Physics Class 11 Notes Fluid Dynamics Chapter 6 For KPK

Difference Between Laminar and Turbulent Flow
S.no Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
1. It is a fluid flow in which the fluid layers It is a fluid flow in which the fluid layers c
move parallel to each other and do not each other and do not move parallel to ea
cross each other. other.
2. The laminar flow generally occurs in the The turbulent flow occurs when the fluid
fluid flowing with low velocity. with high velocity.
3. Laminar flow occurs in the small diameter Turbulent flow occurs in large diameter p
pipes in which fluid flows in which fluid flows with high velocity.
with low velocity.
4. The fluid flow is laminar when the value of The fluid flow is turbulent when the value
Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000. Reynolds number is greater than 4000.
5. Shear stress in laminar flow depends only Shear stress in the turbulent flow depend
on the viscosity of the fluid and upon the density of the fluid.
independent of the density.
6. The fluid flow is very orderly i.e. there is The fluid flow is not orderly i.e. there is m
no mixing of adjacent layers of the fluid of adjacent layers of fluid with each other
and they move parallel to each other and they do not move parallel to each other a
also with the walls of the pipe. also with the walls of the pipe.
Summary of the Difference Between Laminar and T

Bernoulli’s Prin
Properties of an Ideal Fluid
The properties of an ideal fluid are as follows:
 An ideal fluid is incompressible. This means that the density of the

liquid is constant, no matter how much the pressure is. Even when the
fluid is subjected to external pressure, the density of a perfect fluid
never changes due to the compressibility attribute.
 It is non-vicious in nature. There is no tangential force between the
layers of liquid in relative motion.
 Its flow is steady. It means that the ideal fluid’s velocity is constant.
 An ideal fluid cannot withstand shearing stress.
 The surface tension of the ideal fluids is zero.
 Ideal fluid particles don’t rotate around their centers of mass
(irrotational). Although the individual fluid particles are irrotational, an
ideal fluid can flow in a circular pattern.
namics of ideal fluids

Assume you have created an indoor water fountain. You have connected
pieces of pipe with different diameters into a path along which the water
will flow. You also have inserted a pump into the circuit. A very simple
circuit is shown in the figure on the right.
Running the pump for a while will accelerate the water and start it flowing.
The pump creates a pressure gradient. If we look at a volume V of water in a
straight section of pipe while the water is accelerating, then the pressure on
side 1 of this volume is different than the pressure on side 2. This results in
a net force on the volume of water in that section, and the volume of water
accelerates.
Once the water is flowing at the chosen speed, the pump has to do much
less work. If the pressure were the same on both sides of the volume V,
then the net force would be zero, and the volume of water would continue
to move with constant velocity. However, there will still be a small
pressure gradient due to frictional forces. The pump now only has to do
work against frictional forces. Water is viscous, there is friction between its
component molecules as they slide past one another and past the walls of
containers. In a frictionless environment a pump would be no longer needed
to keep the water flowing. Such a frictionless environment can actually be
created. While most liquids freeze at near zero absolute temperature,
liquid helium becomes a superfluid. It flows without friction. You do not
need a pump to keep a superfluid liquid Helium fountain operating.
External link: Superfluid Helium (Youtube)

The equation of continuity
Ideal fluids are incompressible and flow steadily

without friction. The flow is laminar and can be represented graphically
by streamlines. In a straight section of pipe with constant cross sectional
area all fluid particles move with the same velocity. Different streamlines
do not cross.
For simplicity let us assume a

frictionless environment and let us assume that water is an ideal fluid that
flows steadily through a circuit. The water in sections of the circuit at
different heights has different gravitational potential energy per unit
volume. In sections of the pipe with different cross-sectional areas the
water also must have different kinetic energy per unit volume. In the
narrower sections of the pipe it must flow faster than in the wider sections,
since the same amount of water must flow across each cross sectional area
in the same amount of time.
Look at a particular volume of water. As it moves, the boundary 1 moves a

distance l1 while boundary 2 moves a distance l2. Since water is
incompressible, we have
Volume 1 = Volume 2,
(Volume 1)/Δt = (Volume 2)/Δt.
The volume flow rate ΔV//Δt is the same everywhere. We now use Volume =
area *length for a cylinder.
(Area 1)*l1 = (Area 2)*l2

(Area 1)*Δl1/Δt = (Area 2)*Δl2/Δt
(Area 1)*v1 = (Area 2)*v2
This is the equation of continuity. The equation of continuity is a

consequence of the conservation of the mass of the water.
Problem:
The volume flow rate of water through a horizontal pipe is 2 m3/min.

Determine the speed of flow at a point where the diameter of the pipe is
(a) 10 cm,
(b) 5 cm.
Solution:
 Reasoning:
The equation of continuity, A*v = ΔV/Δt = constant, the volume flow
rate is the same everywhere.
The cross-sectional area A of the pipe is = πd2/4.
 Details of the calculation:
(πd2/4)v = (2 m3)/(60 s). v = (0.042/d2) m/s with d measured in m.
(a) d = 10 cm: v = 4.24 m/s
(b) d = 5 cm: v = 16.98 m/s.
Bernoulli's equation
In different sections of a pipe
circuit, a volume V of water can have different potential energy and
different kinetic energy. Is the pressure also different in different sections
of the pipe circuit?
Refer to the figure on the right. The potential energy of the water changes
as it moves. While all the water moves, the change in potential energy is
the same as that of a volume V, which has been moved from position 1 to
position 2 in the figure on the right. The potential energy of the water in
the rest of the pipe is the same as the potential energy of the water that
used to be in the rest of the pipe before the movement. We have
change in potential energy = (mass of water in V)*g*(change in height)

= density*V*g*(h2 - h1) = ρVg(h2 - h1).
The kinetic energy of the water also changes. Again we only have to find
the change in kinetic energy in the small volume V, as if the water at
position 1 had been replaced by the water at position 2. The kinetic energy
of the water in the rest of the pipe is the same as the kinetic energy of the
water that used to be in the rest of the pipe before the movement. We
have
change in kinetic energy = ½mv22 - ½mv12 = ½ρVv22 - ½ρVv12.
If the force on the water at position 1 is different than the force on the
water at position 2, then work is done on the water as it moves.
Neglecting friction, the amount of work done is W = F1l1 - F2l2. But force =
pressure times area, so
W = P1A1l1 - P2A2l2 = P1V - P2V .

The work must equal the change in energy. We therefore have
P1V - P2V = ρVg(h2-h1) + ½ρVv22 - ½ρVv12,

or
P1V + ρVgh1 + ½ρVv1 = P2V + ρVgh2 + ½ρVv22.
2
Dividing by V we have
P1 + ρgh1 + ½ρv12 = P2 + ρgh2 + ½ρv22

or
P + ρgh + ½ρv2 = constant.
This is Bernoulli's equation. It is a consequence of the conservation of energy

of the water.
What is Terminal Velocity?

Terminal velocity is defined as the highest velocity attained by an object falling through
a fluid. It is observed when the sum of drag force and buoyancy is equal to the
downward gravity force acting on the object. The acceleration of the object is zero as
the net force acting on the object is zero.
How to find Terminal Velocity?

In fluid mechanics, for an object to attain its terminal velocity, it should have a constant
speed against the force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving.
The mathematical representation of terminal velocity is:
��=2��
Where,
vt is the terminal velocity, m is the mass of the falling object, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, Cd is the drag coefficient, 𝜌 density of the fluid through which the object is falling,
and A is the area projected by the object.
Terminal Velocity Derivation

Deriving terminal velocity using mathematical terms according to the drag equation as
follows:
�=��2
Where b is the constant depending on the type of drag
∑�=��(free fall of an object)
��−��2=��(assuming that the free fall is happening in positive direction)
��−��2=��
1��=��−��2(differential form of the equations)
∫1��=∫��−��2
(integrating the equations)
∫��−��2=1�∫��2−�2
Where,
�=��
��=��ℎ2(Θ)�Θ(after substituting for�=��ℎ(Θ))

�2=�2��ℎ2(Θ)
After integration,
1�∫��ℎ2(Θ)�Θ�2−�2��ℎ2(Θ)
1�∫��ℎ2(Θ)�Θ�2(1−��2Θ)
1�∫��ℎ2(Θ)�Θ�2��ℎ2(Θ)=1��∫�Θ=1��ℎ(��)+�(using the
identity1−��ℎ2(Θ)=��ℎ2(Θ))
1��=1��ℎ(��)+�(from original equation)
�(�)=��ℎ(��+��ℎ(�0�))
By substituting for�=��
�(�)=��ℎ(��+��ℎ(�0�))
�(�)=��ℎ(��+��ℎ(�0��))
After substituting for vt

lim�→∞�(�)=lim�→∞(��ℎ(��+��ℎ(�0��)))=��
∴��=2��
Therefore, above is the derivation of terminal velocity.
To know more about other Physics related concepts, stay tuned to BYJU’S.
Related Physics Articles:
Acceleration Due to Gravity Universal Law Of Gravitation
What is a Frictional force? Fluid Friction
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1
When does terminal velocity exist?

When the speed of a moving object is no longer increasing or decreasing; the object’s acceleration
(or deceleration) is zero.
Q2
What is terminal velocity?

Terminal velocity is defined as the highest velocity attained by an object that is falling through a fluid.
Q3
Who discovered terminal velocity?

Galileo discovered terminal velocity.
Q4
Does terminal velocity exist in a vacuum?
In vacuum since there is no drag force, the terminal velocity does not exist.
Q5
How does terminal velocity work?

