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Exper ie n ce
PSYCHOLOGY THIRD EDITION

LAURA A. KING
3
Sleep Disorders 141
Dreams 143
Sensation and 3 Psychoactive Drugs 146
Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 146
Perception 84 Types of Psychoactive Drugs 147
4 Hypnosis 157
The Nature of Hypnosis 157
1 How We Sense and Perceive the World 85 Explaining Hypnosis 158
The Processes and Purposes of Sensation and Perception 85 Uses of Hypnosis 159
Sensory Receptors and the Brain 87 5 Meditation 160
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Can We Feel the Future? 90 Mindfulness Meditation 160
Thresholds 91 Lovingkindness Meditation 161
Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 93 INTERSECTION: Consciousness and Social Psychology: Can
Sensory Adaptation 95 Lovingkindness Meditation Reduce Prejudice? 162
2 The Visual System 96 The Meditative State of Mind 162
The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 96 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Meditation at Work 163
Visual Processing in the Brain 101 Getting Started with Meditation 163
Color Vision 102
SUMMARY 164
Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 104
KEY TERMS 165
3 The Auditory System 110 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 165

5
The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 110
Structures and Functions of the Ear 110
Theories of Hearing 112
Auditory Processing in the Brain 114
Localizing Sound 114
4 Other Senses 115 Learning 166
The Skin Senses 116
The Chemical Senses 118
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Why Salt Is the Salt
of the Earth 119
1 Types of Learning 167
INTERSECTION: Emotion and Sensation: What Do Feelings
Smell Like? 121 2 Classical Conditioning 169
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 121 Pavlov’s Studies 169
Classical Conditioning in Humans 173
SUMMARY 123 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Marketing Between
KEY TERMS 124 the Lines 176
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 124 INTERSECTION: Learning and Social Psychology: Can Classical

4
Conditioning Help Us Understand the Meaning of Life? 177
3 Operant Conditioning 178
Defining Operant Conditioning 178
Thorndike’s Law of Effect 179
Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning 180
States of Consciousness 125 Shaping 180
Principles of Reinforcement 181
Applied Behavior Analysis 188
4 Observational Learning 189
1 The Nature of Consciousness 126
Defining Consciousness 127 5 Cognitive Factors in Learning 191
Consciousness and the Brain 127 Purposive Behavior 191
Theory of Mind 128 Insight Learning 192
Levels of Awareness 128 6 Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning 194
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: On Second Thought, Biological Constraints 194
Is Conscious Reflection Required for Moral Behavior? 130 Cultural Influences 196
2 Sleep and Dreams 133 Psychological Constraints 196
Biological Rhythms and Sleep 133 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Do Learning Styles Matter
Why Do We Need Sleep? 134 to Learning? 197
Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep 136 SUMMARY 199
Sleep Throughout the Life Span 139 KEY TERMS 200
Sleep and Disease 140 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 200

C on t en t s // vii
6
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is There a Link Between
Creative Genius and Psychopathology? 255
3 Intelligence 256
Memory 201 Measuring Intelligence 257
Genetic and Environmental Influences
on Intelligence 260
Extremes of Intelligence 262
INTERSECTION: Educational Psychology and Social
1 The Nature of Memory 202
Psychology: Do Teachers Have Stereotypes
2 Memory Encoding 203 About Gifted Children? 264
Attention 203 Theories of Multiple Intelligences 266
Levels of Processing 204
4 Language 268
Elaboration 204
The Basic Properties of Language 268
Imagery 205
Language and Cognition 269
3 Memory Storage 207 Biological and Environmental Influences on Language 271
Sensory Memory 207 Language Development over the Life Span 273
Short-Term Memory 208
Long-Term Memory 211 SUMMARY 276
KEY TERMS 277
4 Memory Retrieval 219 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 277
Serial Position Effect 219

8
Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 220
Special Cases of Retrieval 222
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Can Children Be Reliable
Eyewitnesses to Their Own Abuse? 226
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Using Psychological
Research to Improve Police Lineups 228 Human Development 278
5 Forgetting 229
Encoding Failure 230
Retrieval Failure 230
INTERSECTION: Cognitive Psychology and Social 1 Exploring Human Development 279
Psychology: If We Can Forgive, Does That Help Research Methods in Developmental Psychology 279
Us Forget? 233 How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 280
Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 280
6 Tips from the Science of Memory—for Studying
Nature, Nurture, and You 281
and for Life 234
Three Domains of Development 282
Organizing, Encoding, Rehearsing, and Retrieving
Course Content 235 2 Physical Development 283
Autobiographical Memory and the Life Story 236 Prenatal Physical Development 283
Keeping Memory Sharp 237 Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 285
Physical Development in Adolescence 288
SUMMARY 238 Physical Development in Adulthood 290
KEY TERMS 240
3 Cognitive Development 294

7
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 240
Cognitive Development from Childhood
into Adulthood 294
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: The Joy of the Toy 299
Cognitive Processes in Adulthood 300
Thinking, Intelligence, 4 Socioemotional Development 302
and Language 241 Socioemotional Development in Infancy 302
INTERSECTION: Developmental and Social
Psychology: Is Attachment an Enduring
Aspect of Life? 304
1 The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 242 Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development 305
2 Thinking 244 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is Parenthood Associated
Concepts 245 with Happiness? 312
Problem Solving 245 5 Gender Development 314
Reasoning and Decision Making 248 Biology and Gender Development 314
Thinking Critically and Creatively 252 Cognitive Aspects of Gender Development 315
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Help Wanted: Critical Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development 315
and Creative Thinkers 253 Nature and Nurture Revisited: The John/Joan Case 316

viii // Co nte n ts
6 Moral Development 317
Kohlberg’s Theory 317
Critics of Kohlberg 318
Moral Development in a Socioemotional
Context 318
7 Death, Dying, and Grieving 319
Terror Management Theory: A Cultural Shield
Against Mortality 320
Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying 320
Bonanno’s Theory of Grieving 321
Carving Meaning Out of the Reality
of Death 321
8 Active Development as a Lifelong Process
SUMMARY 323
KEY TERMS 324
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 324
9
Motivation
and Emotion 325
1 Theories of Motivation 326
The Evolutionary Approach 326
Drive Reduction Theory 326
Optimum Arousal Theory 327
2 Hunger and Sex 328
The Biology of Hunger 328
Obesity 330
The Biology of Sex 332
Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors
in Sexuality 333
Cultural Factors in Sexuality 334
Sexual Behavior and Orientation 335
3 Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation
in Everyday Life 340
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 340
Self-Determination Theory 341
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: What Motivates
Suicide Bombers? 342
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation 344
Self-Regulation: The Successful Pursuit of Goals 344
INTERSECTION: Motivation and Behavior Genetics:
Why Do We Procrastinate? 346
4 Emotion 347
Biological Factors in Emotion 347
Cognitive Factors in Emotion 350
Behavioral Factors in Emotion 352
Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 353
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Expressing Ourselves
Online: The Psychology of Emoticons 355
Classifying Emotions 355
Adaptive Functions of Emotions 356
5 Motivation and Emotion: The Pursuit of Happiness 358
Biological Factors in Happiness 358
Obstacles in the Pursuit of Happiness 358
Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 359
SUMMARY 360
KEY TERMS 361
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 361
10
322
Personality 362
1 Psychodynamic Perspectives 363
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 363
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Defense Mechanisms
and the Psychology of Hypocrisy 366
Psychodynamic Critics and Revisionists 368
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 370
2 Humanistic Perspectives 371
Maslow’s Approach 371
Rogers’s Approach 372
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspectives 373
3 Trait Perspectives 374
Trait Theories 374
The Five-Factor Model of Personality 375
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is There One Really
Great Personality? 378
Evaluating the Trait Perspectives 380
4 Personological and Life Story Perspectives 381
Murray’s Personological Approach 381
The Life Story Approach to Identity 382
Evaluating the Life Story Approach
and Similar Perspectives 383
5 Social Cognitive Perspectives 383
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 384
Mischel’s Contributions 385
Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspectives 387
6 Biological Perspectives 388
Personality and the Brain 388
Personality and Behavioral Genetics 391
Evaluating the Biological Perspectives 391
7 Personality Assessment 392
Self-Report Tests 392
INTERSECTION: Personality and Neuroscience:
How Do the Brain's Hemispheres Complete
a Questionnaire? 394
Projective Tests 395
Other Assessment Methods 396
SUMMARY 397
KEY TERMS 398
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 398
C on t en t s // ix
11
Social Anxiety Disorder 446
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 447
OCD-Related Disorders 447
Social Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 448
Psychology 399 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: The Psychological Wounds
of War 449
3 Disorders Involving Emotion and Mood 450
Depressive Disorders 450
1 Defining Social Psychology 400
Bipolar Disorder 453
Features of Social Psychology 400
4 Eating Disorders 454
2 Social Cognition 402
Anorexia Nervosa 454
Person Perception 402
Bulimia Nervosa 455
Attribution 404
INTERSECTION: Clinical Psychology and Emotion: Does
The Self as a Social Object and Social Comparison 406
Positive Emotion Play a Role in Anorexia Nervosa? 456
Attitudes 406
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa: Causes
Persuasion 408
and Treatments 456
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Making the Sale! 409
Binge-Eating Disorder 457
3 Social Behavior 410 Binge-Eating Disorder: Causes and Treatments 457
Altruism 410
5 Dissociative Disorders 458
Aggression 413
Dissociative Amnesia 459
4 Close Relationships 417 Dissociative Identity Disorder 459
Attraction 417
6 Schizophrenia 461
Love 418
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 462
Models of Close Relationships 419
Causes of Schizophrenia 463
5 Social Influence and Group Processes 420
7 Personality Disorders 466
Conformity and Obedience 420
Antisocial Personality Disorder 466
INTERSECTION: Social Psychology and Cross-Cultural
Borderline Personality Disorder 468
Psychology: Why Are Some Nations More Conforming
Than Others? 422 8 Suicide 469
Group Influence 425 9 Combatting Stigma 472
Social Identity 427 Consequences of Stigma 472
Prejudice 429 Overcoming Stigma 474
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Why Does a Cell Phone Look
Like a Gun? 431 SUMMARY 474
Improving Intergroup Relations 432 KEY TERMS 476
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 476

