Intro and DORA

World War One was the first modern war; involved civilians as much as soldiers; this type of war is total war

Aug ‘14 DORA gave gov extensive powers over arms factories, control of the press/information, civil liberties etc.

Passed by Liberals; 1st time the gov intervened in people’s lives and went against the Liberal policy of individualism.

The Act forbade to:

● Talk about military matters in public places

● Give bread to horses or chickens

● Trespass on railway lines or bridges

● Buy brandy or whiskey in a railway refreshment room

● Use invisible ink when writing abroad

In addition, the DORA gave the government the power to…

● take over any factory or workshop (efficient reappropriation for military needs)

● take over any land it wanted to

● censor newspapers

As the war continued and evolved, the government introduced more acts to DORA…

British Summer Time was introduced

One unpopular gov intervention was its interference with drinking habits; much absenteeism from work cuz of liquor
1915: opening hours of pubs restricted; beer made weaker and more expensive; most changes ended with the war

This was done not only to decrease alcoholism, but to increase work efficiency

The Army, Volunteering and Conscription

Armed forces in no condition to fight in ‘14;the navy was traditionally Britain’s guardian, but the war would be on land
BEF was well trained and equipped but small
There was huge enthusiasm at the start of the war; a massive recruitment drive encouraged thousands to join
‘Kitchener’s Army’; originally, it was promised that soldiers would return heroes and that war would be over by Xmas
478k volunteered between 4.8 and 12.9.1914, with a rate of 20k volunteers daily and a peak of 33k in a day on 3.9
New volunteers needed training and equipment but lacked the latter and were trained with farming equipment
War enthusiasm had disappeared by mid-1915; propaganda and moral pressure like that of the white feather ladies
was no longer effective
To make up for the failures of the Oct ‘15 voluntary Derby Scheme and for a shortfall (casualties ↑; volunteers ↓), +
in anticipation of a still lengthy war + the Somme, the Mil Service Act Jan ‘16 was passed
It came into effect in March 1916 and imposed conscription on all single men 18-41, except married men, the
medically unfit, clergymen, teachers and certain classes of industrial worker
A second Act in May 1916 extended liability to married men, and a third in 1918 extended the age limit to 51
Opposition to conscription
Conscription caused protest on religious/moral grounds; a campaign was led by the No Conscription Fellowship
Quakers also opposed conscription
Approx 4k men declared themselves cos; some did non-combatant work; other absolutists refused even that
By ‘18, 16k had appeared before Military Tribunals; this was where men or employers objecting to the 1916 Act
could be granted exemption from service, including at times for conscientious objection
By 1918, 4.5k had been sent to do work of national importance like farming; and 6k had been handed over to the
army for severe punishments, 35 of which were sentenced to death
Conditions were made very hard for the conscientious objectors and sixty-nine of them died in prison.

Military Inadequacies
Aug’14: only 2 machine guns per battalion, 80 motor vehicles in the army, no field telephones/wireless equipment
There was an inadequate stock of equipment with 6k rifles + 30k rounds produced monthly
The War Office permitted munitions orders only from government ordnance factories and long-established
contractors to prevent the use of inexperienced firms; this limited industry’s ability to meet demands
Also, many skilled engineers had enlisted and could not easily be replaced

Union Discontent
Early in the war, unions were unhappy w/ regulations preventing workers from leaving jobs in munitions factories +
vital industries
DLG won them over by guaranteeing reasonable wages and by favouring firms using union labour
This encouraged more workers to join unions, enhancing union reputation
However, unions did not completely have their way; strikes made illegal under Munitions of War Act
There were nevertheless strikes like in July 1918; munition workers in Coventry given choice of work or conscription
by Churchill (now Minister of Munitions); the workers chose to return to work

