https://uvu.libguides.

com/methods/quantitative

Research Methodologies

What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative methodologies use statistics to analyze numerical data gathered by researchers to
answer their research questions. Quantitative methods can be used to answer questions such as:

 What are the relationships between two or more variables?

 What factors are at play in an environment that might affect the behavior or development of
the organisms in that environment?

Quantitative methods can also be used to test hypotheses by conducting quasi-experimental studies
or designing experiments.

Independent and Dependent Variables

In quantitative research, a variable is something (an intervention technique, a pharmaceutical, a
temperature, etc.) that changes. There are two kinds of variables: independent variables and
dependent variables. In the simplest terms, the independent variable is whatever the researchers are
using to attempt to make a change in their dependent variable.

Table listing independent and dependent variables.

Independent Variable(s) Dependent Variable

A new cancer-treating drug being tested in The number of detectable cancer cells in a patient or cell sample
different dosage strengths

Different genres of music* Plant growth within a specific time frame

*This is a real, repeatable experiment you can try on your plants.

Quantitative Research Methodologies

Correlational
Researchers will compare two sets of numbers to try and identify a relationship (if any) between two
things.
Examples

 Köse S., & Murat, M. (2021). Examination of the relationship between smartphone addiction
and cyberchondria in adolescents. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 35(6): 563-570.
  Pilger et al. (2021). Spiritual well-being, religious/spiritual coping and quality of life among the
elderly undergoing hemodialysis: a correlational study. Journal of Religion, Spirituality &
Aging, 33(1): 2-15.

Descriptive
Researchers will attempt to quantify a variety of factors at play as they study a particular type of
phenomenon or action. For example, researchers might use a descriptive methodology to understand
the effects of climate change on the life cycle of a plant or animal.
Examples

 Lakshmi, E. (2021). Food consumption pattern and body mass index of adolescents: A
descriptive study. International Journal of Nutrition, Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases,
11(4), 293–297.
 Lin, J., Singh, S., Sha, L., Tan, W., Lang, D., Gašević, D., & Chen, G. (2022). Is it a good
move? Mining effective tutoring strategies from human–human tutorial dialogues. Future
Generation Computer Systems, 127, 194–207.

Experimental
To understand the effects of a variable, researchers will design an experiment where they can control
as many factors as possible. This can involve creating control and experimental groups. The
experimental group will be exposed to the variable to study its effects. The control group provides
data about what happens when the variable is absent. For example, in a study about online teaching,
the control group might receive traditional face-to-face instruction while the experimental group would
receive their instruction virtually.
Examples

 Jinzhang Jia, Yinuo Chen, Guangbo Che, Jinchao Zhu, Fengxiao Wang, & Peng Jia. (2021).
Experimental study on the explosion characteristics of hydrogen-methane premixed gas in
complex pipe networks. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–11.
 Sasaki, R. et al. (2021). Effects of cryotherapy applied at different temperatures on
inflammatory pain during the acute phase of arthritis in rats. Physical Therapy, 101(2), 1–9.

Quasi-Experimental/Quasi-Comparative
Researchers will attempt to determine what (if any) effect a variable can have. These studies may
have multiple independent variables (causes) and multiple dependent variables (effects), but this can
complicate researchers' efforts to find out if A can cause B or if X, Y, and Z are also playing a role.
Examples

 Jafari, A., Alami, A., Charoghchian, E., Delshad Noghabi, A., & Nejatian, M. (2021). The
impact of effective communication skills training on the status of marital burnout among
married women. BMC Women’s Health, 21(1), 1-10.
 Phillips, S. W., Kim, D.-Y., Sobol, J. J., & Gayadeen, S. M. (2021). Total recall?: A quasi-
experimental study of officer’s recollection in shoot - don’t shoot simulators. Police Practice
and Research, 22(3), 1229–1240.

Surveys
Surveys can be considered a quantitative methodology if the researchers require their respondents to
choose from pre-determined responses.
Example
  Harries et al. (2021). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on medical students: A multicenter
quantitative study. BMC Medical Education, 21(14), 1-8.