13
SUMMARY 434
KEY TERMS 435
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 435

12
Therapies 477
Psychological
Disorders 436
1 Approaches to Treating Psychological Disorders 478
The Psychological Approach to Therapy 478
The Biological Approach to Therapy 478
1 Defining and Explaining Abnormal Behavior 437 The Sociocultural Approach to Therapy 480
Three Criteria of Abnormal Behavior 437
2 Psychotherapy 481
Culture, Context, and the Meaning of Abnormal Behavior 438
Central Issues in Psychotherapy 481
Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 438
Psychodynamic Therapies 483
Classifying Abnormal Behavior 440
Humanistic Therapies 485
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Does Everyone
Behavior Therapies 486
Have ADHD? 442
Cognitive Therapies 488
2 Anxiety and Anxiety-Related Disorders 443 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Seeking Therapy?
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 443 There Is Probably an App for That 491
Panic Disorder 444 Therapy Integrations 491
Specific Phobia 445

x // Co nt e n ts
3 Biological Therapies 492 4 Toward a Healthier Mind (and Body):
Drug Therapy 493 Controlling Stress 520
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Are Antidepressants Better Stress and Its Stages 520
Than Placebos? 495 Stress and the Immune System 521
Antipsychotic Drugs 496 Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 522
Electroconvulsive Therapy 496 Stress and Cancer 523
Psychosurgery 498 Cognitive Appraisal and Coping with Stress 524
Strategies for Successful Coping 525
4 Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 499
Stress Management Programs 526
Group Therapy 499
Family and Couples Therapy 500 5 Toward a Healthier Body (and Mind): Behaving as If Your Life
Self-Help Support Groups 501 Depends upon It 527
Community Mental Health 502 Becoming Physically Active 527
Cultural Perspectives 502 Eating Right 529
INTERSECTION: Clinical and Cultural Psychology: PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Environments That Support
How Can Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Work Across Active Lifestyles 530
Different Belief Systems? 503 INTERSECTION: Health Psychology and Cognition: Can
Mindless Processing Enhance Healthy Eating? 532
SUMMARY 505 Quitting Smoking 532
KEY TERMS 506 Practicing Safe Sex 533
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 506

14
6 Psychology and Your Good Life 534
SUMMARY 535
KEY TERMS 536
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 536
Health HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH)
Psychology 507  McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY APA
DOCUMENTATION STYLE GUIDE

1 Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 508

The Biopsychosocial Model 508
Connections Between Mind and Body 509
2 Making Positive Life Changes 510
Theoretical Models of Change 510
The Stages of Change Model 510
3 Resources for Effective Life Change 514
Motivation 514 ■ Glossary G-1
Social Relationships 515
Religious Faith 516 ■ References R-1
Personality Characteristics 517 ■ Name Index NI-1
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Powerful Is the Power
of Positive Thinking? 519 ■ Subject Index SI-1

C on t en t s // xi
preface
Experience Psychology
Some Students Take Psychology . . .
Others Experience It!
Informed by student data, Experience Psychology helps students understand and appre-
ciate psychology as an integrated whole. The personalized, adaptive learning program,
thought-provoking examples, and interactive assessments help students see psychology
in the world around them and experience it in everyday life. Experience Psychology is
about, well, experience—our own behaviors; our relationships at home and in our
communities, in school, and at work; and our interactions in different learning environ-
ments. Grounded in meaningful real-world contexts, Experience Psychology’s contem-
porary examples, personalized author notes, and applied exercises speak directly to
students, allowing them to engage with psychology and to learn verbally, visually, and
experientially—by reading, seeing, and doing. Function is introduced before dysfunc-
tion, building student understanding by looking first at typical, everyday behavior
before delving into the less common—and likely less personally experienced—rare and
abnormal behavior. Experience Psychology places the science of psychology, and the
research that helps students see the academic foundations of the discipline, at the
forefront of the course.
With the learning system of Experience Psychology, students do not just “take” psy-
chology but actively experience it.

Experience a Personalized Approach

How many students think they know everything about introductory psychology but strug-
gle on the first exam?

A PERSONALIZED EXPERIENCE THAT LEADS TO IMPROVED

LEARNING AND RESULTS
Students study more effectively with SmartBook.
■ Make It Effective. Powered by LearnSmart®, SmartBook makes study time as produc-
tive and efficient as possible. It identifies and closes knowledge gaps through a con-
tinually adapting reading experience that introduces personalized learning resources
at the precise moment needed. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook
is the most value-added minute possible. The result? More confidence, better grades,
and greater success.

xii // P r ef ace
■ Make It Informed. Real-time reports quickly identify the concepts that require more
attention from individual students—or the entire class. SmartBook detects the content
a student is most likely to forget and brings it back to improve long-term knowledge
retention.

PERSONAL NOTES FROM THE AUTHOR THAT PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING

Experience Psychology, emphasizes a personal approach, with an abundance of per-
sonal pedagogical “asides” communicated directly by author Laura King to stu-
dents to guide their understanding and stimulate their interest as they read. Adaptation, adaptability, and
Some of these helpful notes highlight important terms and concepts; others adapt: Psychologists use these
prompt students to think critically about the complexities of the issues; still terms when referring to the ability
others encourage students to apply what they have learned to their prior to function in a changing world.
reading or to a new situation. These mini-conversations between the author and
the reader help develop students’ analytical skills for them to carry and apply well
beyond their course.

Experience the Power of Data

Experience Psychology harnesses the power of data to improve the instructor and stu-
dent experiences.

BETTER DATA, SMARTER REVISION,

IMPROVED RESULTS
For this new edition, data were analyzed to
identify the concepts students found to be the
most difficult, allowing for expansion upon
the discussion, practice and assessment of
challenging topics. The revision process for a
new edition used to begin with gathering
information from instructors about what they
would change and what they would keep.
Experts in the field were asked to provide
comments that pointed out new material to
add and dated material to review. Using all
these reviews, authors would revise the mate-
rial. But now, a new tool has revolutionized
that model.
McGraw-Hill Education authors now have
access to student performance data to analyze
and to inform their revisions. This data is
anonymously collected from the many stu-
dents who use LearnSmart, the adaptive
learning system that provides students with
individualized assessment of their own prog-
ress. Because virtually every text paragraph
is tied to several questions that students
answer while using LearnSmart, the specific
concepts with which students are having the
most difficulty are easily pinpointed through
empirical data in the form of a “heat map”
report.
THE HEAT MAP STORY
APPRECIATING THE POWER OF STUDENT DATA
STEP 1. Over the course of three years, data
points showing concepts that caused
students the most difficulty were anonymously
collected from Connect Psychology’s LearnSmart
for Experience Psychology, 2e.
STEP 2. The data from LearnSmart was provided to
the author in the form of a Heat Map, which
graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the text
that impacted student learning.
STEP 3. Laura King used the Heat Map data to refine
the content and reinforce student comprehension
in the new edition. Additional quiz questions
and assignable activities were created for use
in Connect Psychology to further support
student success.
RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave Laura King
empirically-based feedback at the paragraph
and even sentence level, she was able to develop
the new edition using precise student data that
pinpointed concepts that caused students the
most difficulty.

Preface // xiii
 PERSONALIZED GRADING, ON THE GO, MADE EASIER
Connect InsightTM is a one-of-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for both
instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student perfor-
mance. The immediate analysis from Connect Insight empowers students and helps
instructors improve class performance efficiently and effectively.
■ Make It Intuitive. Instructors and students receive instant, at-a-glance views of per-
formance matched with student activity.
■ Make It Dynamic. Connect Insight puts real-time analytics in the user’s hands for a
just-in-time approach to teaching and learning.
■ Make It Mobile. Connect Insight is available on demand wherever and whenever
needed.

Experience an Emphasis
on Critical Thinking
Experience Psychology stimulates critical reflection
and analysis. The Challenge Your Thinking fea-
C h a ll e n g e cious Reflect
YOUR THINKING
ion
tures involve students in debates relevant to find-
ings from contemporary psychological research.
ought, Is Cons
On Second Th d for Moral Behavior? 2012; Thought-provoking questions encourage examina-
Require tions might lead
to nicer behavior
(Dawes & others,
showed that, while
that automatic reac
tion of the e­ vidence on both sides of a debate or
ies
r an iceberg. An ple, a series of stud e money with another
2011). For exam
arine traveling unde One crew- Zaki & Mitchell, to be selfish or shar on were more
of a military subm that allowed them much deliberati