Terminal velocity, steady speed achieved by an object freely falling through a gas or liquid. An object
dropped from rest will increase its speed until it reaches terminal velocity; an object forced to move
faster than its terminal velocity will, upon release, slow down to this constant velocity.
Derivation of Terminal Velocity

A drag force is a retarding force experienced by an object travelling through the fluid. The drag force
increases as the object’s speed increases.
FD=12ρv2CdAFD=12�v2CdA
FD�� stands for Drag.
ρ� is the density of fluid
v is the object’s speed with respect to the fluid
CD stands for drag coefficient.
A stands for cross-sectional area.
As a result, these complex dependencies can be characterised by a single quantity known as the drag
coefficient, abbreviated Cd��.
According to the drag equation:
FD=12ρv2ACdFD=12�v2ACd
Net force applied to the body-
Fnet=maFnet=�� =Gravitational force– Drag force

ma=mg–12ρv2ACd��=��–12�v2ACd
At equilibrium, the net force is zero (Fnet=0��=0), and the velocity becomes the terminal
velocity limt→∞ v(t) = Vt:
0=mg–12ρV2tACd0=��–12�Vt2ACd
mg=12ρV2tACd��=12�Vt2ACd
By solving the solution,

Vt=2mgACd−−−√Vt=2��
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Stoke’s Law
When an object rises or falls through a fluid, it is subjected to viscous drag (frictional force) as a
result of the fluid. This object could be a skydiver in the air, a stone in the water, or a bubble rising
through the water.
According to Stokes’ law, the force of viscosity on a tiny sphere moving through a viscous fluid is
given by:
F=6πμrvF=6��rv
Where F is the frictional force acting on the fluid-particle interface.
μ� is the dynamic viscosity
R is the spherical object’s radius.
V denotes the flow velocity in relation to the object.
Uses of Calculating Terminal Velocity

Some of the main uses of calculating terminal velocity are as follows.
o Terminal velocity is employed in the falling sphere viscometer, a device used to measure
the viscosity of very viscous fluids such as oil, paraffin, tar, and so on.
o The creeping flow data can be used to investigate the settling of sediments near the ocean
floor as well as the fall of moisture drops in the atmosphere.
o Terminal velocity is useful in weapon development, manufacturing/designing separator
machines, fluid mechanics, cloud formation research, and so on.
Solved Examples on Terminal Velocity

Example 1. Consider a spherical creature floating in water. The velocity of the body at any given
time is 2m/s. What will the fluid’s drag force be on the body? Assume Stokes’ law holds true.
Solution 1: The following information is provided in the problem:

v denotes the body’s velocity, which is 20 m/sec.
F denotes the drag force, to find the drag force
The drag force is calculated using Stoke’s law.
F=6πμrvF=6��rv
F=6×3.14×0.001×2×10–3×2�=6×3.14×0.001×2×10–3×2
F=75.36×10–6N�=75.36×10–6�
As a result, the drag force on the body is 75.36×10−6N75.36×10−6�.
Example 2. A sphere is falling at terminal speed through a fluid.
The following data are available.
Diameter of sphere =3.0 mm
Density of sphere =2500kgm−32500kgm−3

Density of fluid =875kgm−3875kgm−3
Terminal speed of sphere =160 mm/s
Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Solution 2:
Using the terminal speed expression gives:
vt=2r2g(ρs−ρf)/(9η)��=2�2�(��−��)/(9�)
⇒η=2r2g(ρs−ρf)/
(9vt)=[2×(1.5×10−3)2×9.81×(2500−875)]/[9×0.16]⇒�=2�2�(��−��)/
(9��)=[2×(1.5×10−3)2×9.81×(2500−875)]/[9×0.16]
η=50mPas�=50mPas
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Terminal Velocity Derivation: Definition &

Applications
Jasmine Grover
Senior Content Specialist | Updated On - Sep 28, 2023
Terminal velocity, a fundamental concept in fluid dynamics, is the maximum speed attained by
an item when moving through media such as air or liquid.
 This velocity represents the moment at which an object's acceleration reaches zero,
hence stabilising its speed.
 Surface area, viscosity, density, and mass are all elements that influence terminal velocity.
 Skydivers use this idea to guide their descent, aligning their bodies in order to achieve a steady
fall.
Table of Content
1. Terminal Velocity: Definition

2. Applications of Terminal Velocity
3. Terminal Velocity: Derivation
4. Solved Examples
5. Things to Remember
6. Previous Year Questions
7. Sample Questions
Key terms: Terminal Velocity, Highest Speed, Velocity,, Buoyancy, Constant Speed, Fluid,
Cross-Sectional Surface Area
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Terminal Velocity: Definition
[Click Here for Sample Questions]
Terminal velocity refers to the highest speed an object can reach when moving through
a medium, such as air or liquid. It is attained when a moving object's speed is no longer
increasing or decreasing.
 Hence, the speed of its acceleration becomes zero.

 Since the force of air resistance is approximately equivalent to the falling object's speed,
air resistance increases for an object that accelerates after being dropped from rest
 At terminal velocity, air resistance equals the weight of the falling object in magnitude.
 The two forces are oppositely oriented, the overall force on an object is zero, and the
object's speed has become constant.
 Terminal velocity depends on an object's cross sectional surface area, coefficient of
viscosity of the medium, object density, density of the medium and mass of the object.
Read More: Bernoulli’s Principle

Applications of Terminal Velocity
[Click Here for Previous Year Questions]
Applications are mentioned below:
 Raindrops have a considerably lower terminal velocity, while a mist of tiny oil droplets
has an even lower terminal velocity.
 An item dropped from rest will accelerate until it achieves terminal velocity
 An object pushed to go faster than terminal velocity will slow down to this constant
velocity upon release.
 Skydivers use terminal velocity during the free fall from the aircraft.
 The terminal velocity is the downward speed achieved during freefall despite the
resistance of the air.
 Skydivers properly gear themselves and practice to modify their body posture so that
they can go at the same pace.
 When they depart an airplane, their bodies accelerate until air resistance equals gravity,
resulting in a steady rate of descent.
Read More: Properties of Fluids
Terminal Velocity: Derivation
Suppose the density of an object as ρo, which attains terminal velocity Vt, while falling
through the liquid of density ρ. The net force exerted on the item at terminal velocity is
zero.
The drag force and buoyant force cancel out the gravitational force, leading to no
acceleration.
Terminal Velocity
Where,
W= weight of the ball,
⇒ W= mg
⇒ W= vρog (v= volume)
FV = Viscous force
⇒ FV=6πηrv
Fd = buoyant force,
⇒ Fd = vρg
In Equilibrium,
W= FV + Fd
⇒ FV = W - F d
⇒ 6πηrv = vρog – vρg (v= 4/3πr3)
⇒ 6πηrv = 4/3πr3 (ρo−ρ) g
⇒ v= 2r2 (ρo−ρ) g / 9η
hence, the terminal velocity acquired by the ball of radius r, when dropped through a
liquid of viscosity η and density ρ is Vt = 2r2 (ρo−ρ) g / 9η
Solved Examples
[Click Here for Previous Year Questions]
Example 1: Calculate the terminal velocity of a raindrop with a radius of 0.2 mm

falling through air. The density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3, and the viscosity of air is
1.8×10−5N s/m2.
Ans: Using the terminal velocity formula:
Vt = 2r2 (ρo−ρ) g / 9η
Substitute the given values:
Vt = 2 × (0.20*10-3 )2 × (1.2-1.2) × 9.81 / 9 × 1.8×10−5
Vt = 0 m/s
Example 2: A small plastic ball with a radius of 2 cm and a density of 900 kg/m 3 is
dropped from rest in a pool of water. The viscosity of water is 1.0×10−3N s/m 2.
Calculate the terminal velocity of the ball.
Ans: Using the terminal velocity formula:
Vt = 2r2 (ρo−ρ) g / 9η
Substitute the given values:
Vt = 2 × (0.02)2 × (900-1000) × 9.81 / 9*1.0×10−3
Vt = 0.087 m/s
ciple
Bernoulli’s principle formulated by Daniel Bernoulli states that as the speed of a moving fluid
increases (liquid or gas), the pressure within the fluid decreases. Although Bernoulli deduced the
law, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form in the year 1752.
Table of Contents:
 What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

 Bernoulli’s Principle Formula
 Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation
 Principle of Continuity
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation
 Relation between Conservation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
 Bernoulli’s Equation at Constant Depth

 Bernoulli’s Equation for Static Fluids
 Bernoulli’s Principle Example
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

Bernoulli’s principle states that
The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid
motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.
Bernoulli’s Principle Formula

Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational
potential energy of a fluid in a container.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as follows:

�+12��2+��ℎ=��
Where p is the pressure exerted by the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, ρ is the density of the
fluid and h is the height of the container.
Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity and
elevation.
Related Articles:
 Fluid Dynamics
 Continuity Equation
Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation

Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible fluid is
flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow speed v, height from
the ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 are given in the figure below.
Bernoulli’s Principle & Equation !

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Assumptions:
 The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both points.

 The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in the fluid.
Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:
dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv
We know that the work done on the fluid was due to the conservation of change in gravitational
potential energy and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given
as:
��=12�2�22−12�1�12=12��(�22−�12)
The change in potential energy is given as:
dU = m2gy2 – m1gy1 = ρdvg(y2 – y1)
Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
dW = dK + dU
(�1−�2)��=12��(�22−�12)+��(�2−�1)
�1−�2)=12�(�22−�12)+��(�2−�1)
Rearranging the above equation, we get

�1+12��12+��1=�2+12��22+��2
This is Bernoulli’s equation.
Watch the video and learn more about continuity equation
71,082
Principle of Continuity
According to the principle of continuity
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we can say that mass of fluid
passing through different cross sections are equal.
From the above situation, we can say the mass of liquid inside the container remains the same.
The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving
The rate of mass entering = ρA1V1Δt—– (1)
Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
This equation is known as the Principle of Continuity.

Suppose we need to calculate the speed of efflux for the following setup.
Using Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and point 2,
�+12��12+��ℎ=�0+12��22
�22=�12+2��–2�0�+2�ℎ
Generally, A2 is much smaller than A1; in this case, v12 is very much smaller than v22 and can be neglected.
We then find,
�22=2�−�0�+2�ℎ
Assuming A2<<A1,
We get,
�2=2�ℎ
Hence, the velocity of efflux is
2�ℎ
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation

Bernoulli’s principle is used for studying the unsteady potential flow which is used in the theory
of ocean surface waves and acoustics. It is also used for approximation of parameters like
pressure and speed of the fluid.
The other applications of Bernoulli’s principle are:
 Venturi meter: It is a device that is based on Bernoulli’s theorem and is used for measuring the
rate of flow of liquid through the pipes. Using Bernoulli’s theorem, Venturi meter formula is
given as:
�=�1�22ℎ��12−�22
 Working of an aeroplane: The shape of the wings is such that the air passes at a higher speed
over the upper surface than the lower surface. The difference in airspeed is calculated using
Bernoulli’s principle to create a pressure difference.
 When we are standing at a railway station and a train comes we tend to fall towards the train.
This can be explained using Bernoulli’s principle as the train goes past, the velocity of air
between the train and us increases. Hence, from the equation, we can say that the pressure
decreases. So the pressure from behind pushes us towards the train. This is based on Bernoulli’s
effect.
Watch the video and learn more about the application of

Bernoulli’s Principle
16,837
Relation between Conservation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Equation

Conservation of energy is applied to the fluid flow to produce Bernoulli’s equation. The net work
done results from a change in a fluid’s kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
Bernoulli’s equation can be modified depending on the form of energy involved. Other forms of
energy include the dissipation of thermal energy due to fluid viscosity.
Bernoulli’s Equation at Constant Depth

When the fluid moves at a constant depth that is when h1 = h2, then Bernoulli’s equation is given
as:
�1+12��12=�2+12��22
Bernoulli’s Equation for Static Fluids

When the fluid is static, then v1 = v2 = 0, then Bernoulli’s equation is given as:
When v1 = v2 = 0 P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2
When h2 = 0 P2 = P1 + ρgh1
Bernoulli’s Principle Example
Q1. Calculate the pressure in the hose whose absolute pressure is 1.01 x 105 N.m-2 if the
speed of the water in the hose increases from 1.96 m.s-1 to 25.5 m.s-1. Assume that the flow is
frictionless and density 103 kg.m-3
Ans: Given,
Pressure at point 2, p2 = 1.01 × 105 N.m-2
Density of the fluid, ρ = 103 kg.m-3
Velocity of the fluid at point 1, v1 = 1.96 m.s-1
From Bernoulli’s principle for p1,