Political Issues
HHA was a relatively competent peace-time leader, handling many issues, particularly the clash w/ the HoL, well
However, his ‘wait and see’ attitude in regards to the suffragette movement was a bad trait; continued during the war
Believed it was generals’ job to run the war; reluctant to interfere despite French incompetence+shell shortage in ‘15
Tried to counter growing criticism by bringing leading Cons (Law, Balfour)+Labour leader Henderson into cabinet
This was the end of the last ever purely Liberal government and the beginning of government by coalition
A’s biggest move: appointing DLG as M of Munitions (May ‘15); soon emerged as the outstanding cabinet member
After Kitchener died, DLG became Sec for War in July ‘16; relations between HHA and DLG quickly deteriorated
Main area of dispute was conscription;DLG felt it was vital to win the war;Asquith felt it went against all Lib principles
As news of terrible Somme casualties became known, moves began to oust Asquith and replace him with DLG
Asquith resigned against his will; Dec ‘16: DLG became PM, but only ½ of Lib MPs supported him (½ loyal to A.)

DLG as Minister of Munitions

As he had done as C of Exchequer, he immediately began to show that he was of action, not just promises + talk
Appointed businessmen (Sir Eric Geddes) to key gov positions since he felt they were more decisive than politicians
DLG successfully responded to the shell supply crisis; responsible for the widespread adoption of the machine gun
‘14: army unprepared; each battalion had only 2 m guns; Kitchener wanted 4, British Army School of Musketry: 6
DLG wanted 64 per battalion; twice did DLG supersede Kitchener while the latter was still Secretary for War:
Jan ‘15: Wilfried Stokes demonstrates new mortar; War Office thinks it’s too dangerous; DLG persuades Indian
prince to finance 1k Stokes mortars; soon prove to be one of the most effective weapons of the war
Feb ‘16: Kitchener unimpressed w/ tank, developed from Major Swinton’s idea; DLG more enthusiastic;orders 1st 40

Treasury Agreement
1914: Miners were the largest group of industrial workers in Britain
March 1915: 191k miners had enlisted (17% of miners and 40% of those of military age)
March 1915: Miners’ Federation of GB demands 20% wage rise, not a national wage rise
March 1915: work of DLG as Chancellor of the Exchequer; he negotiated a voluntary agreement with trade unions
It allowed unskilled and semi-skilled workers (women) to work on the condition that they would be paid the same;
Unions also agreed to not strike and instead arbitrate, and there would be no war profiteering

Munitions of War Act

DLG behind Munitions of War Act Jul ‘15: gave gov power to control factories responsible for armaments+ war work
The act brought the rail + coal industry under gov control (Coal Controller appointed to coordinate production)
There was disagreement over miners’ pay in Wales 7/15+11/‘16; the latter resulted in the appointment of Alfred
Milner as Coal Controller; DLG argued for the nationalisation of the coal industry
Industrial development and advances in engineering and scientific research ensued during the war
This was technically the first time the coal industry was nationalised; this went against laissez faire economics
However, between 1916 and 1918 there was a dramatic fall in coal production (260 to 231 million tonnes)
Act designed to maximise munitions output; brought private companies under the control of new Min of Munitions
DLG’s act contributed to an increase in shell deliveries from 5 to 35 million between 1915 and 1916
The number of shells made increased from 20k to 1mil a month between 1915 and 1916
Act also forbade strikes and lockouts, w/ measures taken to combat drunkenness so as to not impair war effort
Most controversially, DLG got his way over conscription with the Military Service Act Jan ‘16

DLG as PM
DLG became Sec for War in July 1916, but was still prevented from doing all he wanted by Asquith
Became PM in 1916; set up Ministry of National Service which decided which men would be called up, depending on
whether their jobs were vital or could be done by women
DLG mainly responsible for adoption of the convoy system in 1917 which practically saved Britain from starvation