S
en. playing a game
am is the captain el with limited oxyg ining oxygen decision without 2012).
onbo
member
ard expl
is
osio
mort
n has left the vess
ally injur
Sam
ed. He will certa
and his crew to
inly die.
surv ive.
The
The
rema
only way to save
pers on, peop le who made their
gene rous
Similarly,
(Ran
peop
d,
le
Greene, & Nowak,
who were instructed to
more generous
issue. For example, the Challenge in the “Thinking,
for h were
Intelligence, and Language” chapter asks students
enou gh hunc
in the sub is not injured follow their first to think
to shoot dead the were instructed
his crew is for Sam than those who
for Sam to kill him? gh carefully. Such
crewman. Is it okay their decisions throu times, automatic
to reflect on whether there is a link between cre-
ma,
this moral dilem est that, at
As you consider resu lts sugg moral
ct the two kinds
of selfish but reflect
see if you can dete d—at reactions are not
matic and controlle
ative genius and psychopathology while “Social
processes—auto migh t involve goodness. choi ces must rely on
mati c reac tion our mora l
work. Your auto g the Perhaps s and
the thought of killin emotional processe
outright horror at gh, you both automatic ly, we have
processes. Sure
crewmember. As
might consider that
you reflect, thou
killing that man
man will die, but
makes
man y
slower reflective
thes e two ways of processin
in important thing
g because they
s we do, Psychology’s” Challenge prompts them to con-
rational sense: One both play a role
sider how ethnicity might influence the tendency
n illustrates va &
d. This conclusio what is right (Kole
others will be save that considers including deciding Nich ols, 2011). Under-
l stanc e, one ; Mall on &
a utilitarian mora test num ber. others, 2012 mati c and controlled
grea auto
to misperceive harmless objects (such as wallets,
for the of
the greatest good standing the roles behavior
Jon Haidt (2001) l judgment and
Social psychologist el of moral processes in mora acter of
l-intuitionist mod into the very char
proposed a socia offers a glimpse
car keys, and cell phones) as handguns.
often
g. The mod el claims that we an natu re itself.
reas onin c, hum
l deci sion s based on automati If you wou ld like to explore and
make mora ive,
morality, check
out
. From this perspect
emotional reactions h to reflect on your own ted by
is used not so muc rg, a website crea
conscious thought fy them www.yourmorals.o , where
sions, but to justi social psychologists
Haidt and other
s
reach those deci mora l dilem mas, © Naypong/iS
tock/Getty Image
learn more about
after the fact. Rese
arch using
men ts nts, parti cipa te in surveys, and
n that mora l judg assessme
like Sam’s, has show l processes and auto- 2; you can take self-
invo lve emo tiona s thou ght (Gre ene & Haidt, 200 how “mo ral minds” work.
often ful consciou indi-
matic reactions,
rather than care that are active while
the brain regions
k, 2014 ). Indeed, amygdala) are often Think?
Lai, Haidt, & Nose
onal moral dilem
mas (such as the
& Greene, 2014; What Do You faced?
viduals resolve pers c emo tiona l reactions (Shenhav the last moral
dilemma you
automati ■ What was
those involved in to be mor- solv e it?
, 2013). tions less likely How did you
Xue, Wang, & Tang c reac

INTERSECTI
auto mati ans to
are based on we think for hum
Are decisions that ons for the way ■ Why might
it be adaptive
tion with implicati Are automatic s of thinking abou
t moral
a fascinating ques
ally right? That is
about human
impulses essential
natu re itself. Are people natu
ly selfish or can
often assumed that
rally good or bad?
they be kind? Altho
ugh
prosocial behavior—
tradi tiona lly
that is, behavior
c
have two way
dilem mas ?

Emotion and Se
ON
ride one’s automati
ns
What Do Feelin ation:
psychologists have the ability to over
rs—is based on recent research
suggests
that benefits othe 200 8), more
(DeWall & others,
selfi sh inter ests
gs Smell Like?

F
or man y species, it is
behavior. adaptive to
reasoning and members of a
group. Such call send out alarm calls to
ain of moral the ways
is in the dom ing focused on noises. Sometim s do not always women smelled
recent research al decision mak es involve the pads (along
a great deal of
Historically, psy
cho logi sts
g infl
Experience Psychology’s Intersection
interested in mor
uen ced moral judg
men t (Ko
role
hlberg, 1981).
of con
However,
scious reflecti
on
when faced with they involve smells. For exa
release chemic a hungry pred
als that inform ator, a nervous
other fish in its
mple,
fish might
while various
measured faci
measures wer
al muscle acti
with some unu
e taken. First, sed “control pad
the researchers s”)
reasonin stion the Your Unfortunately vity to see if the precisely
that conscious
sions conform
see Challenge
features are also designed to spark critical
e begun to que for these pote school to esc ed women’s facial
ut this work, ape to the
e rece ntly scientists hav mor e abo markable sen
se of smell. So,
ntial snacks, sha
rks also have
. they emitted the emotions the
men wer
expres-
mor To read a re- sweat. Results e exp
showed that wom eriencing while
al dilemmas. warning signals, when a fish sen more likely to
in resolving mor members of its ds out chemic show a fear face en’s faces wer
thought. Showcasing studies in different
fear. In nonhum school (and sha al more likely to when smelling e
an animals, suc rks) can smell
Thinking. way to commun h “chemosigna the show
sweat. In addition a disgust face while smelling
the fear sweat
and
icat ls” provide a quic
mans do not hav e alarms. It has long been k sniffing the fear
, the heart rate
s for the wom
the disgust

areas of psychological research that focus

e chemosigna assumed that swe at. en wer
us to smell a cert ls, that our emo hu- sweat influenc Finally, the emo e higher while
ain way to othe tions do not cau ed the type of tion associated
scio usn ess (Wyatt, 2003). rs se women were sniffing that occ with the
// Sta tes of Con However, rese more likely to urred. For fear
on the same topic, the Intersections shed
APTER 4 has begun to arch take a big sec sweat,
130 // C H suggest that our ond whiff of the
emotions may but for disgust swe sweat,
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light on the links between, and the recip-
ar, our sweat h sma ller.
smell different may the smelling port Imp ortantly,
when we are ion of the stud
afraid. In one feeling was a double- y
study, particip blind procedu
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rocal influences of, this exciting work,
who smelled meaning that re,
the sweat exc neither the wom
130 by people who reted nor en
25-165.indd were afraid wer the researcher
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more cautiou e study knew whi ing the
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and they raise provocative questions for smelled sweat
through physica
excreted by peo
l activity (Zho
ple
which, and only
knew that the
ch pads were
the researcher
odors in the pad
u&
student reflection and class discussion.
Chen, 2009). were from diffe s
rent kinds of swe
In several stud Of cou rse, if they kne at.
ies, Jasper de w what they
Groot and his were smelling
colleagues (de
For example, the selection for the “Moti- & others, 2012; Groot , all of the wom
de Groot, Sem might have bee en
Smeets, 2014) in, & n pret ty disgusted!
have examined You might assu
me that what
vation and Emotion” chapter, “Motiva-
whether the che © Tom Merto people do to
mical signals n/OJO Image
s/Getty Image communicate
ted by a person emit- s SCREAM. But fear is
while feeling a this research
same emotion particular emo ges ts that humans sug-
in another pers tion fosters that
tion and Behavior Genetics: Why Do In one study, the
very warm room
researchers first
, watched one
on who smelled
collected swe
that person’s
at. Men, seated
swe at.
visual, and eve
us that if we wan
n olfa ctor
mals,useseveral
y—to warn of
t to appear calm danger. The stud
cha
, like other ani-
nne ls—auditory,
ings of fear (sce of two film clip in a y reminds
We Procrastinate?” prompts students to nes s meant to fost we might ame and cool even
from the televisio from the movie The Shining) er feel- let them smell
nd “Never let
them see you under duress
,
n show Jackas or sweat” to “An
tucked into thei s), while absorbe disgust (scenes your sweat, eith
er.” d never
r armpits. The nt pads were
think about whether genes can predis- needed for the
second part of
se pads were
then frozen unti
the study. In that
second part,
l

pose individuals to procrastinate.

\\ What other emotion
s cause
us to smell different
to others?
Th e Ki ne st he
tic an d Ve st ib ul
You know the
difference betw
ar Se ns es
up. To perform een walking and
even the simples running and betw
t act of motor een
kinesthetic sens
es
a book off a shel
f or getting up coordination, such lying down and sitting
Senses that prov dinate informa out of a chair, as reaching out
ide tion from ever the brain must to take
information abou give you informa y part of the bod constantly rece
movement, post
t tion about you y. Your body has ive and coor-
to maintain bala r movement and two
ure,
nce. The kinesth orientation in spac kinds of senses that
xiv // P r ef ace
and orientatio
n. and orientation. etic senses prov e, as well as help
The vestibular ide information
about moveme you vestibular sense
sense provides nt, posture, Sense that provides informa-
information abo
ut balance and tion
movement. mov about balance and
ement.

Oth er Sen ses

// 121
 involvement in complex, integrative functions. typed patterns of
behavior such as
walking, sleeping,
FOREBRAIN You try to understand what all of these terms and parts of the brain and turning to at-
mean. You talk with friends and plan a party for this weekend. You remember that it tend to a sudden
has been 6 months since you went to the dentist. You are confident you will do well on noise.
the next exam in this course. All of these experiences and millions more would not be
In addition,
forebrain the Psychological Inquiry features draw students into analyzing and inter-
possible without the forebrain, the brain’s largest division and its most forward part.
The brain’s largest division Before we explore the structures and function of the forebrain, let’s stop for a moment
preting figures andpart.photos by embedding a range of critical thinking questions in selected
and its most forward
and examine how the brain evolved. The brains of the earliest vertebrates were smaller
and simpler than those of later animals. Genetic changes during the evolutionary process
captions. were responsible for the development of more complex brains with more parts and more
interconnections (Brooker & others, 2015; Simon, 2015). Figure 12 compares the brains
of a rat, cat, chimpanzee, and human. In both the chimpanzee’s brain and (especially)
the human’s brain, the hindbrain and midbrain structures are covered by a forebrain
structure called the cerebral cortex. The human hindbrain and midbrain are similar to

PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY
Cerebral
cortex

Cerebral cortex
Cerebellum Cerebellum Cerebral cortex

Brain Cerebral cortex

stem Cerebellum
Brain stem

Cerebellum
Brain stem
Brain stem

Rat Cat Chimpanzee Human

FIGURE 12 The Brain in Different Species This figure compares the brain of a rat, a cat, a chimpanzee, and a human being. As you
examine the illustrations, remember that each organism’s brain is adapted to meet different environmental challenges. > What structures are similar
across the species? > Why do you think there are some common features, and what does this commonality tell us about these brain structures?
> Why don’t rats have a large cerebral cortex? > How might life be different for a rat or a cat with a human brain?

