehill College 52
5.1 Venn Diagram: Oxford University Press “Reference Reimagined” 78
13.1 WWW Cyberguide Ratings for Content Evaluation 275
15.1 A Model of Young People’s Decision Making on the Web 303
19.1 Screenshot of “Classes & Workshops” at the New York Public Library 367
19.2 Queset House: A Learning Commons at the Ames Free Library

(North Easton, MA) 368
19.3 Screenshot of Fab Lab at the Fayetteville (NY) Free Library 371
19.4 Screenshot of YOUmedia’s Createch at Saint Paul (MN) Public Library 372
21.1 Example of a Survey Page on Reference Support at the MIT Libraries 401
21.2 Trigger Questions Used in a Protocol Analysis Study 404
21.3 Unobtrusive Observation Worksheet (Questions) 405
21.4 Desk Tracker Guide: Recording Reference Questions 407
21.5 Reference Desk Notebook, Sample Page 408
22.1 Screenshot of Reference Blog at the Yale Law Library 424
22.2 Readers’ Advisory Blog at the Bensenville Community Public Library 424
22.3 Blog as In-House Communication at Barnard College Library 425
22.4 Blog as News Bulletins at the University of Montana 425
22.5 Blog as Personal Statement 426
22.6 Twitter Account at the Library of Congress 427
22.7 Podcasts at Johns Hopkins Medicine 427
/ vii /
vi i i / LIST OF F IG U R E S AN D TABLE S
22.8 Folksonomy of the University of British Columbia Graphics in Flickr 428
22.9 Cloud Tag for the Witkin State Law Library 429
22.10 Drill-Down of a Single Tag for the Witkin State Law Library 429
22.11 Facebook Account of Duke University Law Library 430
22.12 RSS Subject Feeds Offered by the MIT Libraries 432
22.13 Catalog Search Result Page at the University of Huddersfield 433
22.14 Mashup of SELCO Library Consortium Site 434
22.15 PDA Zone at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada 436
22.16 Mobile Library at the Boston University Medical Center 436
22.17 Screenshot of Librarian 2.0 Position Announcement 438
TABLES
13.1 Sample General Search Engines 267
13.2 Sample Academic Search Engines 268
13.3 Sample Metasearch Engines 269
19.1 Reference Tools: Traditional and Collaborative 368
19.2 Framework for Programming Assessment 375
19.3 Logic Model for Reference Exhibit at University of Buffalo 377
20.1 Changing Paradigms in Reference Management 382
20.2 Select Examples of Collaborative Virtual Reference Services 386

P R E FA C E
Reference and Information Services: An Introduction, Fourth Edition, is about skills, changing
resources, and best practices. Reference service has become much more complex as avail-
able resources expand and is in a constant state of flux.
The process of maturing into an experienced reference librarian, learning new skill
sets, is challenging, unending, hugely rewarding, and, yes, fun. In this book, we identify
these skill sets, analyze them, break them into their component parts, and present them
to you, the eternally maturing reference librarian, in ways that are reproducible. The first
and second editions of this book were dedicated to the intrepid librarian because the ref-
erence librarian at the start of the twenty-first century had to, above all else, be fearless in
the face of a technology revolution. The third edition was dedicated to the entrepreneurial
librarian who must continually think outside of the box and look for trends, new resources,
and technology that can be adapted to the library setting. This fourth edition is dedicated to
the digital explorer, the librarian who makes use of all the digital resources to assist library
users in their quest for information.
Ambiguity, never a stranger to the field of librarianship in general and information
studies in particular, seems particularly acute in the face of dramatic new technologies fos-
tering equally dramatic new ways of doing reference. Digitized books and other resourc-
es are available from many sources, including Google and HathiTrust. The solid old desk,
across which the static transaction of reference questions and answers was conducted, is
often entirely replaced by virtual reference, reference consultation services, roving librar-
ians, and mobile technology. Real-life librarians have spawned virtual reference librarians
within the dense proliferation of social networks like Facebook. Online searching skills,
techniques, and interpretation have overtaken resource-based reference and are impera-
tive to effective reference services in all libraries.
The increasingly fast pace of change has compelled us to write yet another new edition
to update and replace the sources listed in the third edition. Search skills required to locate
newly digitized government documents, for example, bear little resemblance to searches
through the voluminous GPO publications of a few years ago. An augural job listing by the
New York Public Library included this as one of its performance expectations: a knowledge
of the library as a “location where new and emerging information technologies and resourc-
es are combined with traditional sources of knowledge in a user-focused, service-rich en-
vironment that supports today’s social and educational patterns of learning, teaching, and
research.” No pressure intended.
The professional reference librarian must commit to an ongoing understanding of the
fundamental concepts, essential resources, search techniques, and managerial tasks inher-
ent to reference, which are underwritten in large part by the wider social and educational
patterns of information and research. The chapters contained in this edition support that
commitment, even as they ease the pressure of trying to know too much without organized
skill sets. The larger universe, where the primacy of information has never been felt more
acutely, is kept in strict perspective throughout the text. The updated chapter on Reference
/ ix /
x / PR E FAC E
2.0 tools now captures more of the restless mutability of emerging technologies and alerts
the reference professional to experimental trends and practices that are utilizing new tech-
nology in innovative ways. More important, it acknowledges the maturing of virtual refer-
ence and the continually rising expectations of the user to access information freely, instan-
taneously, and often using mobile devices. The chapter on reference work with children and
young adults, completely rewritten for this edition, reflects the importance of developmen-
tally appropriate reference resources, a timely mirror to the global emphasis being placed
on the relevance of information-seeking behavior at all stages of human development. An
expanded chapter on ethics adds a critical framework for reference librarians having to
function within the somewhat unseen but treacherous shoals of information copyright is-
sues and professional codes of conduct. The role of reference librarians as “information
trust agents” cannot be underestimated in a universe of unending and complex information
transactions. This chapter aims to anchor the expected rules of conduct and alert reference
librarians to areas of vulnerability. A new chapter on programming as reference explores
alternate ways of providing information to library users in timely acknowledgment of new
forms of information-seeking behavior.
While earlier editions provided a mix of print and e-resources, this fourth edition
emphasizes electronic resources, in deference to the primacy of online searching over re-
source-based reference. The book continues to provide free web resources of depth and
value useful for budget-conscious institutions faced with continuing global recession, along
with a listing of mobile apps available for smartphones, iPads, and other mobile technology.
This text also incorporates the valued suggestions of practitioners, including the adoption
of the suggestion by an LIS faculty member to provide the uninitiated student with a com-
prehensive idea of the immense diversity in reference resources through an accessible list
of RUSA “Outstanding Reference Sources,” so that a list of selected titles appears as an ap-
pendix. What worked effectively for the first three editions remains but is enhanced with
necessary updates. We have taken care to both cull and expand the hundreds of resources
listed in the text.
Each of the chapters on resources provides an important section on selection and keep-
ing current in the field. We have continued to treat reference transactions as an organic
process that involves understanding both the text and the subtext of a question, identifying
the best resources, and providing an optimal answer. Reference and Information Services: An
Introduction differed from traditional reference texts in consciously linking questions to
sources, rather than classifying resources and providing a general description of their use.
Our approach, firmly grounded in real-world practices, was a direct result of the oft-heard
remark from library school graduates who believed their experiences in real transactions
felt remote from what they had studied at school. The progression of question → reference
interview → search process → resource options → answer was deemed to be a truer repre-
sentation of what students would face in the real world, and this fourth edition continues
to uphold that structure.
ORGANIZATION
While this fourth edition of Reference and Information Services: An Introduction is aimed
at all reference librarians striving to acquire or affirm the necessary skill sets, it is orga-
nized to complement the syllabus of a typical library and information studies course. The
four sections that make up the text provide a well-rounded grounding in the fundamental
PR E FAC E / xi
concepts of reference, the arsenal of major resources with which every reference librarian
must become familiar to answer basic questions, special topics such as readers’ advisory
and user instruction (that fall within the purview of reference work), and tools to field the
ongoing responsibility of developing and skillfully managing reference departments in the
face of constant change and innovation.
Part I: Fundamental Concepts
Chapter 1, “Introduction to Reference and Information Services,” provides you with an