Women
As more and more men joined army, women began to fill vacancies in various previously male-only jobs
In 1914, only 212,000 women were employed; by 1918 this had risen to 950,000
Girls worked in munitions, on farms, on buses, railways and docks
Some even remarkably found work in police +as quarry workers,doing heavy lifting of coal sacks + stoking furnaces
Women produced 80% of all armaments in 1917, and were paid wages of £2, which was half of the men’s
Canary girls at munitions factories suffered from sulphur poisoning and later contracted horrific cancers
Women made such a vital contribution that their whole position in society changed
Men were amazed + felt women had proved themselves
However, women never attained the status of skilled workers and usually paid less than men for same work, despite
the Treasury Agreement
Most women were forced to leave their wartime jobs once men came home
Jan 1917: The Silvertown Explosion kills 73 (12 women) and injures 400+; 1.5k killed in factories during the war

Convoys and Rationing

Germans: destroyed 300k tons monthly in 1916; record of 500+k in March 1917; 2+ million tons in Autumn 1917
Convoys were suggested but disliked; after a quarter of shipping leaving Britain was sunk in April 1917, the
Admiralty relented
Convoys worked (99% success); 1917 wheat harvest best ever, but people became worried in Autumn after 2.25
million tonnes of goods were lost; panic buys
At first, there were no shortages, but prices soon increased substantially (⅔ food in Britain in 1914 was imported)
June 16: food prices on average 59% above July 1914 level
Late 1916: supplies of imported goods dwindling; long queues
The restrictions introduced by DORA failed, while the gov tried to introduce a voluntary code of rationing where
people limited themselves to what they should eat, which also failed
Those working in munitions factories didn’t have enough food; anyone w/ money could afford plenty on black market
In some areas, local rationing schemes began and worked very well
Government adopted this nationally in 1918, rationing meat, sugar, bacon, ham and jam; eased situation; q’s gone

Food production
As concern grew, the government took over 2.5 mil acres of land for farming
Gardens were turned into allotments and chickens and other animals were kept in back gardens
In 1917, 84k disabled soldiers, 30k POWs and 250k women (WLA) were sent to work to replace conscripted men
Britain had 3mil new acres for farming by 1918
Before the war, allotments were a hobby for eccentrics; there were half a million allotments by 1918

Bombing
Throughout the war, there were 103 bombing raids, killing 1.4k and injuring 3.3k
The Raid on Hartlepool on 16.12.1914 killed 129 people
A raid on London in daylight in June 1917 killed 162 people, including 18 infants

Propaganda
Aug ‘14: War Office Press Bureau created by the gov. to censor Army reports before issuing them to the press
USA warns against prohibiting journalists; Jan ‘15: UK allows 5 journalists; can’t report the truth (Somme = ‘victory’)
May ‘15: War Prop. Bureau publishes ‘Report on Alleged German Outrages’: ‘looting, genocide, isolated outrages’
Firing squad for photography; only 2 men allowed; 90+ artists painted for the gov. - unrealistic, excluded the horrors

War’s impact on democracy

During war, women still couldn’t vote, neither could about 40% of all males
Many men in armed forces lost the right to vote because of a rule that you had to live in your constituency for 1+ yr
Many working-class men who never had the vote made great contributions
These two groups and women were both deemed deserving of the vote; thus the 1918 act was passed

Impact on housing
War caused an almost complete halt to home building, affecting working-class most of all; 1913:120k homes needed
By the end of the war, the figure was close to 600k; DLG talked of Homes fit for Heroes

Impact on life
745k men killed; 1.6 million wounded (many so severely they could never walk again)
Historian Marwick: one of main reasons for political weakness during interwar period was the loss of young talent

Economic impact
Increased taxation to help finance the war fell most heavily on the aristocracy and middle classes
Landowning aristocracy forced to sell estates; though still wealthy, many lost their position as dominant political
class
Middle classes’ standards fell; unable to maintain their households; fewer servants needed; no. domestic servants
fell 50% nationwide
Working class benefited from gov intervention; their wages doubled on average; work week down from 55 to 48
Food rationing menat some working-class families could afford meat for the first time
This good news was not permanent; return to pre-war standards for most after the war

Respect for authority

Before war, few criticised society and establishment; after war, people generally had less respect for authority
Less willing to accept propaganda; especially among working-class soldiers who saw first-hand incompetence
Marked decline in church attendance; seemed to be a reaction against Anglican Church, which supported gov solidly