60 // CHAPTER 2 // The Br a in a nd Be ha vio r

Experience an Emphasis
on Active Engagement
kin61965_ch02_041-083.indd 60 4/23/15 2:37 PM

Do It!
Through Do It!, a series of brief, recurring sidebar activities linked to
the text reading, students get an opportunity to test their assumptions Go on a caffeine hunt. Check out the
ingredient lists on your favorite
and learn through hands-on exploration and discovery. Reinforcing that
beverages, snacks, and painkillers.
the science of psychology requires active participation, Do It! selections Which of these contain caffeine? You
include, for example, an exercise on conducting an informal survey to might be surprised by how much
observe and classify behaviors in a public setting, as well as an activity caffeine you consume every day
guiding students on how to research a “happiness gene.” Such exercises without even knowing it.
provide vibrant and involving experiences that get students thinking as
psychologists do.
Concept Clips help students comprehend some of the most difficult ideas in introduc-
tory psychology. Colorful graphics and stimulating animations describe core concepts in
a step-by-step manner, engaging students and aiding in retention. Concept Clips can be
used as a presentational tool in the classroom or for student assessment.

Preface // xv
 Through the connection of psychology to students’ own lives, concepts become more
relevant and understandable. Powered by McGraw-Hill Education’s Connect Psychology,
NewsFlash exercises tie current news stories to key psychological principles and learn-
ing objectives. After interacting with a contemporary news story, students are assessed
on their ability to make the link between real life and research findings. Many cases are
revisited across chapters, encouraging students to consider multiple perspectives.

Experience the Course

You Want to Teach
The Instructor Resources have been updated to reflect changes to the new edition; these
can be accessed by faculty through Connect Psychology. Resources include the test bank,
instructor’s manual, PowerPoint presentation, and image gallery.

Easily rearrange chapters, combine material, and quickly upload content you have writ-
ten, such as your course syllabus or teaching notes, using McGraw-Hill Education
Create. Find the content you need by searching through thousands of leading McGraw-
Hill Education textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even
allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your
name, school, and course information. Order a Create book, and you will receive a
complimentary print review copy in three to five business days or a complimentary
electronic review copy via e-mail in about an hour. Experience how McGraw-Hill Edu-
cation empowers you to teach your students your way: http://create.mheducation.com

Capture lessons and lectures in a searchable format for use in traditional, hybrid,
®
“flipped classes” and online courses by using Tegrity (http://www.tegrity.com). Its
personalized learning features make study time efficient, and its affordability brings
this benefit to every student on campus. Patented search technology and real-time
Learning Management System (LMS) integrations make Tegrity the market-leading
solution and service.

Simple
McGraw-Hill Education Campus (www.mhcampus.com) provides faculty with true
Seamless
single sign-on access to all of McGraw-Hill Education’s course content, digital tools, and
other high-quality learning resources from any LMS. This innovative offering allows for
Secure

secure and deep integration, enabling seamless access for faculty and students to any of
McGraw-Hill Education’s course solutions, such as McGraw-Hill Education Connect®
(all-digital teaching and learning platform), McGraw-Hill Education Create (state-of-the-art
custom-publishing platform), McGraw-Hill Education LearnSmart (online adaptive study
tool), and Tegrity (fully searchable lecture-capture service).
McGraw-Hill Education Campus includes access to McGraw-Hill Education’s entire
content library, including ebooks, assessment tools, presentation slides, multimedia con-
tent, and other resources. McGraw-Hill Education Campus provides instructors with
open, unlimited access to prepare for class, create tests/quizzes, develop lecture material,
integrate interactive content, and more.

xvi // P r ef ace
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes
Experience Psychology, Third Edition, includes important new material while content
was streamlined where possible; each chapter is up-to-date to capture the latest trends
and findings in the field. The key content changes, chapter by chapter, include but are
not limited to the following:

CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

■ New discussion of psychological research on the real versus the virtual (online) world.
■ New explanation of the concept of operational definition.
■ New, more detailed explanation of negative and positive correlations.
■ Updated research on the long-term impact of positive emotions.
■ New content on random assignment in the context of research.
■ New, more detailed explanation of independent versus dependent variables.
■ New Intersection feature: “Personality Psychology and Social Psychology: Does
Being with Others Lead to Happiness or Is It the Other Way Around?”
■ New discussion of correlational versus experimental research designs.
■ New material on ethics and the potential unforeseen impact of research on subjects.
■ Updated Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is It Ethical to Use Deception in Research?”

CHAPTER 2: THE BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR

■ New discussion of the way changes in the brain can produce unexpected changes in
a person.
■ Expanded explanation of efferent neurons.
■ Expanded explanation of the impact reinterpretation has on stress levels in challenging
situations.
■ Expanded explanation of the parallels between the action of morphine and endorphins.
■ New research covering the impact of oxytocin on new fathers.
■ New information on fMRI studies of the brain at rest.
■ New Intersection feature: “Neuroscience and Emotion: How Does the Brain Recognize
What Is Funny?”
■ New information on the association cortex.
■ Updated coverage of athletes and brain injury.
■ Updated research on neurogenesis.
■ Updated findings from the Human Genome Project on the number of genes in humans.
■ New coverage of the genome-wide association method to identify genetic variations
linked to particular diseases.
■ New explanation of the genotype to phenotype process.

CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

■ New research on using virtual reality to combat phantom limb pain.
■ New discussion and figure on top-down and bottom-up processing.

Preface // xvii
 ■ New discussion of sustained attention and executive attention.
■ New examples of timbre.
■ New Intersection selection: “Emotion and Sensation: What Do Feelings Smell Like?”

CHAPTER 4: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

■ Updated research on brain–computer interfaces.
■ New research on metacognition and the metacognitive experience.
■ Updated research on how the brain functions to produce consciousness.
■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “On Second Thought, Is Conscious Reflection
Required for Moral Behavior?”
■ Updated research on the impact sleep has on memory, other cognitive processes, and
immune system functioning.
■ New research on dreaming as a form of mind wandering.
■ New research on adolescent drug use.
■ New data on cigarette smoking rates.
■ New discussion of increased rates of marijuana use and legalization of medical mar-
ijuana in some states.
■ Updated discussion of meditation and meditative practices.
■ New Intersection selection: “Consciousness and Social Psychology: Can Lovingkind-
ness Meditation Reduce Prejudice?”

CHAPTER 5: LEARNING
■ New introduction about the complex skills and learning of service dogs.
■ New Intersection feature: “Learning and Social Psychology: Can Classical Conditioning
Help Us Understand the Meaning of Life?”
■ New tip on distinguishing operant from classical conditioning.
■ Expanded explanation of negative reinforcement.

CHAPTER 6: MEMORY
■ Updated treatment of the concept of priming.
■ Updated discussion of memories related to traumatic events.
■ Updated discussion of errors related to eyewitness testimony.
■ New Intersection selection: “Cognitive Psychology and Social Psychology: If We Can
Forgive, Does That Help Us Forget?”

CHAPTER 7: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND LANGUAGE

■ New research on the effectiveness of effortful reflection compared with intuitive
­decision making.
■ New coverage of loss aversion.
■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “Is There a Link Between Creative Genius
and Psychopathology?”
■ New coverage of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

xviii // Pr efa ce
■ New research on the effect of childhood experiences on IQ.
■ New coverage related to identifying gifted children.
■ New Intersection selection: “Educational Psychology and Social Psychology: Do
Teachers Have Stereotypes About Gifted Children?”
■ New thinking about general intelligence and the analytical skills measured by IQ tests.

CHAPTER 8: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

■ New chapter opener about the quick-tempered childhood of Albert Einstein.
■ New marginal note explaining cross-sectional versus longitudinal research designs.
■ New research on alcohol consumption during pregnancy.
■ Updated discussion of the problems of preterm infants.
■ New research on the difficulties of early-maturing girls.
■ Updated findings on context-induced brain plasticity and the adolescent brain.
■ New section on nativist views of cognitive development and what infants bring with
them into the world.
■ All new sections on cognitive processes in early, middle, and late adulthood.
■ New section on the cultural context of parenting.
■ Extensively revised treatment of socioemotional development in late adulthood,
including an examination of Carstensen’s socioemotional selectivity theory.
■ New Intersection feature: “Developmental and Social Psychology: Is Attachment an
Enduring Aspect of Life?”
■ New section with updated research on marriage and families.
■ Updated Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is Parenthood Associated with
­Happiness?”

CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

■ New chapter opener about Medal of Honor Recipient William Kyle Carpenter
■ Updated data on obesity.
■ New discussion of the psychological factors related to hunger and mindless eating.
■ New material and research on gender differences in sexuality and attitudes about
casual sex.
■ Coverage of new developments related to same-sex marriage legislation.
■ New material on self-regulation, impulsivity, and procrastination.
■ New Intersection feature: “Motivation and Behavior Genetics: Why Do We Pro-
crastinate?”
■ New research on compound facial expressions.
■ New discussion and research on gender and emotions.

CHAPTER 10: PERSONALITY

■ New chapter opener about childhood friends reuniting in adulthood.
■ Expanded explanation of Freud’s view of sex as anything pleasurable.

Preface // xix
 ■ New margin note on remembering the difference between ego and id.
■ Coverage of new research on conscientiousness and its link with grade point averages
versus other personality traits.
■ New Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is There One Really Great Personality?”
■ New research on delay of gratification in early childhood and its link with body mass
index in later life.
■ New coverage of the MMPI-2-RF and how it differs from the MMPI-2.
■ Expanded discussion of face validity for measures of the big five personality traits.
■ New Intersection feature: “Personality and Neuroscience: How Do the Brain’s
­Hemispheres Complete a Questionnaire?”