overview of the breadth of services housed under the reference rubric and discusses some
of the changes in reference service.
Chapter 2, “Determining the Question: In-Person, Telephone, and Virtual Reference
Interviews,” outlines the first and perhaps most critical step in the reference process. In or-
der to assist the reader, the librarian must skillfully determine the user’s question or need.
Given that reference is, and always will be, predicated on contact and communication, even
in times of change, this chapter takes into account in-person, telephone, and virtual refer-
ence interviews.
Chapter 3, “Finding the Answer: Basic Search Techniques,” is in many ways a conclu-
sion to part I and a prelude to part II. Having identified the question, the next step is to
construct an answer. This hands-on chapter trains you to organize your thoughts, develop a
strategy for the particular request, and find the optimal solution.
Part II: Introduction to Major Reference Sources
The nine chapters in this section focus on how, what, where, who, and when questions as
they correlate to authoritative resources, rather than describe types of resources. Included
in this section are these chapters:
Chapter 4, “Answering Questions about Books, Magazines, Newspapers,

Libraries and Publishing, and Bibliographic Networks—Bibliographic
Resources”
Chapter 5, “Answering Questions about Anything and Everything—
Encyclopedias”
Chapter 6, “Answering Questions That Require Handy Facts—Ready
Reference Sources”
Chapter 7, “Answering Questions about Words—Dictionaries, Concordances,
and Manuals”
Chapter 8, “Answering Questions about Events and Issues, Past and Present—
Databases (and Indexes)”
Chapter 9, “Answering Questions about Health, Law, and Business—Special
Guidelines and Sources”
Chapter 10, “Answering Questions about Geography, Countries, and Travel—
Atlases, Gazetteers, Maps, Geographic Information Systems, and Travel
Guides”
Chapter 11, “Answering Questions about the Lives of People—Biographical
Information Sources”
xii / PR E FAC E
Chapter 12, “Answering Questions about Government and Related Issues—

Government Information Sources”
Each of these chapters begins with an overview of materials and how they are used to answer
the particular type of question. We provide sample questions (and answers) for which those
sources are best used and describe the major print, electronic, and web-based materials avail-
able. Also included are guidance for collection development and maintenance practices; fur-
ther considerations and special information particular to the topic; a final list of the “top”
reference sources in the subject area; and a list of recommended free websites. The Recom-
mended Resources Discussed in This Chapter lists are standardized as title entries for easy
discovery. As each chapter is uniformly structured, you will find it conducive both to advanced
reading in preparation for service and as an effective reference source at the desk.
Part III: Special Topics in Reference and Information Work
Chapter 13, “When and How to Use the Internet as a Reference Tool,” addresses one of the
most challenging and ubiquitous reference resources to have emerged in our times. Out-
lining the strengths and weaknesses of the Internet as a reference source, this chapter also
contains a five-step approach to using the Internet in reference transactions.
Chapter 14, “Readers’ Advisory Services,” discusses both the history of readers’ adviso-
ry (RA) and its current practice. While RA is sometimes housed in departments other than
reference (Adult, Children’s, or Young Adult Services), the librarian sitting at the reference
desk should and often must be prepared to field all questions, including an RA question.
This chapter, authored by Cindy Orr, describes the most common types of RA queries, best
practices and common mistakes in RA, and a list of recommended resources.
Chapter 15, “Reference Services for Children and Young Adults,” authored by Sujin
Huggins, discusses a developmentally appropriate approach to reference work with chil-
dren and young adults. Librarians must be conscious of both reading and development lev-
els of children and young adults. The chapter also discusses reference service for children
with special needs and includes recommended titles for reference collections for children
and young adults.
Chapter 16, “Information Literacy in the Reference Department,” discusses the impor-
tance of information literacy in all types of libraries and offers suggestions for one-to-one
classroom instruction and distance learning. In the right transaction, instruction can be a
very appropriate and valued response to a query.
Part IV: Developing and Managing Reference Collections and Services
The selection of fast-disappearing or format-changing reference materials has never

required as much dexterity and flexibility as in the current climate. Management skills are
essential for the library professional, as is the development of assessment tools that contin-
ually measure the library’s success in cresting and controlling the ebb and flow of changing
reference collections and services.
Chapter 17, “Ethics in Reference,” authored by Diana Floegel, tackles the sometimes
difficult but very important issues of professional codes of ethics, plagiarism, copyright and
intellectual property, as well as access to information and censorship.
PR E FAC E / x iii
Chapter 18, “Selecting and Evaluating Reference Materials,” provides sources for re-
view and evaluation criteria. You will also find guidance for managing the materials budget,
assessing collections, weeding titles, writing policy, and marketing collections.
Chapter 19, “Reference as Programming,” introduces the idea of using collaboration,
interactivity, and crowdsourcing programming events as a timely way to connect users with
information.
Chapter 20, “Managing Reference Departments,” looks at staff, service, and depart-
ment organization. This chapter provides options for managers and considerations for de-
cision making. While aimed at the manager, it is also a helpful glimpse for any professional
into the form and function of today’s reference departments.
Chapter 21, “Assessing and Improving Reference Services,” moves from the day-to-day
practice of reference work to the vision and development of future services. In times of
budget stringency especially, there is heightened emphasis on assessment and accountabil-
ity. From why we should assess to what and how to assess to what we should do with our
findings, this chapter encourages a hands-on and proactive approach to improvement.
Chapter 22, “Reference 2.0,” provides a comprehensive snapshot of the many tools and
sites mined from Web 2.0 technology and used to enhance reference services by innovative
libraries across the United States, Great Britain, and Canada.
Finally, chapter 23, “The Future of Information Service,” looks ahead to the models,
materials, and services that will continue to evolve and define reference services in the
foreseeable future.
ROUND 4
Skills and best practices are anchors in a reference world that is in constant flux. In asking
you to absorb the skill sets provided in this book as a means to navigate fearlessly through
the shifting sands of reference, we have been rather fearless ourselves. We have invited
stringent critiques from theoreticians and practitioners, students and faculty, as well as
colleagues and friends on the ideas, organization, choices, and usability of the text. Our
personal egos have been temporarily suspended in the search for an objectively good prod-
uct. The members of the Advisory Board (listed on the verso of the title page) have been
invaluable in helping us toward this goal. We have been in safe hands and we hope to pass
that security on to you.
David Lankes talks of libraries as facilitators of knowledge creation and reference as
conversation and participatory networking. Round 1 of this book was birthed through in-
tense conversation. We could see our fetal ideas gain bone, muscle, and tissue as we held
focus groups at ALA conferences, deconstructed scores of reference syllabi, poured through
publishers’ catalogs and websites, and immersed ourselves in “participatory networking”
with both aspiring students and grizzled practitioners. It was a heady experience. Round
2 was a process of fine-tuning, of quieter contemplation, of more in-depth questioning
and expanded experience. Comprehensiveness, currency, and readability were the ternion
values undergirding all additions, subtractions, and edits to the text. Round 3 focused on
tethering multiformat reference tools and services to the larger movements in society to
provide context to the choices we made. Round 4 has been updated and expanded within a
reference ecosystem where crowdsourcing, cloud computing, and the remarkable immedia-
cy of mobile technology are all feeding and being fed by a vigorous new style of information
seeking and reference research.
xiv / PR E FAC E
The product you hold amalgamates the energetic fire of its birth; the controlling waters
of intensive calibration and expansion that marked Round 2; the recognition of reference
as part of a dynamically changed information universe in Round 3; and the acceptance of
continual flux and new forms of information-seeking behavior in Round 4. We hope the
evolution of our approach to best practices and resource anchors will find resonance in your
individual development as digital explorers of the twenty-first century.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THIS BOOK COULD not have been realized without the assistance of many people. We
thank:
The members of our Advisory Board, Anita Ondrusek, Amy VanScoy, and
David Ward
Reference librarians everywhere who shared their ideas
Our many friends for their understanding and support
Kay thanks:
Diana Floegel and Vanessa Kitzie for all their assistance