What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research methodologies seek to capture information that often can't be expressed
numerically. These methodologies often include some level of interpretation from researchers as they
collect information via observation, coded survey or interview responses, and so on.
Researchers may use multiple qualitative methods in one study, as well as a theoretical or critical
framework to help them interpret their data.
Qualitative research methods can be used to study:

 How are political and social attitudes formed?

 How do people make decisions?
 What teaching or training methods are most effective?

Qualitative Research Approaches

Action Research
In this type of study, researchers will actively pursue some kind of intervention, resolve a problem, or
affect some kind of change. They will not only analyze the results but will also examine the challenges
encountered through the process.

Ethnography
Ethnographies are an in-depth, holistic type of research used to capture cultural practices, beliefs,
traditions, and so on. Here, the researcher observes and interviews members of a culture—an ethnic
group, a clique, members of a religion, etc.—and then analyzes their findings.

Grounded Theory
Researchers will create and test a hypothesis using qualitative data. Often, researchers use grounded
theory to understand decision-making, problem-solving, and other types of behavior.

Narrative Research
Researchers use this type of framework to understand different aspects of the human experience and
how their subjects assign meaning to their experiences. Researchers use interviews to collect data
from a small group of subjects, then discuss those results in the form of a narrative or story.

Phenomenology
This type of research attempts to understand the lived experiences of a group and/or how members of
that group find meaning in their experiences. Researchers use interviews, observation, and other
qualitative methods to collect data.
Qualitative Research Methodologies

Case Study
Often used to share novel or unique information, case studies consist of a detailed, in-depth
description of a single subject, pilot project, specific events, and so on.

 Hossain, M.S., Runa, F., & Al Mosabbir, A. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on rare
diseases: A case study on thalassaemia patients in Bangladesh. Public Health in Practice,
2(100150), 1-3.
 Nožina, M. (2021). The Czech Rhino connection: A case study of Vietnamese wildlife
trafficking networks’ operations across central Europe. European Journal on Criminal Policy
and Research, 27(2), 265-283.

Focus Groups
Researchers will recruit people to answer questions in small group settings. Focus group members
may share similar demographics or be diverse, depending on the researchers' needs. Group
members will then be asked a series of questions and have their responses recorded. While these
responses may be coded and discussed numerically (e.g., 50% of group members responded
negatively to a question), researchers will also use responses to provide context, nuance, and other
details.

 Dichabeng, P., Merat, N., & Markkula, G. (2021). Factors that influence the acceptance of
future shared automated vehicles – A focus group study with United Kingdom drivers.
Transportation Research: Part F, 82, 121–140.
 Maynard, E., Barton, S., Rivett, K., Maynard, O., & Davies, W. (2021). Because ‘grown-ups
don’t always get it right’: Allyship with children in research—From research question to
authorship. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(4), 518–536.

Observational Study
Researchers will arrange to observe (usually in an unobtrusive way) a set of subjects in specific
conditions. For example, researchers might visit a school cafeteria to learn about the food choices
students make or set up trail cameras to collect information about animal behavior in the area.

 He, J. Y., Chan, P. W., Li, Q. S., Li, L., Zhang, L., & Yang, H. L. (2022). Observations of wind
and turbulence structures of Super Typhoons Hato and Mangkhut over land from a 356 m
high meteorological tower. Atmospheric Research, 265(105910), 1-18.
 Zerovnik Spela, Kos Mitja, & Locatelli Igor. (2022). Initiation of insulin therapy in patients with
type 2 diabetes: An observational study. Acta Pharmaceutica, 72(1), 147–157.

Open-Ended Surveys
Unlike quantitative surveys, open-ended surveys require respondents to answer the questions in their
own words.

 Mujcic, A., Blankers, M., Yildirim, D., Boon, B., & Engels, R. (2021). Cancer survivors’ views
on digital support for smoking cessation and alcohol moderation: a survey and qualitative
study. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1-13.
 Smith, S. D., Hall, J. P., & Kurth, N. K. (2021). Perspectives on health policy from people with
disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 32(3), 224–232.
Structured or Semi-Structured Interviews
Researchers will recruit a small number of people who fit pre-determined criteria (e.g., people in a
certain profession) and ask each the same set of questions, one-on-one. Semi-structured interviews
will include opportunities for the interviewee to provide additional information they weren't asked about
by the researcher.