CHAPTER 11: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

■ New chapter organization that moves from dyads, to ever larger social contexts.
■ New presentation of the definition of social psychology and the extraordinarily social
quality of our species.
■ New discussion of the distinction between social psychology and sociology.
■ All new discussion of the broad range of topics researched in social psychology and
its overlap with other areas of psychology.
■ Expanded discussion of the bystander effect.
■ Expanded and updated information on first impressions, stereotypes, and stereotype
threat.
■ Updated research on positive illusions.
■ New discussion and example of altruism, with updated research.
■ New discussion and research on the psychological factors involved in altruism.
■ Updated research on the role of hormones on aggressive behavior and vice versa.
■ New research on the impact of love in young adults: increased depression and anxiety
but better sleep quality.
■ New discussion of the awkwardness involved in openly discussing race in the United
States and the problems with labels.
■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “Why Does a Cell Phone Look Like a Gun?”

CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

■ New chapter opener describing the life stories of people suffering from schizophrenia
and other psychological disorders.
■ Explanation of the vulnerability-stress hypothesis as it relates to the development of
psychological disorders.
■ Information on the Affordable Care Act coverage for psychological disorders.
■ Extensively updated Challenge Your Thinking selection on ADHD.
■ New research on the involvement of neurotransmitters and the limbic system in OCD.
■ Updated discussion of biological factors related to depressive disorders.
■ New data on suicide rates among adolescents compared with emerging adults.
■ Updated section on psychological factors that contribute to suicide.

xx // Pr ef ace
■ New Intersection selection: “Clinical Psychology and Emotion: Does Positive Emo-
tion Play a Role in Anorexia Nervosa?”
■ Clarification of research on structural brain differences at birth and schizophrenia.
■ New discussion of connections between schizophrenia and regulation of the neu-
rotransmitter dopamine.
■ Updated research on how psychologists view the role of life experience in relation to
schizophrenia.
■ Extensively revised section on the role of sociocultural factors in schizophrenia.
■ Updated research on factors that may produce antisocial personality disorder.
■ New end-of-section Self-Quiz on factors and theories related to suicide.
■ New material on stereotypes regarding violent behavior of those with psychological
disorders.

CHAPTER 13: THERAPIES

■ Updated chapter opener on the importance of social media in determining when some-
one needs help.
■ New section comparing psychological and biological approaches to treatment; new
description of the controversy over prescription privileges for clinical psychologists.
■ New organizational structure, lending prominence to psychological approaches to
treatment.
■ Clarification of the differing approaches of biomedical and psychotherapeutic per-
spectives in treating psychological disorders; new research on empirically supported
treatments and the controversy of whether samples used in studies are representative
of the individuals clinicians see in practice.
■ New coverage of research on applied behavior analysis in treating individuals with
autism; and research studying the success of early and intense behavioral treatment
for autism spectrum disorders.
■ Expanded coverage of the effectiveness of psychotherapy and the factors involved
with successful treatment; systematic desensitization; distinctions between different
therapies (insight versus immediate symptoms/skills and directive or nondirective);
research on cognitive-behavior therapy in treating many disorders, including anxiety
disorders, disorders of emotion and mood, schizophrenia (in combination with drug
therapy), and personality disorders; and research on integrative therapy to adjust the
treatment to the individual client.
■ Updated listing of medications for treating anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and
schizophrenia; new research on side effects of antipsychotic medications.
■ Reorganization and revision of chapter to reflect current treatment practices.

CHAPTER 14: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

■ New chapter opener on decision making related to health and health care.
■ Exploration of new research on the power of optimism in promoting positive
functioning.
■ Expanded explanation of implementation intentions as they relate to motivation and
health goals.
■ New material on the effect of social support on loneliness and depression.

Preface // xxi
 ■ New research on the role of church-based social support for African Americans.
■ Updated information on the link between stress and immune system functioning.
■ Updated research on the link between stress and factors related to cardiovascular
disease.
■ Updated material on obesity and overeating.
■ New Intersection selection: “Health Psychology and Cognition: Can Mindless Pro-
cessing Enhance Healthy Eating?”
■ Updated data on smoking rates.
■ Updated data on AIDS deaths.

xxii // Pr ef ace
acknowledgments
The quality of Experience Psychology is a testament to the skills and abilities of
so many people, and I am tremendously grateful to the following individuals for
their insightful contributions during the project’s development.
Eileen Achorn, University of Texas–San
Antonio
Geraldine Acquard, Howard Community
College
Stacy Alves Labore, Forsyth Technical
Community College
Marina Baratian, Brevard Community College–
Melbourne
Michael Barnett, University of North Texas
Aarika Barrett, Liberty University
Kathryn Becker Blease, Oregon State
David Baskind, Delta College
Lilia Bermudez, Columbus State Community
College
E. Andrew Blair, Palm Beach State College–
Lake Worth
Jack Bodden, Texas A&M University
Marti Bonne, Joliet Junior College
Gerald Braasch, McHenry County College
Megan Bradley, Frostburg State University
Pamela Bradley, Sandhills Community College
Nicole Brandt, Columbus State Community
College
Victor Broderick, Lincoln Land Community
College
Melissa Buelow, Ohio State University–Newark
Kerry Burd, Rock Valley College
Kate Byerwalter, Grand Rapids Community
College
Casey Carlton, JS Reynolds Community College
Marlene Carrilho, Liberty University
Pamela Carroll, Three Rivers Community
College
Lore Carvajal, Triton College
Christie Cathey, Missouri State University
Jenel Cavazos, Cameron University
Charles Cocores, Three Rivers Community
College
Jay Cohen, Oakton Community College
Barb Corbisier, Blinn College–Bryan
Bonnie Curran, Liberty University
Sammie Davis Dyson, Lorain County
Community College
Bonnie Dennis, Virginia Western Community
College
Stephanie Ding, Del Mar College
Sundi Donovan, Liberty University
Vicki Dretchen, Volunteer State Community
College
C. Jeffrey Dykhuizen, Delta College
Ashley Emmerich, University of Texas–San
Antonio
Kathy Erickson, Pima Community College–East
Paul Falencki, Lorain County Community
College
Roy Fish, Zane State College
Brent Fonville, Delta College
Lisa Fosbender, Keene State
Michelle Foust, Baldwin Wallace College
April Fugett-Fuller, Marshall University
Lynne Gabriel, Lakeland Community College
Steven Gomez, William Rainey Harper
Eulalio Gonzalez, Lorain County Community
College
Chris Goode, Georgia State University
Andrea Graves, Lorain County Community
College
Jeff Green, Virginia Commonwealth University
Cathleen Greenan, Dutchess Community College
Lindsay Greenlee, The Citadel
Christine Grela, McHenry County College
Jonathan Grimes, Community College
Baltimore County–Essex
Isabel Gutierrez, Raritan Valley Community
College
Michael Hall, Dutchess Community College
Joe Hammond, Greenville Technical College
Frank Hammonds, Troy University
Christine Harrington, Middlesex County College
John Haworth, Chattanooga State Technical
Community College
Lori Henderson, Southeastern Community
College
Mark Hicks, Lorain County Community College
Brooke Hindman, Greenville Tech College
Joe Horvat, Weber State
Cory Howard, Tyler Junior College
Vivian Hsu, Rutgers University
Mildred Huffman, Virginia Western
Community College
Brandon Jablonski, Sinclair Community College
Jay Jackson, Indiana University
Joan Jensen, Central Piedmont Community
College
Monique Johnson, Saint Philips College
Paul Johnson, Oakton Community College
James Jordan, Lorain County Community College
Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma
Patricia Kemerer, Ivy Tech Community College
Pamela Kerouack-Warner, Three Rivers
Community College
Shirley Kuhn, Pitt Community College
Shannon Kundey, Hood College
Kristin Kwasny, Sinclair Community College
Caleb Lack, University of Central Oklahoma
Heather LaCost, Waubonsee Community College
Richard Lamborn, Ivy Tech Community College
Karla Lassonde, Minnesota State University
Karen Leadem, Liberty University
Julie Lee, Cape Fear Community College
Don Lucas, Northwest Vista College
Theresa Luhrs, DePaul University
Lynda Mae, Arizona State University–Tempe
Mike Mangan, University of New Hampshire
Gina Mariano, Troy University
Susan McClure, Westmoreland County
Community College
Dan McConnell, University of Central Florida
Jason McCoy, Cape Fear Community College
Sean Meegan, University of Utah–Salt Lake City
Megan Mericle, Lorain County Community
College
Dawn Molina, Lorain County Community
College
Sara Neeves, Virginia Western Community
College
Robert Nelson, Liberty University
Margaret Olimpieri, Dutchess Community
College
Brian Parry, Colorado Mesa University
Lois Pasapane, Palm Beach State College–Lake
Worth
David Payne, Wallace Community College–
Dothan
Kerri Peach Churches, Rock Valley College
Catherine Peters, Liberty University
Kathleen Peters, Brevard Community College–
Melbourne
Ac kn owled gmen t s // xxiii
Pete Phipps, Dutchess Community College
Robin Popp, Chattanooga State Technical
Community College
M. Christine Porter, College of William & Mary
Wendy Quinton, SUNY–Buffalo
Stacey Ray, Hibbing Community College
Cynthia Rickert, Ivy Tech Community College
Vicki Ritts, Saint Louis Community College–
Meramec Kirkwood
Shani Roberts, Liberty University
Famika Robertson, JS Reynolds Community
College
Edie Sample, Metropolitan Community College–
Fort Omaha
Nancy Schaab, Delta College
Spring Schafer, Delta College
Shannon Scott, Texas Woman’s University
Donald Shull, Ivy Tech Distance Education
Alicia Sichan, Marymount California
University
Stu Silverberg, Westmoreland County Community
College
Randy Simonson, College of Southern Idaho
Lee Skeens, Southeastern Community College
Cindy Sledge, San Jacinto–South
Anissa Snyder, University of Texas–San Antonio
Donna Steckal, Eastern Arizona College
Kerri Stephens, Cameron University
Paul Susen, Three Rivers Community College
Rachelle Tannenbaum, Anne Arundel Community
College
Eloise Thomas, Ozarks Technical Community
College
Elayne Thompson, William Rainey Harper
Natasha Tokowicz, University of Pittsburgh–
Pittsburgh
Ronald Truelove, Ball State University
Irene Tsapelas, Medgar Evers College
Lori Van Wallendael, University of North
Carolina–Charleston
Victoria Van Wie, Lone Star–Cyfair
Lora Vasiliauskas, Virginia Western Community
College
Fabian Vega, Baltimore City Community
College
Pamela Vincent, Lorain County Community
College
Mark Vosvick, University of North Texas
Bernadine Waller, Adelphi University
Shannon Warman, University of Northwestern
Ohio
Carmon Weaver Hicks, Ivy Tech Community
College
Marylou Wells, Sinclair Community College
Shannon Westphal, Black Hawk College
Colin William, Ivy Tech Community College
Ralph Worthing, Delta College
M. Liz Wright, Northwest Vista College
Anthony Yankowski, Bergen Community
College