The library school students I have taught for helping me to shape my ideas
about reference service and how it is changing
Uma thanks:
Her Trishul: Bala, Ayesha, Vani
/ xv /
PA R T I
Fundamental Concepts
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Reference and

Information Services
A CHANGING REFERENCE landscape dominates the current conversation on reference
and information services. Although such services’ mission and goals remain steady, the way
they are provided is constantly changing. The development of subscription and free elec-
tronic resources has changed the sources of information available, while virtual reference
has made it possible to reach users no matter where they are. Librarians and library users
are constantly bombarded with a wide range of information choices that must be evaluated
for authenticity and accuracy. Whether at home on their computers or wandering through
the stacks, many people feel as though they are drowning in a sea of information. New
media and technologies link users to this new and growing body of global knowledge and
enable librarians to assist them virtually as well as face-to-face. Reference services are at
once a life raft, map, and compass to those who feel adrift. In providing users with a com-
bination of personalized services in a timely manner, libraries reaffirm their centrality as
twenty-first-century public institutions par excellence.
For all its contemporary relevance, the concept of reference service is over a century
old. In 1876, Samuel Green, librarian of the Worcester Free Public Library in Massachu-
setts, developed the idea of having librarians assist users in the selection of books to suit
their needs. This served a dual function, increasing the use of his library’s collection and
thereby demonstrating the need for the library. Green saw the role of the public library as
one of welcoming users by having a pleasant and cultivated female staff (Genz, 1998). Some
forty years later, in 1915, at the thirty-seventh meeting of the American Library Association,
a paper on reference work was delivered by William Warner Bishop, the superintendent of
the Reading Room of the Library of Congress. Bishop defined reference work as “the ser-
vice rendered by a librarian in aid of some sort of study,” claiming that it was “an organized
effort on the part of libraries in aid of the most expeditious and fruitful use of their books”
(Genz, 1998: 511).
Charles Williamson further developed the idea of reference service in his 1923 report
“Training for Library Service: A Report Prepared for the Carnegie Corporation of New
York,” which included a course description for reference work:
A study of the standard works of reference, general and special encyclopedias, dictionaries, an-
nuals, indexes to periodicals, ready reference manuals of every kind, special bibliographies, and
the more important newspapers and periodicals. Works of similar scope are compared, and the
limitations of each pointed out. Lists of questions made up from practical experience are given,
and the method of finding the answers discussed in the class. (Genz, 1998: 513)
More recently, several authors, including William A. Katz (2001) and Linda C. Smith and
Melissa A. Wong (2016), wrote reference texts in which they continued to refine the role of
/ 3 /
4 / PAR T I : F U N DAM EN TAL C ONC EP T S
the reference librarian over the subsequent decades.

Perhaps the most important point to remember is that reference service seeks to fulfill
the greater mission of the library by assisting individual users. Despite the many transfor-
mations that have been wrought on reference work by developments of our information
society and paradigm shifts in the self-understandings of the library, much has remained
the same. First and foremost, it is still a service in which the librarian interacts with the
patron on a one-to-one basis, whether in person or virtually. This level of personal service
has become even more important in the twenty-first century in light of the alienating and
depersonalizing effects of many information technologies. On the other hand, the way in
which librarians provide such service has changed considerably—it now extends beyond
face-to-face assistance thanks to the availability of the telephone, e-mail, and the technolo-
gy for chat and instant messaging (IM) reference. Even social media sites such as Facebook
and Twitter are now involved.
ETHICS
Ethical awareness and engagement is a crucial aspect of all library services, and the ideals
that have been established for the profession generally apply fully to those working in ref-
erence services. Just as therapists would do their patients little good if they did not keep
their patients’ information confidential, reference librarians must follow certain standards
of behavior if the service they provide is to be effective. The American Library Association’s
current Code of Ethics, last revised in 2008, provides a useful guide. This code upholds a
variety of the principles essential to the modern library.
The code encourages librarians to provide the same high level of service to all library
users and to provide information that is “accurate, unbiased and courteous.” This statement
is at the heart of good reference service, which strives to provide high-quality information
and information to all. Reference staff must understand what constitutes a good reference
interaction and must strive to meet that standard with each user query (Bunge, 1999).
The code calls for upholding the principles of intellectual freedom and resisting at-
tempts to censor library materials. Resource selection is reflected in this statement, as li-
brarians are encouraged to provide information on a subject from many points of view. The
code goes on to insist on the user’s right to privacy and confidentiality in requesting and
using library resources. Reference librarians must be particularly cognizant of this profes-
sional obligation. They must respect the privacy of users by keeping their reference inter-
views and the resources used confidential.
Intellectual property rights, addressed in the code, are of increasing importance in li-
braries. Librarians must keep current with changes in intellectual property laws—especially
copyright—and keep their users aware of these laws. Librarians must know when copying is
covered under the “fair use” provision of the law and when copying violates the copyright
law. This is more than good in itself; it also helps protect the institution, its employees, and
its users from claims of copyright infringement and intellectual dishonesty.
The relationship between personal interests and professional responsibilities is dis-
cussed in the code. The respectful treatment of coworkers and colleagues and the safeguard-
ing of the rights of all employees are encouraged. Library employees are cautioned not to
put private interests ahead of library interests. This means that employees should be cir-
cumspect in their dealings with library vendors and other outsiders so their decisions are
made on professional merit and are not influenced by personal interests.
CHAP TER 1 : I N TR OD U C TIO N TO R E FE R E N C E AN D I N F OR MATI O N SE R V I C E S / 5
The code also cautions library employees not to put personal convictions or beliefs
ahead of library interests. This is of special significance to reference librarians. Sometimes
a librarian must help a user research an area that is personally against the librarian’s own
beliefs or philosophy. By putting professional duties first, the librarian can successfully as-
sist the user and provide the information needed.
Other professional library organizations have their own codes of ethics. These include,
among others, the Association for Information Science and Technology, the Society of
American Archivists, the Medical Library Association, and the American Association of Law
Libraries. A more in-depth discussion of ethics is presented in chapter 17.
KINDS OF INFORMATION SERVICE
Information service is the process of resolving information needs of users in response to a

