Chapter Two

Approaches of Ethics

2.1 Definition of ethics

The term ‘ethics’ comes from Greek word ‘ethos’ which means that ‘character’ or 'way of
living' of people. It is one of the oldest academic disciplines that deal with moral behaviour.

Ethics is about how ought to live. It is the set of rules, principles or ways of thinking that
guide the actions of particular group. Moreover, ethics refers sometimes for the systematic
study of reasoning about how we ought to act.

Ethics on the other hand is the philosophical reflection upon these rules and ways of living
together, the customs and habits of individuals, group or mankind as such. This comes close
to the conception of Aristotle.

2.2 The division of ethics

Ethics is divided into three branches. Namely, normative or moral philosophy, Meta ethics or
analytic ethics and descriptive ethics

1. Normatic (moral philosophy) ethics: it is concerned justifying a guide to right

conduct and to express preferences, decisions and choices. It employs term such as
good, bad, right, wrong etc.

In normative ethics there are different theories as to how criteria of moral conduct should be
defined. The three main theories can be sketched as follows:

i. Deontological: Are duty theories locating the basis of morality on specific,

foundational principles of duty and obligation. These principles are binding regardless
of the consequences that acting on their basis might bring.
ii. Consequentialist theories: Determine the value of an action on the grounds of a cost-
benefit analysis of its consequences. If the positive consequences outweigh the
negative ones then the action is morally proper.
iii. Virtues theories: It forms on a given set of rule like ‘’do not steal’’ etc. but instead of
defining them merely as obligatory duties, the emphasis lies on the individual to
develop good habits of character based on these rule (and avoid vices) Thus virtue
theory emphasises moral education.

Finally in the realm of normative ethics, there is applied ethics. Here normative theories
are applied to specific, controversial moral issues like animal’s rights, abortion,
euthanasia etc.

1|Page
 2. Meta Ethics or Analytical Ethics: ‘meta’ is the Greek word which means ‘after’ or
‘beyond’.

It is concerned with the systematic study of the meanings of the meanings of ethical terms
and the judgements used in normative ethics. It is also called Critical Ethics.

The aim is to better understand the logical, sematic and pragmatic structures of moral and
ethical argumentation as such their origin and meaning.

E.g.: whether mortality exists independently of humans, and the underlying mental basis of
human judgements and conduct.

3. Descriptive Ethics: aims at empirically and precisely mapping existing morality or

moralities with in communities and it are therefore linked to social sciences. Another
aim is to explain the development of existing moralities from a historical perspective.
No normative prescriptions are intended.

2.2.1 Major Ethical Categories

Ethical categories refer to moral concepts which we apply to express our moral judgements.

Moral judgement (ethical categories) natural out comes of the account of morality primarily
intended to provide a guide for the individual person who adopts it. Moral judgement should
be based on a public system that applies to all moral agents and it is used to express one’s
feeling.

Major ethical categories are ‘’right and wrong’’, ‘’good and bad’’, ‘’virtue and vice’’ etc.

i. Right and Wrong

‘Right’ means just morally good, proper, preferable or most suitable. In fact what is right in
one society or community may be taken as wrong in other society or community due to
variation of ethical standards from place to place throughout the world. Ethical standards vary
from society to society or even from group to group with in one society. You have to follow
the ethical standards of your community or the larger society.

‘Wrong’ means just morally bad. It is the opposite of right. Your mind has the capacity to
differentiate right from wrong based upon moral laws. These moral laws could be either
learner or initiate (natural) to you. These moral laws guide the person in his daily activity.
Any action that can be ‘’morally wrong can also be morally bad’’ but not vice versa, because
‘’morally bad’’ is often used to describe peoples motive, intentions as well as actions.
Whereas ‘’morally wrong’’ is usually restricted of actions.

ii. Good and Bad

Good: it promotes the satisfaction as a whole.

2|Page
 Bad: if your action is only self centered and targeted only to satisfy your needs it is judged as
bad.

This is why selfish and egoistic actions may harm the needs of other people.

iii. Virtues and Vices

Virtues: involves following some part of the moral system more than most people do.

Vice: involves acting contrary to some part of the guide provide by mortality more than most

People do.

The same person may have both moral virtues and moral vices. Moral virtues and vice
involves free, intentional, voluntary actions related to the moral rules.

2.3 Morality
Morality is derived from Latin words of ‘moralist’ which means customs or manners.
Morality is a social practice of judgements and criticism commonly we speak of people being
ethical or moral to mean good or right and unethical and immoral to mean wrong or bad.

2.3.1 Customary or Traditional and Reflective morality

We can separate mortality in to two forms:

1. Customary or Traditional Morality: refers to the moral system handed down through
custom from generation to generation

2. Reflective Morality: it requires that moral ideas are carefully examined and tested.

Traditional morality can become reflective and dynamic when those moral ideas that are
simply handed down and accepted are subjected to analysis and criticism.

2.3.2 Morality, law, religion and politics

Mortality also overlaps with law and religion but shouldn’t be confused with them.

i. Morality and Law

Morality and law are not the same although of course they overlap. Law might be thought of
as a public codification of morality for a culture, although certain laws in that system or even
the system itself, might be deemed immoral

3|Page
E.g. Apartheid law is not a necessary attribute of mortality although morality may well be
thought to be a necessary attribute of law.

ii. Mortality and Religion

Is morality dependent upon religion? Can you be moral and non-religious?

Mortality need not be based exclusively on religion for five reasons

1) Supernatural existence cannot be proven

2) Nonreligious people can be moral
3) Religious foundation for ethics is difficult to establish
4) Which religious would be best ethically?
5) How could it be shown that one religion is best?

Therefore, no necessary connection between ethics and religion

iii. Morality and Politics

Morality: is a point of view which we can contend about the ways of living and acting that
are worthy of human beings. Mortality is a social practice of judgements and criticism.

Politics: is the process in a social system by which the goals of the system are selected or
ordered in terms of priority. It involves both cooperation and resolution of conflict by the
means of political authority or coercion. Politics usually involves the activities of groups of
various kinds, including groups of a specifically political type such as political parties.

Morality and politics refers to the standards of decency (behaviour of morally good or
reasonable), honour and justice that guide for the assessment of political activities.

4|Page