Personal Acknowledgments
Returning to Experience Psychology for this third edition has been quite an adventure. I very much
appreciate all those at McGraw-Hill Education who brought their characteristic levels of innovation,
enthusiasm, and encouragement to bear. I especially wish to thank Cara Labell for her efforts in
conveying the information from LearnSmart heat maps to inform this revision, making it as responsive
to students’ needs as possible. A very special thank you as well to Jennifer Gordon whose painstaking
copyediting was once again invaluable and whose hard work made a difficult year much easier; and
to Sandy Wille and Matt Backhaus who, respectively, managed the production process and design
development with expertise. I also want to thank Sheryl Adams for her unflagging support of me and
Experience Psychology.
A special thanks goes out to the many students and faculty I visited around the country this year.
Whenever I felt down or overwhelmed by the sheer enormity of this undertaking, my experiences
with you were a huge shot in the arm. Those visits were rejuvenating and stimulating. It meant so
much to me to have students come up, take selfies with me, and chat about psychology. I treasure the
times I have heard you say, “You sound just like you do in the book!” That’s what Experience
Psychology is all about, and nothing could be more gratifying. It has been an honor to share your
introductory psychology experiences with you. Thanks to Nancy Welcher, A. J. Laferrera, and Ann
Helgerson for finding innovative ways for me to reach out to faculty and students, whether in person
or through technology.
Thanks to my colleagues at the University of Missouri, for their enthusiasm, advice, patience, and
support. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Samantha Heintzelman, Sarah Ward, and Jerry Mitchell,
my graduate students, who have patiently endured having an advisor who is not only a journal editor
but also an author and teacher, while generating their own very exciting scholarship. Finally, a
heartfelt thank-you goes to my family and friends who have supported and inspired me, especially
Lisa and Sam.

xxiv // A c kn o w l e dg m e n t s
 1
The Science of
Psychology
The Virtual and the Real You

M any of us live in two worlds at once—the real world and a virtual one that exists on computers, smartphones,
and gaming servers. In the real world, we have friends we see daily, but in the virtual world, we may know hun-
dreds or even thousands more. We connect with these folks on social media, online message boards, or multi-
player games. In the virtual world, we may do things we never would in the real world, such as share thoughts
and feelings we wouldn’t in person or occupy roles that don’t really exist (like a clumsy zombie or his enemy a
wily pea plant). Still, the real and virtual worlds are connected. Research shows that college students often use
online profiles to express their true selves (Back & others, 2010) and status updates to share their intimate feel-
ings (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Even though they occur in the virtual world, being friended feels good
and being unfriended feels bad (Sibona, 2014). College students with large Facebook networks report higher
feelings of life satisfaction (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Sometimes events in the two worlds collide: The
most common reason for unfriending a coworker is that person’s behavior in the (real) workplace (Sibona, 2014).
One thing the real and virtual world have in common is you—the person who occupies them both.
Psychologists are scientists who are interested in all of the things you do, in all of the worlds you occupy.
Like a fan following the minutiae of a celebrity’s Twitter feed, psychologists are passionate about what they
study—and what they study is behavior. Thousands of dedicated scientists investigate phenomena such as
how the human brain responds to a picture flashed on a screen and how the eyes adjust to a sunny day and
how a person feels when she discovers she’s been unfriended. There is not a single thing people do that is
not fascinating to some psychologist somewhere.

Las t ©Aandresr/Getty
Head Images // 1
 This chapter begins by defining psychology and reviewing the history of the field. Next
we survey seven broad approaches that characterize psychological science today.
Then, in sequence, we examine the elements of the scientific method, review the
different kinds of research psychologists do, and consider the importance of conducting
psychological research according to ethical guidelines. We conclude with a look at
applications of psychology to daily life—a central focus of Experience Psychology.


Defining Psychology and
1 Exploring Its Roots
Formally defined, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. psychology
Let’s consider the three key terms in this definition: science, behavior, and mental The scientific study
processes. of behavior and
What is your definition of mental processes.
As a science, psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behav-
psychology? When you think of the word
ior and draw conclusions. The goals of psychological science are to describe, science
psychology, what first comes to mind? predict, and explain behavior. In addition, psychologists are often interested in The use of system-
controlling or changing behavior, and they use scientific methods to examine atic methods to
interventions that might help, for example, reduce violence or promote happiness. observe the natu-
ral world, including
Researchers might be interested in knowing whether individuals will help a stranger who human behavior,
has fallen down. The researchers could devise a study in which they observe people walk- and to draw
ing past a person who needs help. Through many observations, the researchers could come conclusions.
to describe helping behavior by counting how many times it occurs in particular circum-
stances. They might also try to predict who will help, and when, by examining character-
istics of the individuals studied. Are happy people more likely to help? Are women or men
more likely to help? After the psychologists have analyzed their data, they also will want
to explain why helping behavior occurred when it did. Finally, they might be interested in
changing helping behavior, such as by devising strategies to increase helping.
behavior Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed—two people kissing, a mental processes
Everything we do that can be baby crying, a college student riding a motorcycle to campus. Mental processes are the The thoughts, feel-
directly observed. thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be ings, and motives
that people experi-
observed directly. Although we cannot directly see thoughts and feelings, they are none- ence privately but
theless real. They include thinking about kissing someone, a baby’s feelings when its that cannot be ob-
mother leaves the room, and a student’s memory of a motorcycle trip. served directly.

Behavior includes the observable act of two people kissing; mental processes include their unobservable thoughts about kissing.
(both) © Betsie Van Der Meer/Taxi/Getty Image

2 // C H A P T E R 1 // T h e S ci e n ce of P sy c h ol ogy
The Psychological Frame of Mind
What makes for a good job, a good marriage, or a good life? Psychologists approach these
big life questions as scientists. Psychology is a rigorous discipline that tests assumptions,
bringing scientific data to bear on the questions of central interest to human beings
(Jackson, 2015; Kantowitz, Roediger, & Elmes, 2015). Psychologists conduct research and
rely on that research to provide evidence for their conclusions. They examine the available
evidence about some aspect of mind and behavior, evaluate how strongly the data (informa-
tion) support their hunches, analyze disconfirming evidence, and carefully consider whether
they have explored all possible factors and explanations (Stangor, 2015). At the core of this
scientific approach are four attitudes: critical thinking, curiosity, skepticism, and objectivity.
Like all scientists, psychologists are critical thinkers. Critical thinking is the process critical thinking
of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence (Stanovich, The process of thinking
2013). Critical thinkers question and test what some people say are facts. They examine deeply and actively, asking
questions, and evaluating the
research to see how soundly it supports an idea (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2015). evidence.
Critical thinking reduces the likelihood that conclusions will be based on unreliable
personal beliefs, opinions, and emotions. Critical thinking also comes into play when
scientists consider the conclusions they draw from research. As critical thinkers who are
open to new information, scientists must tolerate uncertainty, knowing that even long-
held views are subject to revision.
Critical thinking is very important as you read Experience Psychology. Some of what
you read might fit with your beliefs, and some might challenge you to change or recon-
sider them. Actively engaging in critical thinking is vital to making the most of psychol-
ogy. As you study the field, think about how what you are learning relates to your life
experiences and your assumptions about human behavior.
Scientists are also curious. The scientist notices things in the world (a star in the sky,
an insect, a happy person) and wants to know what it is and why it is that way. Science
involves asking questions, even very big questions such as where did the earth come from,
and how does love between two people endure for 50 years? Thinking like a psychologist
means opening your mind and imagination to wondering why things are the way they are.
In addition, scientists are skeptical (Smith & Davis, 2013). Skeptical people challenge
whether a supposed fact is really true. Being skeptical can mean questioning what “every-
body knows.” There was a time when “everybody knew” that women were morally inferior
to men, that race could influence a person’s IQ, and that the earth was flat. Psychologists,
like all scientists, look at assumptions in new and questioning ways. Psychology is differ-
ent from common sense because psychologists are skeptical of commonsensical answers.
Psychological research often turns up the unexpected in human behavior. Such results
are called counterintuitive because they contradict our intuitive impressions of how the
world works. Consider the following study, which demonstrates how a little dose of nega-
tive information can actually make consumers feel more positive about a product (Ein-Gar,
Shiv, & Tormala, 2012). Students who were on their way to an exam were approached by
an experimenter offering to sell them chocolate bars. All of the participants were told that
the chocolate bars were a favorite among consumers, that they were nicely chilled (the
study was conducted on a hot day in California), and that they were being offered at
a special discount of only 50 cents. However, half of the participants received
one more piece of information: The chocolate bars were just a little broken. You might be wondering about
The experimenter showed them an example of a bar with minor breakage. the names and dates in parentheses.
Participants who were given this mild negative information ended up purchas- They are research citations that identify
ing more chocolate bars than those who heard only the positive informa- the authors of particular studies and the
tion. Why? year each study was published. If you
The experimenters reasoned that when we have encountered positive infor-
mation about something, a little bit of negative information causes us to stop
see an especially interesting study, you
and reconsider that positive information. We think about it more and eventually might look it up in the References at the
come to evaluate a mildly “blemished” product as actually really good. Note that end of the chapter and check it out online
these results were limited to students who were preoccupied by a test. Other students or in your school's library.

Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy an d Explorin g I t s Root s // 3

 who were not thinking about a test bought less chocolate when it was presented as broken.
The researchers’ explanation is that when we do not have time or energy to think things
through, a minor blemish can enhance evaluations of a product.
Last, practicing science also means being objective. Being objective involves trying
to see things as they really are, not just as the observer would like them to be. Scientific
knowledge ultimately is based on objective evidence.
empirical method To gather objective evidence, scientists rely on empirical methods. The empirical
Gaining knowledge through method involves gaining knowledge by observing events, collecting data, and reasoning
the observation of events,
logically. For scientists, objectivity means waiting to see what the evidence tells them
the collection of data, and
logical reasoning. rather than going with their hunches. Does the latest herbal dietary supplement really
help relieve depression? A scientist would say, “That’s an empirical question,” meaning
that hard evidence is required to answer it. An objective thinker insists on sound
evidence before drawing conclusions. Like critical thinking, relying on evidence
This is why researchers often to provide the foundation for conclusions means being open to uncertainty.
say that a study supports a particular Empirical evidence provides the best answers to questions at any given moment.
" "
prediction, but rarely if ever say that it Once you start to think like a psychologist, the world begins to look like a
proves anything. different place. Easy answers and simple assumptions will not do. As you can
" " probably imagine, psychologists, as a group, are people with many different opin-
ions about many different things. If a number of these critical thinkers were to gather
around a table, it is a safe bet that they would have a lively conversation.
Indeed, as you will see throughout Experience Psychology, there are many things
about which psychologists disagree, and psychology (like any science) is filled with
debate and controversy. For example, one controversy in psychology concerns the emer-
gence of so-called Generation Me (Twenge, 2006). Jean Twenge and her colleagues
(Twenge, 2006; Twenge & Campbell, 2010) argue that Americans born since the 1980s
are different from previous generations in that they are unusually self-confident, self-
assertive, and self-centered. Based on her research examining scores on questionnaires
concerning narcissism (a condition of intense, unhealthy self-love) over many years,
Twenge (2006) refers to these individuals as Generation Me. She suggests that we are
in the midst of an epidemic of narcissism. Other psychologists, however, sharply chal-
lenge this claim. In doing so, they present data showing no changes in narcissism over
the last three decades (Trzesniewski & Donnellan, 2010).
So, debate and controversy are a natural part of thinking like a psychologist. Psychology
has advanced as a field because psychologists do not always agree with one another about
why mind and behavior work the way they do. Psychologists have reached
Clinical Industrial a more accurate understanding of human behavior because psychology
24% 12% fosters controversies and because psychologists think deeply and reflec-
tively and examine the evidence on all sides. A good place to try out your
critical thinking skills is by revisiting the definition of psychology.

Psychology as the Science

Private practice
22%
Academic
34%
of All Human Behavior
Schools Other
4% 4% As you consider the general definition of psychology as the science of
human behavior, you might be thinking, okay, where’s the couch? Where’s
FIGURE 1 the mental illness? Psychology certainly includes the study of therapy and
Settings in Which Psychologists psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists are psychologists who spe-
Work More psychologists work in academic
cialize in studying and treating psychological disorders. By definition,
settings (34 percent), such as colleges and
universities, than in any other setting.
though, psychology is a much more general science (Shiraev, 2011), prac-
However, clinical (24 percent) and private ticed in several environments in addition to clinical settings (Figure 1). In
practice (22 percent) settings—both of which fact, the most common place to find psychologists is in academic settings
are contexts in which many psychologists in (colleges or universities). How did we end up with the idea that psychology
the mental health professions work—together is only about mental illness? Surely, psychological disorders are very inter-
make up almost half of the total settings. esting, and the media often portray psychologists as therapists. Yet the view

4 // C H A P T E R 1 // T h e S ci e n ce of P sy c h ol ogy
of psychology as the science of what is wrong with people started long before TV was
even invented.
When they think of psychology, many people think of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
Freud believed that most of human behavior is caused by dark, unpleasant,
unconscious impulses pressing for expression. For Freud, even the average You have probably heard of a
person on the street is a mysterious well of unconscious desires. Certainly,
Freud has had a lasting impact on psychology and on society. Consider,
Freudian
" slip.
" Freud s name has become
'
though, that Freud based his ideas about human nature on the patients he part of our everyday language.
saw in his clinical practice—individuals who were struggling with psychologi-
cal problems. His experiences with these patients, as well as his analysis of himself,
colored his outlook on all of humanity. Freud once wrote, “I have found little that is
‘good’ about human beings on the whole. In my experience most of them are trash”
(1918/1996).
Freud’s view of human nature has crept into general perceptions of what psychology
is all about. Imagine, for example, that you are seated on a plane, having a pleasant
conversation with the woman (a stranger) sitting next to you. At some point you ask your
seatmate what she does for a living, and she informs you she is a psychologist. You
might think to yourself, “Uh oh. What have I already told this person? What secrets does
she know about me that I don’t know about myself? Has she been analyzing me this
whole time?” Would you be surprised to discover that this psychologist studies happi-
ness? Or intelligence? Or the processes related to the experience of vision? The study
of psychological disorders is a very important aspect of psychology, but it represents
only one part of the science of psychology.
Psychology seeks to understand the truths of human life in all its dimensions, includ-
ing people’s best and worst experiences, and everything in between. Research on the
human capacity for forgiveness demonstrates this point (Balliet, Li, & Joireman, 2011;
Harper & others, 2014; McCullough, Kurzban, & Tabak, 2011, 2013). Forgiveness is the
act of letting go of anger and resentment toward someone who has done something
harmful to us. Through forgiveness we cease seeking revenge or avoiding the person who
did us harm, and we might even wish that person well (Lin & others, 2014; Tuck &
Anderson, 2014).
In October 2006, after Charles Carl Roberts took 10 young Amish girls hostage in a
one-room schoolhouse in Pennsylvania, eventually killing 5 of them and wounding 5 oth-
ers before killing himself, the grief-stricken Amish community focused not on hatred and
revenge but on forgiveness. As funds were being set up for the victims’ families, the
Amish insisted on establishing one for the murderer’s family. They prepared simple
funerals for the dead girls, and the community invited the killer’s
wife to attend. The science of psychology has much to offer to our
understanding not only of the violent acts of the perpetrator but also
of the forgiveness of the victims.
The willingness of these Amish people to forgive this horrible
crime is both remarkable and puzzling. Can we scientifically under-
stand the human ability to forgive even what might seem to be
unforgivable? A number of psychologists have taken up the topic of
forgiveness in research and clinical practice (Jacinto & Edwards,
2011; Worthington & others, 2011). Michael McCullough and his
colleagues (McCullough & others, 2010) have shown that the capac-
ity to forgive is an unfolding process that often takes time. For the
Amish, their deep religious faith led them to embrace forgiveness,
while many others might have been motivated to seek revenge and
retribution. Researchers also have explored the relationship between
religious commitment and forgiveness (McCullough, Bono, & Root,
2007), the cognitive skills required for forgiveness (Pronk & others, The murder in 2006 of five Amish schoolgirls evoked
2010), and even the potential dark side of forgiveness, which might feelings in the community not of hatred and revenge
emerge, for example, when forgiveness leads an abusive spouse to but of forgiveness.
feel free to continue a harmful behavior (McNulty, 2011). © William Thomas Cain/Stringer/Getty Images

Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy and Explorin g I t s Root s // 5

 Some psychologists argue that the field has focused too much on the negative
aspects of humanity and neglected topics that reflect the best of human life (Seligman
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2010). Others insist that psychol-
ogy would benefit more from studying human weaknesses (Lazarus, 2003). The fact is
that to be a truly general science of human behavior, psychology must address all sides
of human experience. Surely, controversy is a part of any science. Healthy debate char-
acterizes the field of psychology, and a new psychological perspective sometimes arises
when one scientist questions the views of another. Such ongoing debate is a sign of a
lively discipline. Indeed, the very birth of the field was marked by debate. Great minds
do not always think alike, especially when they are thinking about psychology.

Psychology in Historical Perspective

Psychology seeks to answer questions that people have been asking for thousands of
years—for example:
■ How do we learn?
■ What is memory?
■ Why does one person grow and flourish while another struggles?
The notion that such questions might be answered through scientific inquiry is relatively
new. From the time human language included the word why and became rich enough to
let people talk about the past, we have been creating myths to explain why things are the
way they are. Ancient myths attributed most important events to the pleasure or displea-
sure of the gods: When a volcano erupted, the gods were angry; if two people fell in love,
they had been struck by Cupid’s arrows. Gradually, myths gave way to philosophy—the
rational investigation of the underlying principles of being and knowledge. People
attempted to explain events in terms of natural rather than supernatural causes.
Western philosophy came of age in ancient Greece in the fourth and fifth centuries
b.c.e. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and others debated the nature of thought and behavior,
including the possible link between the mind and the body. Later philosophers, especially
René Descartes, argued that the mind and body were completely separate, and they
focused their attention on the mind. Psychology grew out of this tradition of thinking
about the mind and body. The influence of philosophy on contemporary psychology
persists today, as researchers who study emotion still talk about Descartes,
and scientists who study happiness often refer to Aristotle (McMahan &
Estes, 2011).
In addition to philosophy, psychology has roots in the natural sciences of
biology and physiology (Kardas, 2014; Schultz & Schultz, 2012). Indeed, it
was Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), a German philosopher-physician, who put
together the pieces of the philosophy–natural science puzzle to create the
academic discipline of psychology. Some historians like to say that modern
psychology was born in December 1879 at the University of Leipzig, when
Wundt and his students (most notably E. B. Titchener) performed an exper-
iment to measure the time lag between the instant a person heard a sound
and when that person pressed a telegraph key to signal that he had heard it.
What was so special about this experiment? Wundt’s study was about the
workings of the brain: He was trying to measure the time it took the human
brain and nervous system to translate information into action. At the heart
of this experiment was the idea that mental processes could be measured.
This focus ushered in the new science of psychology. structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Wundt’s approach
Wundt founded the first psychology Wundt and his collaborators concentrated on discovering the basic elements,
to discovering the
laboratory (with his two coworkers) in 1879 or “structures,” of mental processes. Their approach was called structuralism basic elements, or
at the University of Leipzig in Germany. because of its focus on identifying the elemental parts or structures of the structures, of men-
© Bettmann/Corbis human mind. The method they used in the study of mental structures was tal processes.