particular question, interest, assignment, or problem and building positive relationships
with users (Radford, 1999). The Reference and User Services Association (RUSA) of the
American Library Association defines reference transactions, sometimes referred to as ref-
erence service, as “information consultations in which library staff recommend, interpret,
evaluate, and/or use information resources to help others to meet particular information
needs” (RUSA, 2008). These reference transactions can take place in person, on the tele-
phone, or virtually via e-mail, chat reference, instant messaging, social media, or videocon-
ferencing. Librarians are also creating websites, answer archives, and links to “frequently
asked questions”—all of which are designed to anticipate user questions and help people
independently find information. Traditional reference desk service continues to be highly
valued by library users in many settings, but newer forms of virtual communication such as
e-mail, chat reference, and texting have become extremely popular. Consequently, it is all
the more important for librarians to understand the range of inquiries that can be expected,
allowing them to provide a full and ready answer, regardless of the form through which the
query arises or through which the answer is delivered.
Answering Reference Questions
In light of the immense diversity and range of possible questions, being approached by
a patron with an information need can seem like a daunting prospect. Indeed, much of
the difficulty of information services arises from uncertainty about the kind of service or
breadth of information called for by a given question. Categorizing reference questions by
type is a useful way to make sense of such concerns. Three common types of reference
questions are ready reference questions, research questions, and bibliographic verification.
Ready reference questions such as “Where is Jimmy Carter’s Presidential Library?,”
“Who won the 2014 World Series?,” “What is the capital of Cambodia?,” or “What coun-
tries use the Euro?” can be readily answered using a general reference source. The librarian
may be tempted to tell the user the answer to simple ready reference questions. Yet here
the saying “Giving a man a fish feeds him for a day while teaching him to fish feeds him
for a lifetime” helps to explain the importance of providing instruction when possible. No
matter how simple they initially seem, ready reference questions provide the opportunity
for teachable moments. Taking into consideration users’ needs and willingness to engage in
instruction, librarians should lead users through the process of looking up the information
rather than simply provide the solution.