 Gibbs, D., Haven-Tang, C., & Ritchie, C. (2021). Harmless flirtations or co-creation? Exploring
flirtatious encounters in hospitable experiences. Tourism & Hospitality Research, 21(4), 473–
486.
 Hongying Dai, Ramos, A., Tamrakar, N., Cheney, M., Samson, K., & Grimm, B. (2021). School
personnel’s responses to school-based vaping prevention program: A qualitative study. Health
Behavior & Policy Review, 8(2), 130–147.

What is a Systematic Review?

Systematic reviews encompass a variety of methods that involve gathering existing studies and
research, then collectively analyzing them. This group of methodologies helps to identify larger
conclusions about a body of knowledge, as well as identify gaps in that knowledge. These methods
can also help answer research questions that are difficult to answer in a smaller, limited study.
Systematic reviews can be used to answer questions such as:

 If a variety of treatments is available for a medical condition, which of them is most effective,
and under what circumstances?
 What have been the long-term effects of policy or regulatory changes?
 What factors influence complex behavior such as decision-making?

PRISMA
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was created by
researchers around the world to standardize and improve the validity of systematic reviews and meta-
analyses. These standards and recommendations are regularly updated. The latest version of the
PRISMA Statement asks researchers to, among other things:

 Clearly state their research objectives

 Discuss what will be included in the review, what will be excluded, and the rationale behind
these choices
 Describe how data was collected, what tools were used, and any biases that data collection
may have introduced
 Address any limitations and gaps in the current state of knowledge

...and much more. The full PRISMA checklist is extensive, and can be viewed at the link below.

 PRISMA Statement

The PRISMA statement was developed to facilitate transparent and complete reporting of
systematic reviews and has been updated to reflect recent advances in systematic review
methodology and terminology.
Types of Systematic Reviews

Meta-Analysis
For this type of study, researchers will locate and use datasets from similar, smaller studies that
match a pre-determined set of criteria. Criteria can include factors such as sample selection criteria,
how recently the studies were conducted, the language of publication, and so on. The authors then
use statistical methods to analyze the data from these studies to draw larger conclusions and
commonalities.

 De Souza Tavares, V., César Stringheta, P., Perez, R., Bastos Braga, G., Corrêa Mendonça,
A., & Gomes de Souza, E. C. (2022). Composition differences between organic and
conventional processed foods: A meta-analytical study. Ciência Rural, 52(5), 1–12.
 Ladeira, W. J., Nardi, V. A. M., Santini, F. de O., & Jardim, W. C. (2019). Factors influencing
visual attention: a meta-analysis. Journal of Marketing Management, 35(17/18), 1710–1740.

Mixed Methods Study

This methodology generally includes a significant literature review, but also some direct data
collection by the authors. The authors will then use both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to
analyze their data.

 Kucharczuk, A. J., Oliver, T. L., & Dowdell, E. B. (2022). Social media’s influence on
adolescents′ food choices: A mixed studies systematic literature review. Appetite,
168(105765), 1-12.

Scoping Review
This type of systematic review is the result of researcher efforts to determine how much (if any)
information is available on a specific topic or research question, sometimes created as preparation for
a larger systematic review.

 Mares, S. (2021). Mental health consequences of detaining children and families who seek
asylum: a scoping review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(10), 1615–1639.
 Sepulveda, T. (2021). Barriers to hiring and accommodating people with disabilities in small
and medium sized businesses: A scoping review. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation
Counseling, 52(2), 104–114.

Searching With Keywords

One option for finding articles that used a specific research methodology is to run a database search
using your methodology as a keyword. You can often search just by a type of methodology if you're
looking for any examples using the method, or you can combine your topic with a type of
methodology.
For best results, make sure that filters for peer-reviewed/scholarly journals are checked.