�1=�2+12��22−12��12=�2+12�(�22−�12)
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get

�1=(1.01×105)+12(103)[(25.5)2−(1.96)2]
p1 = 4.24 × 105 N.m-2
Curve of a Baseball
Have you ever seen a baseball pitcher deliver a curveball? When the baseball takes a curved
trajectory as it passes the plate, in most cases, the batter would not be able to judge the path of
the ball and miss the ball. One of the crucial aspects of curveball can be explained using a
formula typically used to describe fluid flow. Bernoull’s equation can be used to explain the
basic aspect of the curve of a baseball (curveball). Usually, Bernoulli’sBernoulli’s equation
points to pressure, height, and velocity (“air” is the fluid). At any particular point in the fluid
(air), the K (constant) will be equal to the total sum of the other three values (height, pressure,
and velocity).
Airfoil and Bernoulli’s Principle
The air over the top of a typical airfoil encounter compressed flow lines and boosted air speed
compared to the wing. This introduces a reduction in pressure on the top (as per the Bernoulli
equation) and produces a lift force. Aerodynamicists use the Benaoulli concept to explain the
pressure calculations made in wind tunnels. They show that when pressure calculations are done
at multiple places around the airfoil and added together, it is similar to the observed lift.
Q1
What is Bernoulli famous for?
Daniel Bernoulli explained how the speed of fluid affects the pressure of the fluid, which is
known as Bernoulli’s effect and explained the kinetic theory of gases. These two were his
greatest contributions to Science, and the two concepts made him famous.
According to Bernoulli’s effect, he tried to explain that when a fluid flows through a region
where the speed increases, the pressure will decrease. Bernoulli’s effects find many real-life
applications, such as aeroplane wings are used for providing a lift to the plane.
Q2
What does Bernoulli’s equation mean?
The Bernoulli equation is considered the statement of the energy conservation for the fluids that
flow. This is considered to be the qualitative behaviour that lowers the pressure in the regions
with high velocities. This is termed the Bernoulli effect.
Q3
What is head loss in Bernoulli’s equation?
The head loss in Bernoulli’s equation represents the reduction in the total pressure, which is the
sum of the velocity head, pressure head, and the elevation head of the fluid flowing through the
hydraulic system.
Q4
What is head loss equation?
The following equation is the mathematical representation of the head loss:

hL = f L/D × v2/2g
hL = fLv2 / 2Dg
Where,
 hL is the head loss

 f is the Darcy friction factor
 L is the pipe length
 D is inside pipe diameter
 v is the fluid velocity
 g is the gravitational constant
Q5
What is the maximum suction head of a pump?
The maximum suction head of a pump is approximately 15 feet.

Hope you have understood the Bernoulli e
Physics class 11 notes
Fluid Dynamics Chapter 6
for kpk
in Physics class 11 notes
Physics class 11 notes Fluid Dynamics 2021

Fluid Dynamics Chapter 6 Physics class 11 notes 2021 pdf download, short question, long
question, and numerical problems.
Q.1 Smoke rises in a chimney faster when a

breeze is blowing. Use Bernoulli’s printer ciple
to explain these phenomena.
Answer:
As the wind blows across the top of the chimney, the pressure over there will be less than that of
the inside. And Bernoulli’s principle for fluids tells us that it is the nature of the fluid that it
always flows from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure.
When a breeze is blowing, it will create a pressure difference between inside and outside of the
chimney, which in turn causes a faster rise of smoke in the chimney.
Q.2 Why do many trailer trucks use wind deflectors on the top
of their cabs? How do such devices reduce fuel consumption?
Wind deflectors are designed in such a manner that they reduce the air resistance offered by a
vehicle or trailer truck. Thus lesser the air resistance experienced by the vehicle, the lesser the
amount of work it has to be done to move forward.
Owing to this reason many trailer trucks use wind deflectors on the top of their cabs because in
such a way the amount of work done against the air resistance is reduced significantly.
Therefore, engines have to do less work which will, in turn, lower the consumption of fuel in
these trucks, especially when they have to travel in windy areas.
Q.3 Consider the cross-section of the wing on an airplane.

The wing is designed such that the air travels faster over
the top than under the bottom. Explain why there is a net
upward (lift) force on the wing due to the Bernoulli effect.
Answer:
The wing of the airplane is designed such that the air will blow faster over the top of the wing
than under the bottom. Bernoulli’s equation tells us that the pressure of a fluid is less in areas
where the speed of the fluid is greater. Therefore due to faster blow, the pressure over the wing
of the surface will be low as compared to below the wing.
And as air always blows from the area of higher pressure to the area of lower pressure so there
will be thrust from the lower side of the wing. This thrust makes it possible for an airplane to
keep up in the air and not to fall under gravity because gravity is balanced by that upward thrust.
Q.4 When a fast-moving train passes a man standing on

the platform at rest. He is likely to be drawn towards the
train. How does the Bernoulli effect explain this
phenomenon?
Answer:
The speed of air near the fast-moving train is very high as compared to its speed away from the
train.
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure is low where the speed of air is high. Thus the
pressure near the fast-moving train is less as compared to the pressure behind the man standing
on the platform. Since the air flows from the region of high pressure to the region of low
pressure. As a result of this, the man will feel a push towards the train. Thus he is likely to be
drawn towards the train.
Q.5 If you suddenly turn on your shower water at full

speed, why is the shower curtain pushed inward?
Answer:
When we turned on our shower at full speed, water came out of it at high speed. And as
Bernoulli’s principle tells us that pressure of the fluid is low in areas of faster flow so this will
create an area of low pressure near the water flow.
Therefore the shower curtain pushed inward due to the flow of air from an area of higher
pressure i.e. from behind the curtain to the area of lower pressure i.e. towards water flow.
Read more: Physics class 11 notes Rotational and Circular Motion
Q.6 A baseball moves past an observer from left to right
spinning counterclockwise. In which direction will the ball
tend to deflect?
Answer:
As the ball is spinning as well as moving in the forward direction so the spinning will make the
motion of the ball faster, due to which pressure in that region decreases. Thus the pressure to the
other side of the ball will be maximum.
When the ball will hit the ground, then due to lower pressure to its side of rotation, it will get an
extra curvature to that side and will swing to its direction of spinning.
Q.7 Aspherical body is dropped in two different fluids and

its terminal velocity is found to be different. Give reasons.
Answer:
As terminal velocity of a body of mass ‘m’ and of radius ‘r’, moving through a fluid of viscosity
‘η’ is given by,
This shows that terminal velocity and the viscosity of fluid has an inverse relation. As the
viscosity of different fluids is different so if we drop the spherical body in the fluid having a
higher value of viscosity, it will have a lower value of terminal velocity.
Similarly, if we drop the body in the fluid of lower viscosity, it will have a higher value of
terminal velocity.
This is the reason that when a spherical body was dropped in two different fluids then its
terminal velocity was found to be different.
Q.8 A liquid passed through a pipe and it was found that

the rate of the influx was equal to the rate of efflux. What
information do you get about the liquid?
Answer:
If a liquid passes through a pipe and its rate of influx is equal to the rate of efflux, it means that
liquid has a steady-state flow. The liquid having such flow is in-compressible and will have a
uniform density as well.
Q.9 An incompressible liquid is passed through a

horizontal pipe and it is observed that the speed of a mass
of liquid when it emerges is greater than its speed when it
enters the pipe. How can it be possible?
Answer:
As equation of continuity for in-compressible fluid tells us that,
Av = Av
1 1 2 2
Equation (1) shows that velocity of the emerging fluid is inversely proportional to the area of
emerging end of the horizontal pipe.
So, if the fluid passes through the horizontal pipe and its speed when it emerges is greater than
its speed when it enters then it means that the cross-sectional area of the emerging end is less
than that of entering.
i.e. A<A
2 1
Q.10 Why does the pipe of a paper squeeze when air is

blown through it?
Answer:
When we blow air through the pipe of paper then it squeezes.
As Bernoulli’s principle tells us that when the velocity of the fluid in a certain area increases
then pressure in that region decreases. So by blowing air in the pipe the velocity of air increases
inside the pipe and so there will be a drop in pressure. To level this drop with external pressure
the air from outside the pipe will try to get inside and that is the reason that the pipe squeezes
when the air is blown through it.
Q.11 When waterfalls from a tap, its cross-sectional area

decreases as it comes down. Explain why?
Answer:
The equation of continuity tells us that the product of the area and velocity of the fluid is
constant. Mathematically;
Av = Av
1 1 2 2
This means that area is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid so, when waterfalls
from the tap its velocity increases due to gravity. An equation of continuity requires its area to
squeeze with an increase in velocity to keep its product constant.
So that is the reason that the cross-section area becomes more and more narrow as the water falls
down due to gravity.
Read more: Physics class 11 notes Work and Energy for kpk 2021
Q.12 Why does a car have an oblong shape design?
Answer:
We know that all fluids offer resistance if we have to move through them. So when a car moves,
it has to overcome the resistance offered by the air. That is the reason that a car is designed in
oblong shape so it can reduce the air resistance during its motion. As a result of which it attains a
high speed with less consumption of energy.
Q.13 How do the pulsations in pulse show the heartbeat?

Answer:
Pulsation indicates the change in blood pressure inside veins. When the heart pumps the blood,
the pressure inside the veins will vary according to the speed of blood. Increase in pressure will
make vessels expand and decrease in pressure will squeeze the veins.
This is the reason that we feel the ups and down in pulsation when we touch a vein. This
pulsation is equal to the heartbeat because each time the heart pumps it will create a pressure
difference and in return each time we will feel a pulse.
Q.14 Describe the working of an engine carburettor and

paint spray.
(a) Working of an Engine Carburetor:
Engine carburettor works on the same principle as that of the filter pump. It follows Bernoulli’s
principle in order to supply a cylinder with a mixture of air and fuel. The engine draws air
through its horizontal pipe which is connected to the fuel tank and sends them to the cylinder.
When the air flows through the pipe with high speed, the pressure inside the pipe will drop. As a
result, fuel will move to the pipe and it will form a mixture of the air and fuel which will then be
supplied to the engine in form of a spray.
(b) Working of Paint Spray:

Paint spray machines also work on Bernoulli’s principle. When we push the spray machine, this
will increase the pressure above the liquid surface than inside the spray machine. As a result, the
liquid will move up in a vertical pipe inside it because fluid has a nature to flow from an area of
high pressure to an area of low pressure.
Then there will be a spray of fluid from the nozzle having a small cross-sectional area with a
high speed.
Comprehensive Questions
Q.1 What is a fluid? Discuss briefly, the viscosity of a fluid
and explain how the flow of a fluid is characterized by
viscosity?
Answer:
Fluid:
“A substance which flows is called a fluid”
Some examples of fluids are water, oil, gas etc.
Viscosity:
“The resistive force between different layers of the fluid during its flow is known as viscosity”
For a flowing fluid, the viscosity is a characteristic of the fluid. We can say that the flow of a
fluid is characterized by its viscosity as it determines the rate of flow of fluid.
Coefficient of Viscosity:
The numerical value of resistance to the flow of a fluid between its layers is
known as the coefficient of viscosity. It is represented by ‘η’.
More will be the value of ‘η’, greater will be its viscosity and harder it will be to get through
such fluid. Its value varies from fluid to fluid.
The viscosity of a fluid depends on the temperature of the fluid.