Librarians who assist users with ready reference inquiries on a regular basis sometimes
choose to create a “ready reference” section of the most commonly used resources—either
in print or on the library’s website—to answer quick questions. Typically, such sections
include a general all-purpose encyclopedia, dictionaries, almanacs, and handbooks. Librari-
ans should keep the sources up-to-date and also avoid depending so heavily on this subset of
the collection that other sources are overlooked by library users and librarians. Ready refer-
ence questions have diminished due to the ease of answering basic questions through search
engines such as Google, though a study found that for chat reference about 30 percent of
the questions were ready reference (Connaway and Radford, 2011). Thus, ready reference
remains a cornerstone of information services, and librarians should be poised to provide
it at any time.
Research questions are more complex, may take much longer to answer, and typical-
ly require multiple sources of information. These are often the questions that require the
user to consider a variety of sources and viewpoints and to subsequently draw conclusions.
Sometimes questions that initially seem like ready reference questions are found to be far
more complex, as previously hidden facets of the user’s inquiry are revealed. Here, the vari-
ety of possible sources increases with the complexity of users’ questions. Librarians should,
for example, guide users in the use of bibliographic sources, databases, and other reference
materials. Likewise, users with complex questions may need guidance as to how to find or
request the full text of articles for which electronic databases offer only citations, allowing
them to move beyond cursory surveys of the literature.
Research questions, especially if users are unable to fully articulate the nature of their
queries, require librarians to ask additional questions through the reference interview as a
means of understanding the nature of the requests before setting out to help the patrons
answer them. The librarian will need to determine how much information is needed, what
level of information is needed, and what other sources have already been consulted. As is
discussed in chapter 3, information services call for mutual engagement, especially with
more complex questions. Reference librarians should never be passive participants, point-
ing the way to an answer. Instead, they should play the part of dynamic guides, collaborat-
ing with users on their search for information and knowledge.
Naturally, the extent of such engagement may vary from one circumstance to another.
Different types of libraries tend to have their own standards for how long librarians should
spend with users on research questions. Many public libraries recommend that users be
given five or ten minutes of personal assistance and then asked to return if more help is
needed. A university library may have a similar standard, or depending on the institution,
the librarian may invite the user to make an appointment for more in-depth research as-
sistance. Some libraries may suggest that patrons call or e-mail ahead of their visit so the
librarian can be prepared to offer the best possible assistance. Many libraries now offer
consultation services for which the enquirer may make an appointment in advance, which
allows for longer reference sessions. Librarians may also refer users to other institutions
with more specialized materials in the area of their research or offer to call back or e-mail
if additional information is found.
Finally, library users may seek bibliographic verification when they have already ob-
tained the information needed but must verify the sources. Sometimes this service is a mat-
ter of fact checking, while on other occasions users may have completed their research but
lack full citation information. As researchers increasingly depend on electronic databases
for information, compiling and formatting bibliographic citations becomes easier. Verifying
and citing material found on webpages is more difficult since the information needed for
the citation is not always easy to find.
Readers’ Advisory Service
Readers’ advisory service, sometimes considered a type of information service, is the quest
to put the right resources in the right reader’s hands. Public and school librarians especially
are increasingly expected to provide an answer to the question “Can you help me find a
good book?” Fortunately, as demand has increased, so too has the ease of providing this
service. While there is no substitute for a librarian’s own knowledge or experience, many
new technologies serve to make readers’ advisory far easier than it was in the past. Many
online databases, for example, have functions that automatically recommend other books
to those who like a given title. Others have searchable lists of works by genre, helping read-
ers match their favorite books to similar material. As always, however, it is important to
remember that readers’ advisory, like other reference work, is predicated on the interaction
between a librarian and a library user. Asking directed questions, listening carefully to the
user’s responses, and tailoring assistance accordingly are the basis of excellent, truly helpful
service.
Readers’ advisory service is generally associated with public libraries and school librar-
ies and may be employed by those looking for fiction or sometimes literary nonfiction. In
academic libraries, it is far less common as users rarely come in searching for a good book
to read. Even so, readers’ advisory may be needed in academic settings to help researchers
looking to deepen their knowledge of a particular field. For example, a patron who has read
and enjoyed Stephen Ambrose’s Undaunted Courage but is troubled by allegations about
Ambrose’s questionable accuracy and academic honesty may want to know the titles of
books about the Lewis and Clark expedition that are both reputable and engaging. Success-
ful readers’ advisory librarians are skilled at asking users questions that enable them to as-
sist in finding books of interest. They must know a great deal about various genres of fiction
and nonfiction and be intimately familiar with their libraries’ collections. Significantly, it is
important that they be able to convey their expertise in a friendly and conversational man-
ner. Truly mastering readers’ advisory service requires a great deal of skill and practice. The
basics are explored in more detail in chapter 14.
Information Literacy Instruction
Information literacy, formerly often referred to as user instruction, may range from showing
an individual how to use the library’s online catalog and basic print and electronic reference
sources to teaching formal classroom sessions about conducting research in the library. The
basic component of information literacy includes demonstrating how, when, and why to
use various reference sources in an integrated way that will capture the user’s attention at
a teachable moment.
In today’s educational settings, the ease of using electronic resources often results in a
failure to teach more traditional research strategies. While finding superficial information
has grown easier, in-depth information using specialized resources has become increasingly
difficult to find for many students. In the library, too, approaches to instruction may vary.
Librarians often question whether to simply answer questions posed by users or to teach us-
ers how to employ the available resources. This may be contingent on the library’s mission
or purpose. Academic institutions may call on their librarians to help students understand
how to engage effectively and independently in the research and information evaluation
process. Public librarians, by contrast, may try to teach users about reference sources in
a more informal manner as they lead users to the answers they seek. Thus, while instruc-
tion is always an important part of reference work, the degree to which librarians go about
providing it is highly contingent on the type of library and the way it has defined its role in
library instruction.
In any case, all reference librarians must be skilled at helping users find information
and answers quickly, and they must be ready to teach users how to use the reference sources
that are available. The best reference librarians develop an intuition for when to be infor-
mation providers and when to be information literacy instructors. In some libraries, only
specific, designated librarians are charged with conducting library instruction courses. Nev-
ertheless, an increasing number of librarians are required to participate in their libraries’
information literacy programs, and library school graduates are expected to be capable of
teaching basic classes on the use of library resources. As should be clear, even those infor-
mation professionals not charged with providing formal instruction have the opportunity
to informally teach those they assist. The various aspects of information literacy are cov-
ered in greater depth in chapter 16.
SELECTING AND EVALUATING PRINT AND ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Selecting and evaluating print and electronic information for the library’s collection can be
as professionally rewarding as providing expert information service. Reference librarians’
involvement in selecting and evaluating titles for the collection helps them develop rich
knowledge of the sources at their disposal, increasing their effectiveness.
The responsibility for selecting reference materials depends largely on the size and
scope of the library. In large academic libraries, selecting reference materials may be as-
signed to subject bibliographers whose job descriptions stipulate collection development
responsibilities. On the other side of the continuum, the evaluation and purchase of re-
sources in very small libraries may be the work of a single reference librarian or coordinator
of reference. A range of shared selection and evaluation possibilities between these points
include reference materials selection committees or group assignments.
The question “What makes a resource a reference source?” has long been debated
in the library profession. For the purpose of this discussion, reference sources are those
resources set aside to be consulted for specific information rather than to be read as a
whole. In other words, reference sources contain content meant to be “looked up.” Typi-
cally, one examines a particular section of a reference source rather than its entire text.
Reference collections are always on hand either in the library or electronically, making for
a consistently available body of knowledge that comes from many parts of the world. Note
that labeling narrative or nonreference resources as “reference” to ensure that a popular
volume is always available may lead to bloated reference collections, and, thus, this is
not generally recommended. Finally, with the addition of electronic reference sources
that have become increasingly available to remote library users from their homes, dorm
rooms, offices, and elsewhere, reference collections encompass fewer print books and are
available twenty-four hours a day.
As the present trends toward shrinking budgets for reference collections, lean refer-
ence collections, and the elimination of duplication among print and electronic collections
continue, the careful evaluation and selection of reference materials is essential. Libraries
should determine the criteria that will be used in selecting sources for their reference col-
lections. The following criteria may help determine whether a print or an electronic re-
source is a worthy addition to a library’s collection: scope, quality of content, appropriate-
ness for audience, format, arrangement, authority, currency, accuracy, ease of use, unique
coverage, and cost.
Some libraries select reference materials by reading reviews in the library professional
literature, such as Library Journal, Choice, and Booklist. Other institutions insist on phys-
ically reviewing reference sources displayed at library association conferences or through
special arrangements with publishers for trials of the electronic versions. Most libraries
employ a combination of these two. A more extensive discussion of selection and evaluation
takes place in chapter 18.
CREATING DIGITAL FINDING TOOLS
Another strategy employed by many reference departments is the creation of finding tools,
subject or research guides, and pathfinders for library users. Here, librarians act as guides,
mapping out the best routes through familiar territory and pointing out interesting sites
along the way. Subject or research guides are often prepared by academic libraries using
LibGuides (www.springshare.com/libguides) as a template for frequently requested sub-
jects, such as African studies, criminal justice, and intellectual property. Similarly, public
libraries may prepare guides that address frequently asked questions of a quotidian nature,
such as finding job information, checking the credentials of a health care provider, or
researching a family tree. Depending on the topic, audience, and needs, these guides may
assist the user to identify a selection of appropriate reference books, relevant databases and
search terms, a selection of current and authoritative websites, and/or tips for searching the
library’s catalog for additional materials.
Librarians also create websites of carefully evaluated links and other resources orga-
nized by topic. Who better than a librarian to organize information, pointing users to “the
best” sources and helping them steer clear of the dubious? Web-based finding tools are
available to users 24/7, they can be updated as often as needed, and they can include direct
links to websites and electronic reference tools. Depending on the circumstance and the
nature of a library’s web presence, such resource guides can be either general, providing
direction to broadly targeted reference resources, or subject specific. Examples of library
subject-specific guides include the Chicago Public Library’s “Explore: Chicago’s History”
(www.chipublib.org/#/filter/explore/explore-chicago-history) and the Rutgers University
Libraries’ “New Jerseyana” (https://libguides.rutgers.edu/sb/newjersey). Larger libraries,
whether academic or public, often produce these guides. Smaller libraries may be better
served by developing bibliographies for specific areas in which they have subject specialists.
PROMOTION AND MARKETING
Promotion and marketing of libraries and reference service is becoming more important
than ever. With expanding e-resource collections and e-services, library collections may
be less visible to the public, so it is even more important for libraries to call attention to
them in order to encourage use by their communities. Promoting reference service among
individual library users can go a long way toward achieving this goal, especially insofar as it
demonstrates how the library can serve them. In large communities—urban public librar-
ies, for example—promoting the library through individual users is not enough to attract
new users, and major marketing or publicity campaigns become important. In academic,
school, and special libraries, promotion and marketing are equally essential. Use of print
and online newsletters, websites, information literacy instruction, and meetings with fac-
ulty and staff can provide opportunities to promote the library’s resources.
EVALUATING STAFF AND SERVICES
Libraries may seek to routinely evaluate their reference collections or reference service. In
Assessing Service Quality, Peter Hernon, Ellen Altman, and Robert E. Dugan (2015) empha-
size that “it is becoming increasingly important to have measures that reflect some aspects
of quality—that is, service quality—and indicate how customers respond to services and
functions” (51). The focus of measurement from the customer or external perspective can
involve questions such as “How responsive?,” “How accurate?,” “How reliable?,” “How cour-
teous?,” and “How satisfied?”
Assessing the quality of the reference interaction from the user’s perspective will help
determine the service’s effectiveness. Evaluating reference staff is another way to do this
that will also help to ensure quality reference service. The American Library Association’s
Reference and User Services Association (RUSA, 2013) has developed “Guidelines for Be-
havioral Performance of Reference and Information Service Providers” that are intended
to be used in the training, development, or evaluation of library professionals and staff. The
reference librarian’s performance is typically evaluated on both the information conveyed
to the user and the library user’s satisfaction with the interaction.
The following factors are covered by the RUSA guidelines:
• Approachability: The reference librarian must be visible to the user either