Examples

 cancer AND treatment AND "systematic review"

 "consumer behavior" AND "grounded theory"
 "alternative fuels" AND experiment

Because methodologies are not always readily apparent in the title or abstract, you may need to skim
through the methodology section of an article to make sure it's relevant.
  OneSearch This link opens in a new window


OneSearch is the default search on the library's homepage and can be used to find research
articles on a wide variety of topics. Use the Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals filter to limit
your results to scholarly articles.

Searching With Filters

Some databases include filters among their advanced search options that you can use to search for
studies that use specific research methodologies. This method isn't foolproof. Not all methodologies
will be available in these filters and articles that don't have their methodologies listed in the database
record may be overlooked.

Using the Methodology Filter

1. Use the library's list of databases to find a subject-appropriate database. Not all databases
have a methodology filter, but there are several databases in health sciences, behavioral
sciences, and the physical sciences that do, such as APA PsycInfo.

 A-Z Database List

Full list of databases available through the Fulton Library, with recommendations for
researching specific subjects.

2. If necessary, navigate to the database's advanced search page and look for the methodology
filter. This example comes from APA PsycINFO:

3. Choose the methodology you need and run your search. You don't always need to have a
topic in the main search box to run this type of search, if you are simply looking for examples.

Using the Subject Filter

Another option—which is available in databases that don't have a specific filter for methodologies—is
to use the subject filter that appears on the results page of many of the library's databases. These
filters take the most frequently occurring assigned keywords and subjects to help you weed out
irrelevant results. Because these assigned terms can also include methodology information, you can
use these filters to locate articles that use specific methodologies.
To get started:

1. Begin a search on your topic.

2. Add a subject filter to limit your results by methodology:
1. Click All Filters below the search box.
2. Open Subjects. You will need to expand the list of subjects to find all relevant
methodologies.
 3. Select the relevant methodologies.
4. Click Apply Filters
3. The options on the subject filter will change as your search changes. Check back periodically
to see if there are additional useful items that you can filter for.

Getting Started
Occasionally, you may be asked to collect original data and analyze it for a class project. As you
develop a research question and select a methodology, ask yourself:

 What are the assignment criteria?

 What data do I need to answer my research question? Are quantitative or qualitative methods
better suited to gathering data to answer the research question?
 Are my collection methods ethical? (See information about UVU's Institutional Review Board
below.)

If you're not sure where to start, the following books from the Fulton Library's collection can help you
select a methodology and begin work on your research project.

 Designing and Proposing Your Research

Project (Print Book) by Jennifer Brown Urban; Bradley Matheus Van Eeden-Moorefield

Publication Date: 2017

Designing a study and writing up a research proposal takes time--often more time than
actually conducting the study! This practical guide will save you time and frustration by
walking you through every step of the process. For starters, it will help you hone in on a
research topic - a huge (and hugely important) first step. Then it will guide you in developing
the research question, designing the study, and choosing the best strategies for sampling and
measurement. The figures, tables, and exhibits offer a wealth of examples and tools, including
activities and worksheets to practice alone or in a study group.
 Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,

and Mixed Methods Approaches (Print Book) by John W. Creswell; J. David Creswell

Publication Date: 2018

This best-selling text pioneered the comparison of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods research design. For all three approaches, John W. Creswell and new co-author J.
David Creswell include a preliminary consideration of philosophical assumptions, key
elements of the research process, a review of the literature, an assessment of the use of
theory in research applications, and reflections about the importance of writing and ethics in
scholarly inquiry.
  Research Methodology

(Ebook) by S. Chandra Vinod, S. Anand Hareendran

Publication Date: 2017

This book offers a standardized approach for research aspirants working in the various areas.
At the same time, all the major topics in social research have also been detailed thoroughly
which makes this book a very good frame of study for students and researchers in diverse
fields. This book charts new and evolving terrain of social research by covering qualitative,
quantitative and mixed approach. The chapters has extensive number of case studies that
help researchers to understand practical implications of the research and includes plenty of
diagrammatic representations for easy understanding of various theories and procedures.
Each phase of research is explained in detail so that even beginners can also effectively
utilize this book. It is written in a highly interactive manner, which makes for an interesting
read. Templates of technical report, business report and research reports are also included in
the book.