In liquids, viscosity exists due to intermolecular forces. When we heat up a fluid, the
strength of these forces decreases with the rise of temperature and so as the viscosity.
In the case of gases, it depends on the velocity of the molecules. With the increase in
temperature, molecules of gas will have more energy and will flow with greater velocities. As a
result, the viscosity of gas will decrease.
Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem
(a) Blowing off roofs during wind storm (b) Aerofoil lift (c) Bunsen burner (d)
Venturimeter (e) Other applications
Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem
(a) Blowing off roofs during wind storm
In olden days, the roofs of the huts or houses were designed with a slope as
shown in Figure.7.34. One important scientific reason is that as per the Bernoulli’s
principle, it will be safeguarded except roof during storm or cyclone.
During cyclonic condition, the roof is blown off without damaging the other parts
of the house. In accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle, the high wind blowing
over the roof creates a low-pressure P1. The pressure under the roof P2 is greater.
Therefore, this pressure difference (P2–P1) creates an up thrust and the roof is
blown off.
(b) Aerofoil lift

The wings of an airplane (aerofoil) are so designed that its upper surface is more
curved than the lower surface and the front edge is broader than the real edge.
As the aircraft moves, the air moves faster above the aerofoil than at the bottom
as shown in Figure 7.35.
According to Bernoulli’s Principle, the pressure of air below is greater than above,
which creates an upthrust called the dynamic lift to the aircraft.
(c) Bunsen burner
In this, the gas comes out of the nozzle with high velocity, hence the pressure in
the stem decreases. So outside air reaches into the burner through an air vent
and the mixture of air and gas gives a blue flame as shown in Figure 7.36.
(d) Venturimeter
This device is used to measure the rate of flow (or say flow speed) of the
incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe. It works on the principle of
Bernoulli’s theorem. It consists of two wider tubes A and A' (with cross sectional
area A) connected by a narrow tube B (with cross sectional area a). A manometer
in the form of U-tube is also attached between the wide and narrow tubes as
shown in Figure7.37. The manometer contains a liquid of density ‘ρ m’.
Let P1 be the pressure of the fluid at the wider region of the tube A. Let us assume
that the fluid of density ‘ρ’ flows from the pipe with speed ‘v1’ and into the
narrow region, its speed increases to ‘v2’. According to the Bernoulli’s equation,
this increase in speed is accompanied by a decrease in the fluid pressure P2 at the
narrow region of the tube B. Therefore, the pressure difference between the
tubes A and B is noted by measuring the height difference (ΔP = P1−P2) between
the surfaces of the manometer liquid.
From the equation of continuity, we can say that Av1 = a v2 which means that
Using Bernoulli’s equation,
From the above equation, the pressure difference

Thus, the speed of flow of fluid at the wide end of the tube A
The volume of the liquid flowing out per second is
(e) Other applications
This Bernoulli’s concept is mainly used in the design of carburetor of automobiles,

filter pumps, atomizers, and sprayers.
For example, the carburetor has a very fine channel called nozzle through which
the air is allowed to flow in larger speed. In this case, the pressure is lowered at
the narrow neck and in turn, the required fuel or petrol is sucked into the
chamber so as to provide the correct mixture of air and fuel necessary for ignition
process.
In an atomizer, or perfume sprayer, you squeeze a rubber bulb to squirt air

through a tube. Because of the Bernoulli principle, the air rushing through the
tube has a lower pressure than the surrounding atmosphere. Atmospheric
pressure forces the perfume up an intersecting tube into the low-pressure air
stream. The perfume is pushed out of the tube and sprays into the air as a
fine mist.
The air rushing through the space between two moving trains also has a lower
pressure, due to the Bernoulli principle. Sometimes, the higher-pressure
stationary air inside each train forces some train windows out of their frames.
(1) Atomizer or sprayer

The common form of atomizer is shown in the fig. below
When the rubber bulb is squeezed, the air blows in the
tube T with high speed .According to Bernoulli’s theorem
a low pressure P2 is created inside T which is much less
than atmospheric pressure P1 on the liquid surface in the
vessel R. Due to it the liquid rises up in the tube T and is
pushed out with air through nozzle N in the form of a
spray. This principle is used in a paint sprayer, oil scent
and nasal sprayer.
What is an atomiser?
Solution
Verified by Toppr
Atomizer is a device that is used to emit liquid droplets as fine spray. 'Atomize' here
means splitting up a large body into small, discrete particles. It works on
Bernoulli's principle. When high speed horizontal air passes over a vertical tube, it
creates a low pressure and draws the air and liquid inside the vertical tube
upward. Atomizer has a nozzle at the end of the horizontal tube which causes the
liquid to break up into small drops and mixes it with the air.
Action of atomiser:
An atomiser is a device that is used to spray a liquid in the form of fine droplets. It works on the
principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. The liquid is accelerated as it passes through a narrow constriction
in the atomiser. This causes a decrease in pressure which vaporises the liquid and breaks it up into
fine droplets.
So these are some examples of applications of Bernoulli’s theorem.
Application of Bernoulli's Equation in
Real Life
The Bernoulli principle states that the pressure exerted by a moving
fluid is inversely proportional to its velocity in a horizontal flow.
The Bernoulli equation has numerous applications in our everyday life,

explaining the movement of gases and liquids in pipes, instruments, medical
equipment, and many others. Some examples of real-life scenarios are:
1. Swimming - To achieve the most effective swimming, one can extend
their feet, point their toes, and adjust the angle of their hands. This will
result in the maximum lift force and minimum drag force.
2. Magnus effect - A rotating ball drags air with it due to friction, so the
speed of the airflow decreases on one side of the ball while increasing
on the other.
3. Airplane wings - The shape of an airplane wing is more curved on the
surface; hence the surrounding airflow velocity is higher at the top of
the wing than at the bottom.
4. Atomizers - A device used to emit liquids in a fine spray, consisting of
two tubes connected perpendicular to one another. As the air gets
pushed through the horizontal tube, the velocity of the airflow increases
above the vertical tube and decreases the air pressure.
5. Measuring blood pressure - A sphygmomanometer compresses the
artery, creating a difference in cross-sectional areas, which can be used
to measure blood flow rate and determine blood pressure.
6. Venturi meter - An instrument that measures fluid flow rate through a
pipe utilizing the pressure difference created by different cross-
sectional areas.
7. Hint: Carburetor is a device used in automobiles to facilitate proper ratio of air-
fuel mixture for combustion in the engine. It works according to Bernoulli’s
principle, which talks about the variation of pressure and velocity during fluid
flow.
Complete answer:
A carburetor is a device used in automobiles to provide a proper ratio of mixture
of air and fuel for easy combustion in the engine. The working principle of a
carburetor is based on Bernoulli’s principle. Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow
states that pressure decreases with increasing velocity of the fluid.
8.
9.
To understand the working of a carburetor, let us go through the different parts of
a carburetor, as shown in the figure given above. The main part of a carburetor is
called a venturi, which is nothing but a cylindrical tube of large radius. The area
of the middle portion of this venturi or cylindrical tube is reduced using the throat.
This venturi has three openings – one to the engine (C), one to the float chamber
(A) and the other to the surroundings (B), to suck air from the surroundings. The
opening connected to the float chamber is connected using a thin duct or a thin
tube, which facilitates the motion of fuel from the float chamber to the venturi.
This opening is made at the centre of the throat, which is the middle portion of
the venturi, with a lesser area of cross-section, as shown in the figure. As already
mentioned, one opening is pretty large and opens the venturi to the
surroundings, to suck the air from outside. Near this opening, there is an air
purifier attached so that air from the surroundings is purified before mixing it with
the fuel. The last opening of the venturi opens it to the engine, where combustion
of air-fuel mixture takes place. All these openings are controlled using valves.
The valve in the float chamber is called a float valve. The valve in the opening
through which air is sucked is called a choke. The valve near the opening to the
engine is called a throttle valve.
As already mentioned, a carburetor works according to Bernoulli’s principle.
When the automobile is switched on, air is sucked from the surroundings through
the opening meant for it, by adjusting the choke valve. At the same time, fuel
from the thin duct is sucked near the throat area of the venturi, to provide the
proper ratio of air-fuel mixture. To put it clear, air sucked from the surroundings
passes through the opening of the venturi meant for it, to the throat, at the middle
of the venturi. When air reaches the throat, the velocity of air increases. This is
due to the principle of continuity, which suggests that area of cross-section and
velocity of fluid flow are inversely proportional to each other. Since the throat at
the middle of the venturi has less area, velocity of air is more here. According to
Bernoulli’s principle, when velocity of fluid flow increases, pressure decreases.
Therefore, at the throat section of the venturi, low pressure is created. This low
pressure, in turn, sucks fuel from the thin duct, connected to the float chamber
and placed at the throat. Thus, fuel particles and air get mixed up in the right
proportion and serves the engine for proper combustion through the opening
meant for it.
Thus, a carburetor works according to Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow.
(2)
(2) Lift on an aeroplane wing
The shape of the aeroplane wing is peculiar. Its upper
surface is
more curved than its lower surface and its leading edge is
thicker than its trailing edge. As an aeroplane moves
forward, the air blown in the form of stream lines over the
wings of aeroplane is shown below.
As the upper surface of wing is more curved than its
lower surface, therefore, the speed of air above the wings
two is larger than the speed of the air below the wings.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressure above the
wings becomes less than that the pressure
below the wings. Due to this difference of pressure on the
two sides of the wings, a vertical lift acts on the
aeroplane. When this lift is sufficient to overcome the
gravity pull on the aeroplane, the aeroplane is lifted up.
Stoke’s law and its applications
When a body falls through a viscous medium, it drags the layer of the fluid
immediately in contact with it. This produces a relative motion between the
different layers of the liquid. Stoke performed many experiments on the motion
of small spherical bodies in different fluids and concluded that the viscous force F
acting on a spherical body of radius r depends directly on
i) radius (r) of the sphere

ii) velocity (v) of the sphere and
ii) coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid
Therefore F ∝ ηx r yvz ⇒ F =kηxr y vz , where k is a dimensionless constant.
Using dimensions, the above equation can be written as
[MLT – 2] = k [ML−1T – 1] x ×[ L]y × [LT−1] z
On solving, we get x=1, y=1, and z=1 Therefore, F=kη rv
Experimentally, Stoke found that the value of k = 6π
F = 6πη rv (7.23)
This relation is known as Stoke’s law
Practical applications of Stoke’s law
Since the raindrops are smaller in size and their terminal velocities are small,
remain suspended in air in the form of clouds. As they grow up in size, their
terminal velocities increase and they start falling in the form of rain.
This law explains the following:
a) Floatation of clouds
b) Larger raindrops hurt us more than the smaller ones
Reason for Anomalous Expansion of

Water
Ice has a crystal structure that is “open” and has a lot of space. Ice has a lower density than water.
At 0°C, the H2O molecules lose their open structure and become more hydrogen bonded. As a
result, the intermolecular distance between H2O molecules are reduced.
As a result, density rises from 0°C to 4°C. The density is greatest at 4°C; however, as the
temperature rises, the intermolecular distance increases due to an increase in the molecules’ Kinetic
Energy.
The effect of this expansion of water is that the coldest water is always present on the surface.
Since water at 4oC is the heaviest, this water settles on the bottom of the water body and the
lightest, i.e. the coldest layer, accumulates on the top layer. So in the winter, the top of the water
is always the first to freeze over. Since ice and water both are bad conductors of heat, this top
layer of ice insulates the rest of the water body from the cold of the winter, thereby protecting all
the life in the water body. Now you can truly comprehend how essential the anomalous
properties of water are for life.
Why does it happen?