physically or virtually.
• Interest: The librarian should demonstrate a high degree of interest in the
reference transaction.
• Listening/inquiring: The librarian should demonstrate good listening and
questioning skills.
• Searching: Searching is at the intersection of an accurate search process and
good interpersonal skills.
• Follow-up: The librarian must determine if the user is satisfied with the
results of the search/interaction. (RUSA, 2013)
These performance guidelines may form the backbone of a library’s staff evaluation instru-
ment, whether the instrument is a simple self-evaluation checklist, a peer-evaluation tool
or a formal evaluation system influencing earning potential.
In addition to evaluating staff, the library may measure its productivity or efficiency
with quantitative measures that include the number of questions answered and the fre-
quency with which print and/or electronic sources are consulted. Smaller libraries may
count the number and type of all in-person questions answered by the reference staff. Larg-
er libraries frequently rely on quarterly one-week periods to estimate the number of ques-
tions answered over the course of a year. Depending on the available resources, data may
be recorded using hand-held computers, by making hash marks on a form, or by any means
in between.
A variety of other evaluation strategies are also available to libraries. For example, an-
other useful measurement is assessing the quality of the resources available. Departmen-
tal evaluations can include issues of resource allocation such as how the library’s budget
allocates for library staff, print and electronic resources, computers and networks, and
buildings. Evaluation methods frequently used to gauge users’ satisfaction with reference
services and sources include questionnaires, surveys, focus groups, observation, and inter-
views.
It is crucial that library administrators determine what is to be measured and against
what standards before choosing the preferred method of evaluation. There are many sourc-
es available for detailed information on designing evaluation instruments for libraries. Li-
brarians should carefully consider these aspects: selecting the best method; developing and
field-testing the instrument; administering the survey, questionnaire, or interview; plan-
ning the observation; avoiding interviewer bias; and scores of ethical issues. Analyzing data
and developing conclusions and recommendations may require advanced training, and in
some cases libraries may need to hire evaluation experts. These and other questions are
considered in greater depth in chapter 21.
THE CHANGING NATURE OF REFERENCE
As the form of the library has evolved in the years since Samuel Green’s pronouncements in
1876, so, too, has the nature of reference services. Today, reference stretches far beyond the
walls of the library and has loftier goals than welcoming users to the library with a “culti-
vated female staff.” Academic libraries and some special libraries in particular have already
seen a slowing of traffic to the physical library and an increasing use of the library’s online
resources. Users can ask questions 24/7 through virtual reference and expect an immediate
response. Likewise, they can access electronic resources that the library provides through
its website. Virtual reference is growing quickly; the appeal of chat, instant messaging,
social media, and other technology-based services such as mobile technology point to a gen-
erational paradigm shift ahead. These online reference services have the advantage of being
convenient and necessary in this fast-paced world.
In numerous forms and fashions, technology continues to change reference services.
Librarians must be ready to learn new technology and adapt to the needs of users unable
to imagine a world without electronic resources. Like few other professionals, librarians
must be willing to ride the waves of such change, adapting to meet the needs of their users.
Whether it is a smartphone, an iPad, or a laptop, users will want to receive and read their
information via the technology of their choice.
New models of reference are also developing to meet different user needs. Libraries are
adding more points of service such as an information desk near the front of the library, a
reference service point combined with other library services, or an in-depth reference cen-
ter where a user can sit down with a librarian and work out a plan for researching a paper. In
other situations, librarians rove the library to help users who do not approach the reference
desk, may meet individually with users to discuss their reference or research needs, or work
as an embedded librarian in an online course.
These and other new strategies are changing the way libraries offer information ser-
vices. Looking ahead, librarians must be aware that reference work will no doubt be based
increasingly on electronic means of communication. At the same time, it will continue to

be a personal service, although not necessarily face-to-face. There will be more emphasis on
electronic materials, while some older materials will still need to be consulted in print for-
mat. Even so, the way librarians and users find and convey information is as fundamental
today as it ever was. The chapters ahead explore the cutting edge of contemporary refer-
ence, demonstrating how to keep this crucial service central to the modern library.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Agosto, Denise E., Lily Rozakis, Craig MacDonald, and Eileen G. Abels. 2011. “A Model of the Reference and
Information Service Process: An Educators’ Perspective.” Reference and User Services Quarterly 50,
no. 3: 235–244.
This article provides an overview of current trends in the delivery of information services,
models of practice, and the role of the librarian in education. Reference today is found to be
a more collaborative, evaluative process than in the past.
Alexander, Laurie, Jane Blumenthal, Karen Downing, Barbara MacAdam, K. Rana Gurpreet, Karen Reiman-
Sendi, Nicole Scholtz, and Laurie A. Sutch. 2011. “Mlibrary: Concepts for Redefining Reference.”
Journal of Library Administration 51, no. 4 (April 22): 326–342.
The authors examine the evolution of library reference services over the course of ten years
at the University of Michigan Library. This study of one library provides general insights
into how reference has changed during this period, including the reconfiguration of space
in the reference room, reference inquiry trends, shifts in the role of academic librarians, as
well as the emergence of new information needs and new technology.
Buss, Stephen P. 2016. “Do We Still Need Reference Services in the Age of Google and Wikipedia?” The
Reference Librarian 57, no. 4: 265–271.
Buss argues that even as reference services and the role of the information professional
change, the user’s need for assistance will still be there.
Connaway, Lynn S., Timothy J. Dickey, and Marie L. Radford. 2011. “‘If It Is Too Inconvenient I’m Not
Going After It’: Convenience as a Critical Factor in Information-Seeking Behaviors.” Library and
Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 179–190.
This article presents the findings of two multiyear empirical studies on how perceived con-
venience affects information-seeking behavior. The findings are put in the context of grati-
fication theory. Convenience is shown to affect users’ choice of resources, their satisfaction
with the resources, and the time horizon of the search process.
Ismail, Lizah. 2010. “What Net Generation Students Really Want: Determining Library Help-Seeking
Preferences of Undergraduates.” Reference Services Review 38, no. 1: 10–27.
Ismail discusses the results of a survey of undergraduates at Marywood University, which,
to the surprise of the university’s librarians, indicated that students preferred in-person
reference encounters to virtual reference. Findings underscore the benefit of assessing the
needs and preferences of users before investing too exclusively in new models of service.
Kilzer, Rebekah. 2011. “Reference as Service, Reference as Place: A View of Reference in the Academic
Library.” The Reference Librarian 52, no. 4: 291–299.
Kilzer examines how reference and research models are trending toward a distributed vari-
ety of services at point of need. She explores the traditional concept of “reference as place”
and reinterprets this concept in light of reference services as they exist today. Kilzer shows
that proactive methods and collaboration between universities and campus entities are
increasing in importance.
Nunn, Brent, and Elizabeth Ruane. 2011. “Marketing Gets Personal: Promoting Reference Staff to Reach
Users.” Journal of Library Administration 51, no. 3 (March 24): 291–300.
Nunn and Ruane suggest an outreach campaign to address the lack of awareness of ref-
erence services by promoting the personal aspect of reference through person-to-person
interactions, word-of-mouth recommendations, and establishing relationships with faculty
and students.
O’Connor, Lisa, and Kacy Lundstrom. 2011. “The Impact of Social Marketing Strategies on the Information
Seeking Behaviors of College Students.” Reference and User Services Quarterly 50, no. 4: 351–365.
The authors apply social marketing, “the application of commercial marketing techniques
to the resolution of social and health problems,” to academic library outreach. Their work
shows how social marketing strategy results in some positive changes in information-seek-
ing behavior among college students, specifically a reduction in procrastination and an
increase in help seeking. However, it does not show an effect on the selection of materials.
Smith, Debbi A., and Victor T. Oliva. 2010. “Becoming a Renaissance Reference Librarian in Academe:
Attitudes toward Generalist and Subject Specific Reference and Related Profession Development.”
Reference Services Review 38, no. 1: 125–151.
Smith and Oliva discuss librarians’ attitudes about general and specialized reference ques-
tions and the level of subject-area preparation needed by academic librarians at the refer-
ence desk. They also address professional development and confidence level.
Stoddart, Rick, and Beth R. Hendrix. 2016. “Learning at the Reference Desk: A Pilot Project to Align
Reference Transactions with University Learning Outcomes.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 43,
no. 1: 3–7.
This article reports on a project designed to measure the educational impact of reference
services on students.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND WORKS CITED
American Library Association. 2008. “Code of Ethics of the American Library Association.” American
Library Association. www.ala.org/tools/ethics.
Bunge, Charles A. 1999. “Ethics and the Reference Librarian.” The Reference Librarian, no. 66: 25–33.
Connaway, Lynn S., and Marie L. Radford. 2011. Seeking Synchronicity: Revelations and Recommendations for
Virtual Reference. Dublin, OH: OCLC Research. www.oclc.org/en/reports/synchronicity.html.
Genz, Marcella D. 1998. “Working the Reference Desk.” Library Trends 46, no. 3 (Winter): 505–525.
Hernon, Peter, Ellen Altman, and Robert E. Dugan. 2015. Assessing Service Quality: Satisfying the
Expectations of Library Customers. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Library Association.
Katz, William A. 2001. Introduction to Reference Work. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Radford, Marie L. 1999. The Reference Encounter: Interpersonal Communication in the Academic Library.
Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries.
RUSA (Reference and User Services Association). 2008. “Definitions of Reference.” American Library
Association. www.ala.org/rusa/guidelines/definitionsreference.
——— . 2013. “Guidelines for Behavioral Performance of Reference and Information Service Providers.”
American Library Association. www.ala.org/rusa/resources/guidelines/guidelinesbehavioral.
Smith, Linda C., and Melissa A. Wong, eds. 2016. Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. 5th ed.
Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
CHAPTER 2
Determining the Question