Additional resources can be found on our guides for research methods courses:

 BESC 3020: Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

 COMM 3020: Communication Research Methods
 PSY 3030: Research Methods for Psychology
 SOC 3030: Social Research Methods
Institutional Review Board
For information on getting a research study with human subjects formally approved by the university,
see the website for UVU's Institutional Review Board. IRB approval often isn't required for class
research assignments, but their website may be helpful depending on the parameters of your project
or if you decide to fully implement your project.

 UVU's Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee mandated by federal law to protect the
rights and welfare of human subjects participating in research activities. Their website
includes information about CITI Training and the research project approval process.

Psychological Tests & Measures

Psychological tests (also known as measures, instruments, or scales) are standardized measures of
a particular psychological variable such as personality or emotional functioning. Behavioral science
research often involves using psychological tests, whether to simply learn about the test or to use in
your own research study.

 Many tests are commercially published and subject to copyright and licensing restrictions—
these typically require paying a fee to use and are not available through the Fulton
Library. Publishers may require proof that users have the professional credentials to
administer the test. If you find a commercially published test you want to use, look for an FAQ
page to see if a version is available to student researchers for free or at a reduced cost, or try
contacting the publisher to ask.
 In addition to commercial tests, there are countless unpublished tests that researchers
design for particular studies in psychology, education, and other fields. These tests may be
freely available online or in scholarly articles.

Many psychological tests—both unpublished and commercially published—are described in scholarly

articles, including how they were developed and validated, and how they can be used in the field. If an
article refers to a specific psychological test that you'd like to view or use in your research, try these
strategies for finding it:

 Check the appendixes at the end of the article to see if the author(s) included the full
instrument or a note about where it can be found or purchased. Portions of the test may also
be included in the main text of the article or in tables or figures.
 Search for the name of the test on Google as a quick way to see if it's available through a
commercial publisher or freely available on a website.
 Email the article's lead author, to ask questions about their test or ask if they have a version
they're willing to share with student researchers. Author contact information is typically
included on the first page of scholarly articles. If it's an older article, the contact information
may be out of date—try searching for the author on Google, to see where they're currently
working and look for a current email.

 FAQ: Finding Information About Psychological Tests (American Psychological Association)

This excellent FAQ page from the American Psychological Association includes more
information about psychological tests and how to find them.

Databases for Tests & Measures

Use these databases to find articles that reference specific psychological tests and measures. You
can either use a search term to look for tests on a topic (for example, search for "metacognition") or
you can search for the name of a test you already know about (for example, search for "Metacognition
Assessment Scale").
Please be aware, articles found in these databases frequently do not include full tests—once you find
information on a test you'd like to see, use the tips above to see if you can locate the full test. Also
these databases often do not include the full text of articles. In these cases, you will need to use
citation details to locate articles in another database like OneSearch. Contact your librarian if you
need any help using these databases.

 HaPI (Health and Psychosocial Instruments) This link opens in a new window


This database specializes in psychological instruments and is a great place to start. Search
using keywords related to your topic, or by the name of a specific instrument. You will see a
list of instruments related to your search. After clicking a title, you will see a record that
includes information about the instrument, as well as a Source line with citation details for the
article that referenced the instrument (the article may also be included as a PDF). By
Behavioral Measurement Database Services; partial full text available.

 Mental Measurements Yearbook with Tests in Print This link opens in a new window


A guide to more than 2,000 contemporary testing instruments. The MMY series contains
information on test products within such diverse areas as psychology, education, business,
and leadership. No full text available.

 APA PsycInfo This link opens in a new window



While this database includes all types of articles related to psychology, you can also use it to
find articles that reference psychological tests and measures. To do this, scroll to the bottom
of the database's search page and check the Tests/Measures/Assessment box before running
your search, or use the Tests & Measures filter on the left side of your results list.