As shown below, a water molecule is made of one oxygen atom combined with two
hydrogen atoms. At normal temperature, the water molecules are held together in a
liquid state because of the intermolecular attraction of the water molecules. In a liquid
state, the water molecules are constantly whizzing around in the container and are
constantly being rearranged.
Keep in mind that hydrogen contributes to intermolecular attraction. The attraction

between the hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another
water molecule is also present. The distance between the H-O bond is more than the O-
O attraction in the water. On cooling water, the rate at which the molecules are whizzing
around decreases as they lose energy. The water molecules start squeezing together
on further cooling, increasing their density. At 4oC, the density reaches its maximum,
and after this, the water molecules can squeeze no further.
So, the water freezing over into ice is held together not by the O-O attraction but by the
H-O attraction. The lattice arrangement of ice prevents the movement of water
molecules. But since the H-O is not quite as tight as the O-O bond, it experiences a little
expansion once the H-O bond takes over. It is like people packed in a busy subway.
More of them can fit into the subway if they tuck their hands inside their pockets than if
they all hold hands and stand. This arrangement is stronger, and it also occupies more
space. Water experiences this same effect.
Stay tuned with
A true liquid is isotropic, meaning that its properties are uniform in all directions— the
result of its molecules being in constant random motion. Crystalline solids, in contrast,
are anisotropic; optical- and other properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity
vary with direction. A liquid crystal phase has many of the physical attributes of a liquid,
but its molecular units are sufficiently ordered to give rise to some anisotropy, most
notably in their optical properties.
As with so many scientific discoveries, it all started with an unexpected observation. In

1888, an Austrian plant physiologist, working in Prague, attempted to measure the
melting point of a cholesterol derivative that he had extracted from a plant. To his
surprise, he found that this substance appeared to have two melting points. At 145° C
the crystalline solid first melted into a cloudy liquid, and then at 178° the cloudiness
suddenly disappeared, leaving the clear, transparent liquid that one ordinarily expects
after melting.
A physicist who examined this material recognized that the cloudy liquid had a certain
degree of order; he proposed that it was a hitherto unknown state of matter, and
suggested the name "liquid crystal". But science was not quite ready to accept this
concept, and despite a number of confirming experiments between 1910 and 1930, the
field remained largely dormant until the mid-1960s when the French physicist Pierre-
Gilles de Gennes (1932-2007) developed a thorough theoretical model for the
properties of liquid crystals, particularly their ability to scatter light. For this and for
related studies on polymers, de Gennes was awarded the 1991 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The structural units capable of forming liquid crystals are always molecules, usually
rather elongated organic ones that possess dissimilar local structural regions that can
interact in an organized way with their neighbors. Over a certain range of
temperatures, these attractive forces can lead to a degree of self-organization in which
crystal-like order persists in some directions even though it is lost in other directions.
Although a large variety of molecules are known to form liquid crystals, the simplest
and most common structures can be represented by the following generic scheme:
1. The two benzene rings confer a degree of planarity on the molecule that promotes
attractions between neighboring molecules. This planarity is enhanced when the linkage
group contains a double bond such as -(HC=N)- which keeps the rings in the same
plane.
2. The terminal group is often (but not always) one that is somewhat polar, giving rise to
intermolecular attractions along the long axis.
3. The side chain is commonly a hydrocarbon chain that serves to elongate the molecule.
Properties of Liquid Crystals

Liquid crystal phases are generally cloudy in appearance, which means that they scatter
light in much the same way as colloids such as milk. This light scattering is a
consequence of fluctuating regions of non-uniformity as small groups of molecules form
and disperse.
The anisotropy of liquid crystals causes them to exhibit birefringence. That is, light that
enters the crystal is broken up into two oppositely-polarized rays that travel at different
velocities. Observation of a birefringent material between crossed polarizing filters
reveals striking patterns and color effects.
The colors arise from interference between the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray;
the latter traverses a slightly longer path through the material, and thus emerges later
(and out-of-phase) with the former.
Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, are subject to thermal expansion. As the
temperature rises, the average spacing between the aligned molecules of a nematic
phase (see below) increases, thus causing the e-ray to be increasingly retarded with
respect to the o-ray. If a suitable liquid crystal mixture is painted onto the surface of a
patient's body, it can often reveal the sites of infection or tumors, which cause
increases or reductions in local blood flow giving rise to temperature anomalies.
Inexpensive thermometers can be made by printing a succession of suitably formulated
LC mixtures on a paper or plastic strip which is held in contact with the surface whose
temperature is to be measured.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)

The first working liquid crystal display ("LCD") was demonstrated at RCA in 1968. In the
following year, James Fergason of Kent State University (OH) discovered the twisted
nematic field effect which allowed a much higher-quality display and led to the first
commercial LCD wristwatch in 1979. LCDs were first used in calculators in the late
1970s, but they are now widely encountered in computer- and television displays. The
thickness of the chiral phase is such that polarized light passing through it is rotated by
90°, which corresponds to the orientation of the right-hand polarizing filter. So in this
state, the light passes through and illuminates the pixel surface.
When an electric field is imposed on the liquid crystal phase, the component molecules
line up in the field and the chirality is lost. Light passing through the cell does not
undergo rotation of its polarization plane, and is therefore stopped by the right
polarizing filter, turning the display off.
Nematic and Smectic Phases

There are many classes and sub-classes of liquid crystals, but for the purposes we will
divide them into the two kinds depicted on the right side of this Figure below which also
compares them with the two conventional condensed phases of matter:
In a nematic phase (the term means "thread-like") the molecules are aligned in the
same direction but are free to drift around randomly, very much as in an ordinary liquid.
Owing to their polarity, the alignment of the rod-like molecules can be controlled by
applying an electric field; this is the physical basis for liquid crystal displays and certain
other electrooptic devices.
In smectic ("soap-like") phases the molecules are arranged in layers, with the long
molecular axes approximately perpendicular to the laminar planes. The only long-range
order extends along this axis, with the result that individual layers can slip over each
other (hence the "soap-like" nature) in a manner similar to that observed in graphite.
Within a layer there is a certain amount of short-range order. There are a large number
of sub-categories of smectic phases which we will not go into here.
Chiral phases
Special cases of nematic and smectic phases are sometimes formed by molecules that
display chirality — that is, they can exist in either left- or right-handed forms that
cannot be superposed on each other. In the resulting chiral phase, successive
molecules positioned along the long axis are rotated around this axis, giving rise to a
periodicity that repeats itself at distances corresponding to a complete rotation. These
twisted phases are able to rotate the plane of polarized light that passes along the axis.
If the molecules are polar, this twisting can be turned off by imposing an external
electric field at either end of the long axis. Besides the very important application of this
property (known as ferroelectricity) to liquid crystal displays, these materials can be
used to make electrooptic shutters which can be switched open and closed in
microseconds.
A typical chiral molecule capable of exhibiting ferroelectric behavior is shown below.
The chiral part of the molecule is indicated by the asterisk. The chirality arises because
this carbon atom is joined to four different groups.
Contributors and Attributions

 Stephen Lower, Professor Emeritus (Simon Fraser U.) Chem1 Virtual Textbook
Thumnbnail: Schematic of mesogen ordering in the smectic liquid crystal phases:

smectic-A (layered) and smectic-C (layered and tilted). (CC -SA-BY 3.0; Kebes).
1. Liquid crystals can diffract light like solid crystals. When one of the
wavelengths of white light is reflected, it appears colored. As the
temperature changes, the distance between the layers of molecules changes.
Therefore the colour reflected light changes accordingly. Thus liquid
crystals are used in measurement of temperature sensors.
Speed of Efflux - Venturimeter and Its Working

Equation
In this article, we will discuss the speed of efflux, its calculation, Torricelli’s law, its derivation,
venturimeter, its working principle and its working equation.
Table of Contents
 Torricelli’s Law
 Venturimeter
Torricelli’s Law
As per Torricelli’s law for Newtonian fluids, the density of efflux of a fluid passing through a
sharp-edged hole at the bottom of a tank filled with the fluid to a depth of h is the same as the
speed that a body would acquire in a freely falling condition when falling from a height h.
Read More: Fluid Flow
Derivation
Consider a tank with a small hole in its side at a height y1 from the bottom, containing a liquid of
density ρ. The air above the liquid is at pressure P, and its surface is at height y2.
From the equation of continuity, we can write
A1v1 = A2v2
Or v2 = A1v1/A2 ………………………….(1)
If the cross-sectional area of the tank A2 is much larger than that of the hole (A2 >>A1), then we
may take the fluid to be approximately at rest at the top, i.e. v2 = 0. Now applying the Bernoulli
equation at points 1 and 2 and noting that at the hole P1 = Pa (the atmospheric pressure), we have
Pa + 1/2ρv12+ ρgy1 = Pb + 1/2ρv22 + ρgy2 ……………………………(2)
Here, let the difference in the height = h (as shown in the figure) = y1-y2
From equations 1 and 2, we have

�1=2�[(�−��)+��ℎ]
Read More: Bernoulli Principle
Venturimeter
Venturimeter is a flow measurement instrument. Here, a converging section of a pipe is used to
increase the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flow rate of the
fluid is deduced based on Bernoulli’s equation.
Let us consider the figure shown above. Here we can see the block diagram of a Venturimeter.
Here we can see a small converging part, a throat and a diverging part. Here, we apply
Bernoulli’s equation between the inline section and the throat section. The pressure difference is
measured using a manometer.
P1 + 1/2ρV12 = P2 + 1/2ρV22
Where P1 is the pressure in the inline section and p2 is the pressure in the throat section, V1 is the
velocity of the fluid passing through the inline section, and v2 and the velocity of the fluid
passing through the throat section and ρ is the density of the liquid.
Now, from the equation of continuity, we can say
Volumetric flow rate = V = ¼ πD2u1 = ¼ πd2u2
Where V is the volumetric flow rate of the liquid, D is the diameter of the pipe, and d is the
diameter of the throat.
Combining the two equations, we can write
Where β is the ratio of diameters, d/D.
Here, we introduce a venture coefficient (C) considering the loss due to pipe friction and change
in the total pressure,
�=��2411−�42Δ��
Where Δp is the pressure difference and C is the coefficient of the Venturimeter.
Stay tuned with BYJU’S for more such interesting articles. Also, register to “BYJU’S – The
Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited academic
assistance.
Understanding Continuity Equation

1,04,183

Q1
What is a venturimeter?
Venturimeter is an instrument used to measure the flow rate of fluid flow through a pipe.
Q2
Venturimeter works on which principle?

Venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation.
Q3
What is a manometer?
The manometer is a device used to measure pressure differences.
Q4
What is the formula to calculate the volumetric flow rate?

Volumetric flow rate = V = ¼ πD2u1 = ¼ πd2u2
Q5
State true or false: Bernoulli’s principle approximates parameters like

True.
Torricelli’s theorem, also known as Torricelli’s law, Torricelli’s principle, or Torricelli’s

equation, states that the speed, v, of a liquid flowing under gravity out of an opening in a
tank is proportional to the square root of the vertical distance, h, between the liquid
surface and the centre of the opening and the square root of twice the acceleration
caused by gravity, simply v=(2gh) . (At the Earth’s surface, gravity causes an
1/2
acceleration of around 32.2 feet per second per second, or 9.8 metre per second per
second.) Evangelista Torricelli, who discovered the theorem in 1643, is named for him.
Torricelli’s Law
Torricelli’s law, also called Torricelli’s principle or Torricelli’s theorem, is a fluid dynamics
statement that specifies the efflux velocity from orifice.
According to Torricelli’s law, the speed at which fluid flows from an orifice is equal to the
speed It would descend freely for a distance equal to the free surface height of the liquid
above the aperture.
Consider any vessel having a slit (orifice) filled with liquid.
The fluid will begin to flow through the slit, and according to Torricelli’s law, the speed
with which the fluid will flow is equal to the speed with which a freely falling body
reaches a height equal to the height of the slit from the fluid’s free surface.
The distance between the free surface and the slit should be equal to h.
The velocity with which the fluid flows is identical to the velocity attained by a freely
falling body falling from a height of h.
Torricelli’s law, also known as Torricelli’s principle or Torricelli’s theorem, is a statement

in fluid dynamics that the speed, v, of fluid flowing out of an orifice in a tank under
gravity is proportional to the square root of the vertical distance, h, between the liquid
surface and the centre of the orifice, and to the square root of twice the acceleration
caused by gravity.
In other words, the fluid’s efflux velocity from the orifice is the same as it would have
been if it had fallen h feet under gravity. Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian scientist,
discovered the law in 1643 and named it after him. Later, it was discovered to be a
special case of Bernoulli’s principle.
p +1 / 2pv ²+pgh =p +1 / 2pv2²+pgh
1 1 1 2 2
For a certain circumstance, Torricelli’s equation is derived. Viscosity and other losses
must be ignored, and the orifice must be tiny. In Bernoulli’s Equation, if a fluid is flowing
through a very small orifice (for example, at the bottom of a big tank), the velocity of the
fluid at the large end can be ignored. Furthermore, efflux velocity is unaffected by flow
direction. The efflux speed of fluid passing through the opening is thus given by the
formula:
v= √2gh
Use of Torricelli’s law

Torricelli’s law is useful in everyday situations. The physical law describes a significant
link between liquid exit velocity and container height. This post will teach you about this
relationship and how to use Torricelli’s theorem to calculate exit velocity.
Applications
Horizontal distance covered by the jet of liquid
The horizontal distance traversed by the jet of liquid to reach the same level as the base
of the liquid column can be simply calculated if display style HH is the height of the
orifice above the ground and display style HH is the height of the liquid column from the
ground (height of liquid’s surface). We have from the rules of falling bodies that display
style HH is the vertical height travelled by a particle of jet stream.
h=1 / 2gt²=>t= √2h / g ,
Clepsydra problem
A clepsydra is a clock that uses the movement of water to measure time. It is made up
of a pot with a little hole at the bottom that allows the water to escape. The amount of
water that escapes determines the length of time. According to Torricelli’s law, the rate
of efflux via the hole is proportional to the water level, and the discharge is not uniform
as the water level drops. Keeping the water level steady is a simple method. This can
be accomplished by allowing a continual stream of water to flow into the vessel, with the
overflow being permitted to exit via another hole at the top.
An inflow clepsydra
As a result of the consistent height, the discharging water from the bottom can be
collected in a second cylindrical vessel with a uniform graduation for time measurement.
This is a clepsydra with inflow.
Alternatively, the water level in the vessel can be controlled to decline at a moderate
pace by carefully selecting the vessel’s design. The time can be measured with uniform
graduation by monitoring the level of water remaining in the vessel.
Conclusion
Torricelli’s theorem, also known as Torricelli’s law, Torricelli’s principle, or Torricelli’s
equation, states that the speed, v, of a liquid flowing under gravity out of a tank opening
is proportionate to the square root of the vertical distance, h, between the liquid surface
and the centre…
Torricelli's theorem also comes in equation form: v = √(2gh), where v
is the velocity of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is
the height of the fluid above the hole. Consider a liquid-filled tank (e.g.
water tank). At some point in time, there should be a hole in the tank's
wall at a depth h from the fluid's free surface in the open tank. The
tank's cross section area, A, is much larger than the hole's cross
section area, a. (A>>>a) The efflux velocity, ve, is the rate at which
the fluid emerges from the hole. Let ve be the velocity with which the
fluid leaves. vg, velocity at ground will be zero. g be acceleration due
to gravity and h be the height from which fluid falls. So according to
equation of motion, vg2 = ve2 + 2gh Since water is flowing
downwards, we take h as negative. 0 = ve2 − 2gh ve = √2gh This is
the expression for velocity of efflux.Read more on Sarthaks.com -
https://www.sarthaks.com/3390183/what-is-torricellis-law-derive-an-
expression-for-speed-of-efflux
Suppose that a liquid is taken in a container having a large cross-sectional area

A1. There is also a small hole of cross-sectional area A 2 on the wall of the
container.
Suppose that the velocity of efflux of the liquid out of the container is v 2.
The velocity of a liquid particle at the surface, at that instant, is v 1 . The height of
the liquid column at any instant from the position of the hole to the upper end of
the tank is h, and the atmospheric pressure is P o
From the principle of continuity, we get
Torricelli’s law
 Torricelli law states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is equal to the speed that it
would attain if falling freely for a distance equal to the height of the free surface of the liquid
above the orifice.
 Consider any vessel which has an orifice (slit)filled with some fluid.
 The fluid will start flowing through the slit and according to Torricelli law the speed with which
the fluid will flow is equal to the speed with which a freely falling bodyattains such that the
height from which the body falls is equal to the height of the slit from the free surface of the
fluid.
 Let the distance between the free surface and the slit = h
 Velocity with which the fluid flows is equal to the velocity with which a freely falling body
attains if it is falling from a height h.
Derivation of the Law:-
 Let A1= area of the slit (it is very small), v1= Velocity with which fluid is flowing out.
o A2=Area of the free surface of the fluid,v2=velocity of the fluid at the free surface.
 From Equation of Continuity, Av=constant.Therefore A1v1 = A2v2.
o From the figure, A2>>>A1, This implies v2<<v1(This meansfluid is at rest on the free surface),
Therefore v2~ 0.
 Using Bernoulli’s equation,
o P+ (1/2) ρ v2+ρgh = constant.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the slit:
o Pa+(1/2) ρ v12+ρgy1(Equation 1) where Pa=atmospheric pressure,y1=height of the slit from the
base.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the surface:
 P+ρgy2(Equation 2) where as v2=0 therefore (1/2) ρ v12=0, y2=height of the free surface from the
base.
 By equating(1) and (2),
 Pa+ (1/2) ρ v12+ ρgy1= P+ρgy2
 (1/2) ρ v12 = (P-Pa) + ρg(y2-y1)
 =(P-Pa) ρgh (where h=(y2-y1))
 v12=2/ρ [(P-Pa) + ρgh]
 Therefore v1=√2/ρ [(P-Pa) + ρgh].This is the velocity by which the fluid will come out of the
small slit.
 v1 is known as Speed of Efflux. This means the speed of the fluid outflow.
Torricelli’s law. The speed of efflux, v1,from the side of the container is given bythe application
of Bernoulli’s equation.
Case1:- The vessel is not closed it is opento atmosphere that means P=Pa.
 Therefore v1=√2gh.This is the speed of a freely falling body.
 This is accordance to Torricelli’s law which states that the speed by which the fluid is flowing
out of a small slit of a container is same as the velocity of a freely falling body.
 Case2:-Tank is not open to atmosphere but P>>Pa.
o Therefore 2gh is ignored as it is very very large, hence v1= √2P/ρ.
o The velocity with which the fluid will come out of the container is determined by the Pressure at
the free surface of the fluid alone.
Torricelli’s Theorem
Velocity of efflux (the velocity with which the liquid flows out of a orifice or
narrow hole) is equal to the velocity acquired by a freely falling body through
the same vertical distance equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface
of liquid.
Venturimeter is used to measure the speed of flow of a fluid that is flowing

through a pipe. It is a device made of 3 parts – a short converging part, a throat, and a
diverging part. Venturimeter works on Bernaulli’s principle and has several
applications.
Table of Contents
1. What is a Venturimeter?
2. Components of a Venturi Meter
3. Working of a Venturi Meter
4. Venturimeter Formula
5. Types of a Venturi Meter
6. Applications of a Venturi Meter
7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Venturi Meter
8. Things to Remember
9. Previous Year Questions
10. Sample Questions
Key Terms: venturimeter uses, types of venturimeter, venturimeter

installation, pressure, velocity, kinetic energy
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What is a Venturimeter?
A venturi meter is a device that is used to measure the speed flow of incompressible
fluid through a pipe.
 The device converts pressure energy into kinetic energy and measures the rate of flow
of liquid through pipes.
 It has a tube of broad diameter and a small constriction towards the middle.
 Venturi meter works on the principle of the Bernoulli equation such that the velocity of
the fluid increases as the pressure decreases.
 The theory states that when the cross-sectional area of the flow decreases, a pressure
difference is created between the different regions of the flow.
 This helps measure the difference under pressure which further helps to measure the
discharge inflow.
Bernoulli’s Theorem Video Explanation
Venturi meter – Related Topics
Different Properties of Fluids Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydraulic Machines Viscosity
Components of a Venturi Meter
A Venturi meter is made up of the following components:
 Converging Part: The area of the cone decreases when water flows through it.
Therefore, there is an increase in the speed of flowing water and a decrease in the
pressure.
 Throat Diameter: The area remains constant in a throat diameter when water flows
through it therefore the speed and pressure also remain constant.
 Diverging Part: The area increases when water flows through the cone and therefore
the speed decreases and the pressure decreases.
Components of Venturi Meter
Working of a Venturi Meter
The venturi meter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation which states that the
pressure decreases as the velocity increases.
 The crosssection of the throat is less than that of the inlet pipe.
 As the crosssection from the inlet pipe to the throat of venturimeter decreases, the fluid
velocity increases, and therefore the pressure decreases.
 Due to a decrease in the pressure, a pressure difference is created between the throat
of the venturi meter and the inlet pipe.
 This is further measured by applying a differential manometer between the throat section
and the inlet section. It can also be measured by using two gauges on the inlet section
and throat.
 The pressure difference through the pipe is then calculated after obtaining the rate of
flow.
Mechanical Properties of Fluids – Related Topics
Elastic Limit Mechanical Properties of Fluids
Pressure Fluid Friction
Buoyant Force Mechanical Properties of Solid
Shearing Stress Barometer