In-Person, Telephone, and
Virtual Reference Interviews
THE REFERENCE INTERVIEW challenges both the librarian and the user to communi-
cate effectively so that the librarian understands the user’s need. The reference interview
requires a balance of skills. It is both an art and a science, requiring both responsiveness to
the individual user and a structure within which to work. While librarians should learn the
elements of a good reference interview, they must also recognize that these steps need to be
adapted to each situation. Each reference interview will be slightly different since each user
has a different question. The overall structure has three phases: “establishing contact with
the user, finding out the user’s need, and confirming that the answer provided is actually
what was needed” (Ross, Nilsen, and Radford, 2009: 5). Within this framework, librarians
must learn to improvise like expert jazz musicians.
For librarians, giving the right answer to the right question is the most important part
of the reference interaction. Yet, studies and experience show that users react to the man-
ner in which the reference interview is conducted, paying special attention to both verbal
and nonverbal cues. They are more likely to return to a librarian who has handled their
request respectfully whether or not their information need has been completely fulfilled.
As librarians learn the elements of a good reference interview, they will also understand
that they will need to adapt said elements to the specific situation. As with quality customer
service, conduct is as important as content.
WHY DO THE REFERENCE INTERVIEW?
Sometimes it seems as though the questions asked by users are very straightforward,
prompting librarians to wonder why the reference interview is necessary at all. Upon look-
ing into the matter, however, the librarian often discovers that the user’s real question was
not the first one asked. Users tend to believe they can ask a simple question and get enough
information to proceed on their own. In such circumstances, the ambiguity of their initial
inquiry often leads to confusion. A user might, for example, ask for books about stars when,
in fact, the user wants to know the constellations one can see south of the equator or where
movie stars live. As another example, a user might ask for books on baking bread when the
user actually wants to find out about the chemistry involved in the rising of yeast rather
than recipes for bread. In philosophy, errors prompted by words’ multiple meanings are
known as “category mistakes,” or the grouping of dissimilar concepts under a single shared
label. Errors of this kind may not have profound consequences in the library world, but
/ 15 /
they do delay delivery of the correct response to the user. By asking additional clarifying
questions, the librarian can avoid such problems, focusing on the meaningful content of the
user’s request (Dewdney and Michell, 1996).
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE

REFERENCE INTERVIEW
Many authors have written about the nature of reference interactions. Robert S. Taylor
(1968), in his article “Question Negotiation and Information Seeking in Libraries,” explored
the reference interaction from the point of view of question negotiation. Taylor discussed
“the five filters through which a question passes and from which the librarian selects sig-
nificant data to aid him in his research” (183). Elaine Z. Jennerich and Edward J. Jennerich
(1997) approached the reference interview as a “creative art” and a “performing art.” Mary
Jo Lynch (1978) studied the reference interview in public libraries and asked how reference
librarians know when to interview a user, through what channels a librarian gathers infor-
mation without asking questions, and what are the characteristics of an effective question
sequence.
Brenda Dervin and Patricia Dewdney’s (1986) article “Neutral Questioning: A New Ap-
proach to the Reference Interview” proposed the neutral questioning model—a user-orient-
ed approach to answering reference questions. Patricia Dewdney and Catherine Sheldrick
Ross (1994) continued the research in this area by looking at the reference interview from
the user’s point of view. They asked Master of Library and Information Science students
to visit libraries, ask questions of interest, and report on the results. Only 59.7 percent said
that they would return to the same librarian (Dewdney and Ross, 1994).
Marie L. Radford, in her 1998 article in Library Trends, turned her attention to nonver-
bal communications. She identified five factors indicated by users that were critical in their
decision as to whom to approach: initiation, availability, proximity, familiarity, and gender.
Mary Jane Swope and Jeffrey Katzer (1972) asked why people don’t ask for assistance and
found that dissatisfaction with their previous assistance, the belief that their query was too
simple, and the disinclination to bother the librarian affected their decision not to ask for
help.
Intercultural communication has been explored by Jian Wang and Donald G. Frank
(2002), Claire Walker and Amanda Clark (2011), and M. Asin Qayyum (2012). Wang and
Frank pointed out that both language and cross-cultural communication barriers affect
academic librarians’ work with international students and suggested many ways for li-
brarians to close that gap. Walker and Clark also emphasized the language barriers for
international students that may affect their ability to understand slang, colloquialisms,
and even library terminology. Qayyum discussed the need to train information profes-
sionals who work with international students and made suggestions as to what this train-
ing should include. Most recently, research has turned to the area of virtual reference and
what are the best practices for chat reference, instant messaging (IM), and text messag-
ing. The work of Lorri Mon and Joseph W. Janes (2007); Marie L. Radford, Lynn S. Con-
naway, and colleagues (2011); Nahyun Kwon and Vicki L. Gregory (2007); Lili Luo (2011);
and Maryvon Côté, Svetlana Kochkina, and Tara Mawhinney (2016) helps us to better
understand virtual reference.
C H AP TE R 2 : DE TE R M I N I N G TH E Q U E STI O N / 17
CONDUCTING THE
REFERENCE INTERVIEW
The reference interview is composed of several parts, each of which is discussed in turn in
the following pages:
• Establishing rapport with the user