Mechanical Properties of Fluids – Related Topics
Surface Energy Critical Velocity
Venturimeter Formula
A Venturi Meter contains two tubes connected by a pipe at narrow ends. The venturi-
meter is positioned horizontally and the liquid enters end 1 and passes through end
2. Let,
 P1 is the pressure in the inlet section

 P2 is the pressure in the throat section
 v1 is the velocity of the fluid passing through the inlet section
 v2 is the velocity of the fluid passing through the throat section
 ρ is the density of the liquid
 A1 and A2 be the area of the cross-section at the inlet section and throat section
respectively.
Working of a Venturi Meter
By Equation of Continuity
A1v1 = A2v2.
By Bernoulli’s equation,
P1 + 1212v12 = P1 + 1212v22
So, P1 – P2 = 1212v22 – v12
P1 – P2 = 1212(A21v21A22−v21�12�12�22−�12)
P1 – P2 = 1212v12(A21−A22A22�12−�22�22)
v1 = A2[[2(P1−P2)(A12−A22)]1/2[2(�1−�2)(�12−�22)]1/2]
However, A1v1 = △v△�
where △v△� represents the volume that flows through a cross-section per second.
Therefore, ΔV = A1A2[2ghA21−A222�ℎ�12−�22]1/2
The venturi effect formula can be demonstrated as
p1−p2=ρ2(v22−v21)�1−�2=�2(�22−�12)
p1 = pressure at position 1 before the narrowing of the pipe
p2 = pressure at position 2 after the narrowing of the pipe
ρ� = density of the fluid traveling in pipe
v2 = velocity of the fluid at position 2
v1 = velocity of the fluid at position 1
The video below explains this:
Venturimeter Detailed Video Explanation:
Types of Venturi Meters
There are normally three types of venturi meters:
 Horizontal Venturi Meter: In this venturimeter, the kinetic energy is the highest and the
potential energy is the lowest
 Vertical Venturi Meter: In this, the potential energy is maximum and the kinetic energy
is minimum
 Inclined Venturi Meter: It is a venturi meter that is inserted in an inclined pipeline in a
vertical plane. It helps in measuring the flow rate through the pipe.
Read More: Stokes Theorem
Applications of a Venturi Meter
A Venturi Meter has a number of applications in the practical world such as:
 It is used to determine the flow of chemicals in pipelines.
 Venturimeter can determine the flow rate of the fluid discharged through the pipe of the
device.
 It is used a lot in the waste treatment process in which large diameter pipes are used.
 It is used in the industrial sector to determine the pressure and the quantity of gas and
liquid that flows inside the pipe.
 Venturimeter is also used in the medical sector to measure the rate of flow of blood in
arteries.
 Recovery of high pressure is carried out by venturi meters.
Also Read: Water Pressure Formula
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Venturi Meter
The advantages and disadvantages of a venturimeter are as discussed below –
Advantages of a Venturi Meter
Some major advantages of a Venturi meter are given below:
 They have high accuracy over wide flow ranges.

 They are easy to operate.
 They consume less energy and power.
 Venturimeters have high reproducibility.
 The coefficient of discharge is high.
 They can be used for compressible and incompressible fluid.
 Venturi meters are widely for a high flow rate or discharge.
Disadvantages of a Venturi Meter
Some of the disadvantages of a venturi meter are:
 High installation cost

 Not usable for pipes with a small diameter like 76.2 mm
 They are non-linear
 Expensive and slightly bulky
Read More: Unit of Pressure

Things to Remember
 Venturi effect shows a reduction in fluid pressure which is the output of fluid flows
through a constricted section of a pipe.
 Venturi meter is used for calculation of the velocity of fluids running through a pipeline.
This fluid can be a liquid or a gas.
 In principle, the homogeneous model can be used with horizontally and vertically
oriented Venturis.
 Pressure loss in the venturi meter is 10% while in orifice meter, pressure loss is 50-
60%.
urface tension is a phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid, where the liquid
is in contact with a gas, acts as a thin elastic sheet. This term is typically used only
when the liquid surface is in contact with gas (such as the air). If the surface is
between two liquids (such as water and oil), it is called "interface tension."
Causes of Surface Tension

Various intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals forces, draw the liquid
particles together. Along the surface, the particles are pulled toward the rest of
the liquid, as shown in the picture to the right.
Surface tension (denoted with the Greek variable gamma) is defined as the ratio
of the surface force F to the length d along which the force acts:
gamma = F / d
Units of Surface Tension
Surface tension is measured in SI units of N/m (newton per meter), although the
more common unit is the cgs unit dyn/cm (dyne per centimeter).
In order to consider the thermodynamics of the situation, it is sometimes useful

to consider it in terms of work per unit area. The SI unit, in that case, is the
J/m2 (joules per meter squared). The cgs unit is erg/cm2.
These forces bind the surface particles together. Though this binding is weak - it's
pretty easy to break the surface of a liquid after all - it does manifest in many
ways.
Examples of Surface Tension

Drops of water. When using a water dropper, the water does not flow in a
continuous stream, but rather in a series of drops. The shape of the drops is
caused by the surface tension of the water. The only reason the drop of water isn't
completely spherical is that the force of gravity pulling down on it. In the absence
of gravity, the drop would minimize the surface area in order to minimize
tension, which would result in a perfectly spherical shape.
Insects walking on water. Several insects are able to walk on water, such as
the water strider. Their legs are formed to distribute their weight, causing the
surface of the liquid to become depressed, minimizing the potential energy to
create a balance of forces so that the strider can move across the surface of the
water without breaking through the surface. This is similar in concept to wearing
snowshoes to walk across deep snowdrifts without your feet sinking.
Needle (or paper clip) floating on water. Even though the density of these
objects is greater than water, the surface tension along the depression is enough
to counteract the force of gravity pulling down on the metal object. Click on the
picture to the right, then click "Next," to view a force diagram of this situation or
try out the Floating Needle trick for yourself.
Anatomy of a Soap Bubble
When you blow a soap bubble, you are creating a pressurized bubble of air which
is contained within a thin, elastic surface of liquid. Most liquids cannot maintain
a stable surface tension to create a bubble, which is why soap is generally used in
the process ... it stabilizes the surface tension through something called the
Marangoni effect.
When the bubble is blown, the surface film tends to contract. This causes the
pressure inside the bubble to increase. The size of the bubble stabilizes at a size
where the gas inside the bubble won't contract any further, at least without
popping the bubble.
In fact, there are two liquid-gas interfaces on a soap bubble - the one on the
inside of the bubble and the one on the outside of the bubble. In between the two
surfaces is a thin film of liquid.
The spherical shape of a soap bubble is caused by the minimization of the surface
area - for a given volume, a sphere is always the form which has the least surface
area.
Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble

To consider the pressure inside the soap bubble, we consider the radius R of the
bubble and also the surface tension, gamma, of the liquid (soap in this case -
about 25 dyn/cm).
We begin by assuming no external pressure (which is, of course, not true, but
we'll take care of that in a bit). You then consider a cross-section through the
center of the bubble.
Along this cross section, ignoring the very slight difference in inner and outer
radius, we know the circumference will be 2pi R. Each inner and outer surface
will have a pressure of gamma along the entire length, so the total. The total
force from the surface tension (from both the inner and outer film) is, therefore,
2gamma (2pi R).
Inside the bubble, however, we have a pressure p which is acting over the entire
cross-section pi R2, resulting in a total force of p(pi R2).
Since the bubble is stable, the sum of these forces must be zero so we get:
2 gamma (2 pi R) = p( pi R 2)
or
p = 4 gamma / R
Obviously, this was a simplified analysis where the pressure outside the bubble
was 0, but this is easily expanded to obtain the difference between the interior
pressure p and the exterior pressure pe:
p - pe = 4 gamma / R
Pressure in a Liquid Drop

Analyzing a drop of liquid, as opposed to a soap bubble, is simpler. Instead of two
surfaces, there is only the exterior surface to consider, so a factor of 2 drops out of
the earlier equation (remember where we doubled the surface tension to account
for two surfaces?) to yield:
p - pe = 2 gamma / R
Contact Angle
Surface tension occurs during a gas-liquid interface, but if that interface comes in
contact with a solid surface - such as the walls of a container - the interface
usually curves up or down near that surface. Such a concave or convex surface
shape is known as a meniscus
The contact angle, theta, is determined as shown in the picture to the right.
The contact angle can be used to determine a relationship between the liquid-
solid surface tension and the liquid-gas surface tension, as follows:
gamma ls = - gamma lg cos theta
where
 gammals is the liquid-solid surface tension

 gammalg is the liquid-gas surface tension
 theta is the contact angle
One thing to consider in this equation is that in cases where the meniscus is
convex (i.e. the contact angle is greater than 90 degrees), the cosine component
of this equation will be negative which means that the liquid-solid surface tension
will be positive.
If, on the other hand, the meniscus is concave (i.e. dips down, so the contact
angle is less than 90 degrees), then the cos theta term is positive, in which case
the relationship would result in a negative liquid-solid surface tension!
What this means, essentially, is that the liquid is adhering to the walls of the
container and is working to maximize the area in contact with solid surface, so as
to minimize the overall potential energy.
Capillarity
Another effect related to water in vertical tubes is the property of capillarity, in
which the surface of liquid becomes elevated or depressed within the tube in
relation to the surrounding liquid. This, too, is related to the contact angle
observed.
If you have a liquid in a container, and place a narrow tube (or capillary) of
radius r into the container, the vertical displacement y that will take place within
the capillary is given by the following equation:
y = (2 gamma lg cos theta) / ( dgr)
where
 y is the vertical displacement (up if positive, down if negative)

 gammalg is the liquid-gas surface tension
 theta is the contact angle
 d is the density of the liquid
 g is the acceleration of gravity
 r is the radius of the capillary
NOTE: Once again, if theta is greater than 90 degrees (a convex meniscus),

resulting in a negative liquid-solid surface tension, the liquid level will go down
compared to the surrounding level, as opposed to rising in relation to it.
Capillarity manifests in many ways in the everyday world. Paper towels absorb
through capillarity. When burning a candle, the melted wax rises up the wick due
to capillarity. In biology, though blood is pumped throughout the body, it is this
process which distributes blood in the smallest blood vessels which are called,
appropriately, capillaries.
Quarters in a Full Glass of Water
Needed materials:
 10 to 12 Quarters
 glass full of water
Slowly, and with a steady hand, bring the quarters one at a time to the center of
the glass. Place the narrow edge of the quarter in the water and let go. (This
minimizes disruption to the surface, and avoids forming unnecessary waves that
can cause overflow.)
As you continue with more quarters, you will be astonished how convex the water
becomes on top of the glass without overflowing!
Possible Variant: Perform this experiment with identical glasses, but use different
types of coins in each glass. Use the results of how many can go in to determine a
ratio of the volumes of different coins.
10.4.3 Blood Flow and Heart Attack marnoulli's principle helps in explaining blood
w in artery. The artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its
inner alls. In order to drive the blood through this constriction a greater demand is
placed on the activity of the heart. The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is
raised which lowers the pressure inside and the artery may collapse due to the
external pressure. The heart exerts further pressure to open this artery and forces
the blood through. As the blood rushes through the opening, the internal pressure
once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This may result
in heart attack.
Solution
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Bernoulli’s principle formulated by Daniel Bernoulli states that as the speed of a moving fluid
increases (liquid or gas), the pressure within the fluid decreases. Although Bernoulli deduced the
law, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form in the year 1752.
Table of Contents:
 What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