• Negotiating the question
• Developing a successful search strategy and communicating it to the user
• Locating the information and evaluating it
• Ensuring that the question is fully answered—the follow-up
• Closing the interview
Establishing Rapport with the User
When users arrive at the library or contact a librarian virtually (whether by phone, e-mail,
chat reference, or IM), they expect to find someone willing to assist them. To make the ini-
tial approach easier, librarians must find ways to signal, verbally and/or nonverbally, that
they are approachable. In “An Exploratory Study: A Kinesic Analysis of Academic Library
Public Service Points,” Edward Kazlauskas (1976) found that raising the eyebrow and
lowering it when someone approaches, maintaining eye contact, nodding, and smiling all
help make the initial encounter more positive and comfortable. Kazlauskas also identified
behaviors that make the librarian less approachable: lack of immediate acknowledgment of
the user, failing to change body stance as the user comes closer, covering the eyes with the
hand, reading, tapping a finger, and twitching of the mouth.
Marie L. Radford (1998: 699) “observed reference interactions for thirty-seven hours,
interviewing 155 users who approached thirty-four librarian volunteers.” Her purpose was
to discover behaviors that influenced which librarian the user approached. She identified
five factors indicated by users that positively shaped user decisions:
• Initiation. The librarian begins the interaction by using one of the following
nonverbal signals: eye contact, body orientation, movement toward the
user, or verbal enforcement.
• Availability. The librarian indicates availability by turning around, moving
toward the patron, using eye contact, or otherwise signaling attention to the
user nonverbally.
• Proximity. Users decide whom to approach based on their physical distance
from the librarian.
• Familiarity. The user has previously met or been helped by a particular
librarian.
• Gender. Users find it more comfortable to approach a female librarian.
The librarian can also look approachable by roving through the library reference area and
helping users who may need assistance. Many users may not be comfortable initiating a
conversation with a librarian when they need help, so roving gives users a less formal oppor-
tunity to seek assistance. As they roam, librarians can simply ask users if they are finding
what they need. They can approach users whom they have already assisted or perhaps users
who have not approached the reference desk but appear to need some assistance.
When serving users who telephone or send their requests by e-mail or chat reference,
the librarian can make the process easier by greeting the user in a friendly, upbeat manner
(e.g., “Hello. How can I help you?”) and by responding to the information provided by the
user. For example, the user may say she is using virtual reference rather than visiting the li-
brary because of an illness. The librarian might respond by saying, “I hope you will be better
soon” (Ross, Nilsen, and Radford, 2009: 204).
Whatever the circumstances, the user must feel that the librarian is interested in her
question. In person, the librarian can accomplish this by facing the patron when speaking
and listening and by maintaining eye contact with the patron. The librarian signals un-
derstanding of the user’s question by responding verbally or by nodding. When the user
contacts the library virtually, the librarian must maintain contact with the user by convey-
ing in words his interest in the question. For example, the librarian could say, “What an
interesting question,” and then follow up by writing that he is still trying to find resources
for the user.
Negotiating the Question
Once the possibility of dialogue has been established, the next step is to determine the
patron’s query. Many approaches to negotiating the question have been suggested by
researchers and practitioners. Brenda Dervin and Patricia Dewdney (1986) have suggested
“sense-making” as a way of finding out exactly what the user wants. Sense-making is user
oriented and approaches the reference interview in an organized way designed to ensure
that the librarian understands what the user really needs. This method calls for an under-
standing of the user’s situation, the information gap that led to the question, and how the
user plans to use the information. Dervin and Dewdney argue that it is important to under-
stand that the “gaps individuals face (i.e., the questions they have) depend upon the way
in which they see the situation and how they are stopped. The kind of answers they want
is dependent on how they expect to use or be helped by the answers” (507). Two questions
that are alike in form may not, in the end, be at all similar if the users who ask them differ
in their views of the situation. Dervin and Dewdney went on to develop a further approach
to questioning called “neutral questioning,” which grows out of “sense-making.” Neutral
questioning involves asking open questions that will help the librarian discover the initial
query’s true nature. Dervin and Dewdney state that through questions, the librarian must
assess the situation, assess the gaps, and assess the uses of the information. They suggest
that the most useful neutral questions are the following:
What kind of help would you like?
What have you done about this so far?
What would you like this book (information) to do for you?

(Dervin and Dewdney, 1986: 512)
The following provides an example of this questioning in action:

Do you want annual reports? What sort of details do you want? If you could tell me the kind of
problem you’re working on, I’ll have a better idea of what would help you. (Dervin and Dewdney,
1986: 510)
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

Reference and Information Services An Introduction Ebook PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Reference and Information Services An Introduction Ebook PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Reference and Information Services An Introduction Ebook PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Reference and Information Services :

An Introduction (Ebook PDF)

3.1 Database Search Strategy Worksheet 47

3.2 Form Interface for a Database 48

3.3 Refining a Database Search 49

5.1 Venn Diagram: Oxford University Press “Reference Reimagined” 78

13.1 WWW Cyberguide Ratings for Content Evaluation 275

15.1 A Model of Young People’s Decision Making on the Web 303

19.2 Queset House: A Learning Commons at the Ames Free Library

21.2 Trigger Questions Used in a Protocol Analysis Study 404

21.3 Unobtrusive Observation Worksheet (Questions) 405

21.4 Desk Tracker Guide: Recording Reference Questions 407

21.5 Reference Desk Notebook, Sample Page 408

22.1 Screenshot of Reference Blog at the Yale Law Library 424

22.3 Blog as In-House Communication at Barnard College Library 425

22.4 Blog as News Bulletins at the University of Montana 425

22.5 Blog as Personal Statement 426

22.6 Twitter Account at the Library of Congress 427

22.7 Podcasts at Johns Hopkins Medicine 427

22.8 Folksonomy of the University of British Columbia Graphics in Flickr 428

22.11 Facebook Account of Duke University Law Library 430

22.12 RSS Subject Feeds Offered by the MIT Libraries 432

22.13 Catalog Search Result Page at the University of Huddersfield 433

22.14 Mashup of SELCO Library Consortium Site 434

22.15 PDA Zone at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada 436

22.16 Mobile Library at the Boston University Medical Center 436

22.17 Screenshot of Librarian 2.0 Position Announcement 438

13.1 Sample General Search Engines 267

13.2 Sample Academic Search Engines 268

13.3 Sample Metasearch Engines 269

19.1 Reference Tools: Traditional and Collaborative 368

19.2 Framework for Programming Assessment 375

19.3 Logic Model for Reference Exhibit at University of Buffalo 377

20.1 Changing Paradigms in Reference Management 382

20.2 Select Examples of Collaborative Virtual Reference Services 386

Part I: Fundamental Concepts

Chapter 1, “Introduction to Reference and Information Services,” provides you with an

Part II: Introduction to Major Reference Sources

Chapter 4, “Answering Questions about Books, Magazines, Newspapers,

Chapter 12, “Answering Questions about Government and Related Issues—

Part III: Special Topics in Reference and Information Work

Part IV: Developing and Managing Reference Collections and Services

The selection of fast-disappearing or format-changing reference materials has never

Diana Floegel and Vanessa Kitzie for all their assistance

Her Trishul: Bala, Ayesha, Vani

Introduction to Reference and

the reference librarian over the subsequent decades.

KINDS OF INFORMATION SERVICE

Information service is the process of resolving information needs of users in response to a

Answering Reference Questions

rather than simply provide the solution.

Readers’ Advisory Service

Information Literacy Instruction

SELECTING AND EVALUATING PRINT AND ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

CREATING DIGITAL FINDING TOOLS

PROMOTION AND MARKETING

EVALUATING STAFF AND SERVICES