 Bernoulli’s Principle Formula
 Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation
 Principle of Continuity
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation
 Relation between Conservation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
 Bernoulli’s Equation at Constant Depth

 Bernoulli’s Equation for Static Fluids
 Bernoulli’s Principle Example
What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

Bernoulli’s principle states that
The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid
motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.
Bernoulli’s Principle Formula

Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational
potential energy of a fluid in a container.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as follows:

�+12��2+��ℎ=��
Where p is the pressure exerted by the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, ρ is the density of the
fluid and h is the height of the container.
Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity and
elevation.
Related Articles:
 Fluid Dynamics
 Continuity Equation
Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation

Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible fluid is
flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow speed v, height from
the ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 are given in the figure below.
Bernoulli’s Principle & Equation !
Test Your Preparation
Select the correct answer and click on the “Finish” button Check your score and explanations at the
end of the quiz
Start Quiz
Assumptions:
 The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both points.

 The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in the fluid.
Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:
dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv
We know that the work done on the fluid was due to the conservation of change in gravitational
potential energy and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given
as:
��=12�2�22−12�1�12=12��(�22−�12)
The change in potential energy is given as:
dU = m2gy2 – m1gy1 = ρdvg(y2 – y1)
Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
dW = dK + dU
(�1−�2)��=12��(�22−�12)+��(�2−�1)
�1−�2)=12�(�22−�12)+��(�2−�1)
Rearranging the above equation, we get

�1+12��12+��1=�2+12��22+��2
This is Bernoulli’s equation.
Watch the video and learn more about continuity equation

71,082
Principle of Continuity
According to the principle of continuity
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we can say that mass of fluid
passing through different cross sections are equal.
From the above situation, we can say the mass of liquid inside the container remains the same.
The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving
Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
This equation is known as the Principle of Continuity.

Suppose we need to calculate the speed of efflux for the following setup.
Using Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and point 2,
�+12��12+��ℎ=�0+12��22
�22=�12+2��–2�0�+2�ℎ
Generally, A2 is much smaller than A1; in this case, v12 is very much smaller than v22 and can be neglected.
We then find,
�22=2�−�0�+2�ℎ
Assuming A2<<A1,
We get,
�2=2�ℎ
Hence, the velocity of efflux is
2�ℎ
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation

Bernoulli’s principle is used for studying the unsteady potential flow which is used in the theory
of ocean surface waves and acoustics. It is also used for approximation of parameters like
The other applications of Bernoulli’s principle are:
 Venturi meter: It is a device that is based on Bernoulli’s theorem and is used for measuring the
rate of flow of liquid through the pipes. Using Bernoulli’s theorem, Venturi meter formula is
given as:
�=�1�22ℎ��12−�22
 Working of an aeroplane: The shape of the wings is such that the air passes at a higher speed
over the upper surface than the lower surface. The difference in airspeed is calculated using
Bernoulli’s principle to create a pressure difference.
 When we are standing at a railway station and a train comes we tend to fall towards the train.
This can be explained using Bernoulli’s principle as the train goes past, the velocity of air
between the train and us increases. Hence, from the equation, we can say that the pressure
decreases. So the pressure from behind pushes us towards the train. This is based on Bernoulli’s
effect.
Watch the video and learn more about the application of

16,837
Relation between Conservation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Equation

Conservation of energy is applied to the fluid flow to produce Bernoulli’s equation. The net work
done results from a change in a fluid’s kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
Bernoulli’s equation can be modified depending on the form of energy involved. Other forms of
energy include the dissipation of thermal energy due to fluid viscosity.
Bernoulli’s Equation at Constant Depth

When the fluid moves at a constant depth that is when h1 = h2, then Bernoulli’s equation is given
as:
�1+12��12=�2+12��22
Bernoulli’s Equation for Static Fluids

When the fluid is static, then v1 = v2 = 0, then Bernoulli’s equation is given as:
When v1 = v2 = 0 P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2
When h2 = 0 P2 = P1 + ρgh1
Bernoulli’s Principle Example
Q1. Calculate the pressure in the hose whose absolute pressure is 1.01 x 105 N.m-2 if the
speed of the water in the hose increases from 1.96 m.s-1 to 25.5 m.s-1. Assume that the flow is
frictionless and density 103 kg.m-3
Ans: Given,
Pressure at point 2, p2 = 1.01 × 105 N.m-2
Density of the fluid, ρ = 103 kg.m-3
From Bernoulli’s principle for p1,

�1=�2+12��22−12��12=�2+12�(�22−�12)
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get

�1=(1.01×105)+12(103)[(25.5)2−(1.96)2]
p1 = 4.24 × 105 N.m-2
Curve of a Baseball
Have you ever seen a baseball pitcher deliver a curveball? When the baseball takes a curved
trajectory as it passes the plate, in most cases, the batter would not be able to judge the path of
the ball and miss the ball. One of the crucial aspects of curveball can be explained using a
formula typically used to describe fluid flow. Bernoull’s equation can be used to explain the
basic aspect of the curve of a baseball (curveball). Usually, Bernoulli’sBernoulli’s equation
points to pressure, height, and velocity (“air” is the fluid). At any particular point in the fluid
(air), the K (constant) will be equal to the total sum of the other three values (height, pressure,
and velocity).
Airfoil and Bernoulli’s Principle
The air over the top of a typical airfoil encounter compressed flow lines and boosted air speed
compared to the wing. This introduces a reduction in pressure on the top (as per the Bernoulli
equation) and produces a lift force. Aerodynamicists use the Benaoulli concept to explain the
pressure calculations made in wind tunnels. They show that when pressure calculations are done
at multiple places around the airfoil and added together, it is similar to the observed lift.
Q1
What is Bernoulli famous for?
Daniel Bernoulli explained how the speed of fluid affects the pressure of the fluid, which is
known as Bernoulli’s effect and explained the kinetic theory of gases. These two were his
greatest contributions to Science, and the two concepts made him famous.
According to Bernoulli’s effect, he tried to explain that when a fluid flows through a region
where the speed increases, the pressure will decrease. Bernoulli’s effects find many real-life
applications, such as aeroplane wings are used for providing a lift to the plane.
Q2
What does Bernoulli’s equation mean?
The Bernoulli equation is considered the statement of the energy conservation for the fluids that
flow. This is considered to be the qualitative behaviour that lowers the pressure in the regions
with high velocities. This is termed the Bernoulli effect.
Q3
What is head loss in Bernoulli’s equation?
The head loss in Bernoulli’s equation represents the reduction in the total pressure, which is the
sum of the velocity head, pressure head, and the elevation head of the fluid flowing through the
hydraulic system.
Q4
What is head loss equation?
The following equation is the mathematical representation of the head loss:

hL = f L/D × v2/2g
hL = fLv2 / 2Dg
Where,
 hL is the head loss

 f is the Darcy friction factor
 L is the pipe length
 D is inside pipe diameter
 v is the fluid velocity
 g is the gravitational constant
Q5
What is the maximum suction head of a pump?
The maximum suction head of a pump is approximately 15 feet.

Hope you have understood the Bernoulli equation and its derivation and applications. To know
more about various interesting science and maths topics, visit BYJU’S – The Learning App!.

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Difference Between Laminar and Turbulent Flow

S.no Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Summary of the Difference Between Laminar and T

 An ideal fluid is incompressible. This means that the density of the

namics of ideal fluids

External link: Superfluid Helium (Youtube)

Ideal fluids are incompressible and flow steadily

For simplicity let us assume a

Look at a particular volume of water. As it moves, the boundary 1 moves a

(Area 1)*l1 = (Area 2)*l2

This is the equation of continuity. The equation of continuity is a

The volume flow rate of water through a horizontal pipe is 2 m3/min.

change in potential energy = (mass of water in V)*g*(change in height)

change in kinetic energy = ½mv22 - ½mv12 = ½ρVv22 - ½ρVv12.

W = P1A1l1 - P2A2l2 = P1V - P2V .

P1V - P2V = ρVg(h2-h1) + ½ρVv22 - ½ρVv12,

P1 + ρgh1 + ½ρv12 = P2 + ρgh2 + ½ρv22

This is Bernoulli's equation. It is a consequence of the conservation of energy

What is Terminal Velocity?

How to find Terminal Velocity?

The mathematical representation of terminal velocity is:

Terminal Velocity Derivation

Where b is the constant depending on the type of drag

∑�=��(free fall of an object)

��−��2=��(assuming that the free fall is happening in positive direction)

1���=����−��2(differential form of the equations)

(integrating the equations)

��=����ℎ2(Θ)�Θ(after substituting for�=����ℎ(Θ))

1��=1��������ℎ(��)+�(from original equation)

After substituting for vt

Therefore, above is the derivation of terminal velocity.

Related Physics Articles:

Acceleration Due to Gravity Universal Law Of Gravitation

What is a Frictional force? Fluid Friction

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

When does terminal velocity exist?

What is terminal velocity?

Who discovered terminal velocity?

How does terminal velocity work?

Derivation of Terminal Velocity

v is the object’s speed with respect to the fluid

CD stands for drag coefficient.

A stands for cross-sectional area.

According to the drag equation:

Net force applied to the body-

Fnet=maFnet=�� =Gravitational force– Drag force

By solving the solution,

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Where F is the frictional force acting on the fluid-particle interface.

μ� is the dynamic viscosity

R is the spherical object’s radius.

V denotes the flow velocity in relation to the object.

(Area 1)l1 = (Area 2)l2

change in potential energy = (mass of water in V)g(change in height)

1��=��−��2(differential form of the equations)

��=��ℎ2(Θ)�Θ(after substituting for�=��ℎ(Θ))

1��=1��ℎ(��)+�(from original equation)