6 // C H A P T E R 1 // T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c hol ogy
introspection (literally, “looking inside”). For this type of research, a person sat in
a laboratory and was asked to think (to introspect) about what was going on Introspection has its limits.
mentally as various events took place. For example, the individual might be Many behaviors are hard to explain
subjected to a sharp, repetitive clicking sound and then might be asked to using introspection. Think about talking,
report whatever conscious feelings the clicking produced. What made this for example. You somehow know where
method scientific was the systematic, detailed self-reports required of the
you are heading even as the words are
person in the controlled laboratory setting.
Although Wundt is most often regarded as the founding father of modern tumbling out of your mouth, but you
psychology, it was psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910), cannot say where those words are
perhaps more than anyone else, who gave the field an American stamp. From coming from.
James’s perspective, the key question for psychology is not so much what the mind is
(that is, its structures) as what it is for (its purpose or function). James’s view was even-
tually named functionalism.
In contrast to structuralism, which emphasized the components of the mind, function- functionalism
alism probed the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s James’s approach to mental
adaptation to the environment. Whereas structuralists were looking inside the mind and processes, emphasizing the
functions and purposes of
searching for its structures, functionalists focused on human interactions with the outside the mind and behavior in the
world to understand the purpose of thoughts. If structuralism is about the “what” of the individual’s adaptation to the
mind, functionalism is about the “why.” environment.
A central question in functionalism is, why is human thought adaptive? When we talk
about whether a characteristic is adaptive, we are concerned with how it makes an organism
better able to survive. So, the functionalist asks, why are people better off because they can
think than they would be otherwise? Unlike Wundt, James did not believe in the existence
of rigid structures of the mind. Instead, James saw the mind as flexible and fluid, character-
ized by constant change in response to a continuous flow of information from the world.
Not surprisingly, James called the natural flow of thought a “stream of consciousness.”
Functionalism fit well with the theory of evolution through natural selection proposed
by British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882). In 1859, Darwin published his ideas
in On the Origin of Species. He proposed the principle of natural selection, an evolu- natural selection
tionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive Darwin’s principle of an
and, importantly, produce offspring. Darwin noted that members of any species are often ­evolutionary process in which
organisms that are best
locked in competition for scarce resources such as food. Natural selection is the process adapted to their environment
by which the environment determines who wins that competition. Darwin asserted that will survive and produce
organisms with biological features that led to survival and reproduction would be better ­offspring.
represented in subsequent generations. Over many generations, organisms with these
characteristics would constitute a larger percentage of the population. Eventually this
process could change an entire species. If environmental conditions changed,
however, other characteristics might become favored by natural selection,
moving the process in a different direction (Cowan, 2015).
If you are unfamiliar with Darwin’s theory of evolution, it might be help-
ful to consider the simple question, why do giraffes have long necks? An
early explanation might have been that giraffes live in places where the trees
are very tall, and so the creatures must stretch their necks to get their food—
leaves. Lots of stretching might lead to adult giraffes that have longer necks.
This explanation does not tell us, though, why giraffes are born with long
necks. A characteristic cannot be passed from one generation to the next
unless it is recorded in the genes, those collections of molecules that are
responsible for heredity (Cummings, 2014).
According to evolutionary theory, species change through random genetic
mutation (Mader, 2014). That means that, essentially by accident, some mem-
bers of a species are born with genetic characteristics that make them differ-
ent from other members (for instance, some lucky giraffes being born with
unusually long necks). If these changes are adaptive (for example, if they William James (1842–1910)
help those giraffes compete for food, survive, and reproduce), they become James’s approach became known as
more common in members of the species. So, presumably long, long ago, functionalism.
some giraffes were genetically predisposed to have longer necks, and some © Bettmann/Corbis

Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy a n d Explorin g I t s Root s // 7

 giraffes were genetically predisposed to have shorter necks. Only those with the
It turns out that giraffes don t long necks survived to reproduce, giving us the giraffes we see today. The
' survival of the giraffes with long necks is a product of natural selection. Evo-
eat food from tall trees. Instead, they lutionary theory implies that the way we are, at least partially, is the way that
use their long necks to fight! is best suited to survival in our environment (Buss, 2012; Johnson, 2015).
Darwin’s theory continues to influence psychologists today because it is strongly
supported by observation. We can make such observations every day. Right now, for
example, in your kitchen sink, various bacteria are locked in competition for scarce
resources in the form of those tempting food particles from your last meal. When you
use an antibacterial cleaner, you are playing a role in natural selection, because you are
effectively killing off the bacteria that cannot survive the cleaning agents. However, you
are also letting the bacteria that are genetically adapted to survive that cleaner to take
over the sink. The same principle applies to taking an antibiotic medication at the first
sign of a sore throat or an earache. By killing off the bacteria that may be causing the
illness, you are creating an environment where their competitors (so-called antibiotic-
resistant bacteria) may flourish. These observations powerfully demonstrate Darwinian
selection in action.
If structuralism won the battle to be the birthplace of psychology, functionalism won
the war. To this day, psychologists continue to talk about the adaptive nature of human
characteristics. Indeed, from these beginnings, psychologists have branched out to study
more aspects of human behavior than Wundt or James might have imagined. We now
examine various contemporary approaches to the science of psychology.

1. Which of the following statements is C. prejudging. APPLY IT! 4. Two psychologists,

correct? D. curiosity. Clayton and Sam, are interested in
A. There are many controversies in studying emotional expressions. Clayton
3. Charles Darwin’s work is relevant to
the field of psychology. wants to determine whether emotional
psychology because
B. Psychologists on the whole agree expression is healthy and if it has an in-
A. Darwin’s research demonstrated
among themselves on most as- fluence on well-being. Sam is interested
that there are few differences be-
pects of the field. in describing the types of emotions peo-
tween humans and animals.
C. Psychologists do not engage in ple express and building a catalog of all
B. Darwin’s principle of natural selec-
critical thinking. the emotions and emotional expressions
tion suggests that human behav-
D. There are few controversies in the that exist. In this example, Clayton is
ior is partially a result of efforts to
field of psychology. most like and Sam is most
survive.
2. Of the following, the characteristic C. Darwin stated that humans de- like .
that is not at the heart of the scientific scended from apes, a principle A. Wilhelm Wundt; William James
approach is that allows psychologists to under- B. William James; Wilhelm Wundt
A. skepticism. stand human behavior. C. Wilhelm Wundt; Sigmund Freud
B. critical thinking. D. Darwin created functionalism. D. Sigmund Freud; Wilhelm Wundt


Contemporary Approaches
2 to Psychology
In this section we survey seven different approaches—biological, behavioral, psychody-
namic, humanistic, cognitive, evolutionary, and sociocultural—that represent the intel-
lectual backdrop of psychological science.

biological approach
An approach to psychology
The Biological Approach
focusing on the body, espe-
cially the brain and nervous Some psychologists examine behavior and mental processes through the biological
system. approach, which is a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. For

8 // C H A P T E R 1 // T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c h ol ogy
 example, researchers might investigate the way your
heart races when you are afraid or how your hands
sweat when you tell a lie. Although a number of
physiological systems may be involved in thoughts
and feelings, perhaps the largest contribution to
physiological psychology has come through the
emergence of neuroscience (Botvinick & Braver,
2015; Qiu, Mori, & Miller, 2015).
neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the struc-
The scientific study ture, function, development, genetics, and biochem-
of the structure, istry of the nervous system. Neuroscience emphasizes
function, develop-
ment, genetics,
that the brain and nervous system are central to
and biochemistry understanding behavior, thought, and emotion (Van
of the nervous sys- Horn, 2014; Zhao & others, 2014). Neuroscientists
tem, emphasizing believe that thoughts and emotions have a physical
that the brain and basis in the brain. Electrical impulses zoom through-
nervous system
are central to un-
out the brain’s cells, releasing chemical substances
derstanding be- that enable us to think, feel, and behave. Our remark- Richard J. Davidson of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, shown with
havior, thought, able human capabilities would not be possible with- the Dalai Lama, is a leading researcher in behavioral neuroscience.
and emotion. out the brain and nervous system, which constitute Courtesy of Richard Davidson, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Photo by Jeff Miller.
the most complex, intricate, and elegant system
imaginable. Although biological approaches might sometimes seem to reduce complex
human experience to simple physical structures, developments in neuroscience have
allowed psychologists to understand the brain as an amazingly complex organ, perhaps
just as complex as the psychological processes linked to its functioning (Casey, 2015).

The Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral behavioral approach
responses and their environmental determinants. It focuses on an organism’s visible An approach to psychology
emphasizing the scientific
behaviors, not thoughts or feelings. The psychologists who adopt this approach are called
study of observable behav-
behaviorists. Under the intellectual leadership of John B. Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. ioral responses and their envi-
Skinner (1904–1990), behaviorism dominated psychological research during the first half ronmental determinants.
of the twentieth century.
Skinner (1938) emphasized that psychology should be about what people do—their
actions and behaviors—and should not concern itself with things that cannot be seen,
such as thoughts, feelings, and goals. He believed that rewards and punishments deter-
mine our behavior. For example, a child might behave in a well-mannered fashion because
her parents have rewarded this behavior. We do the things we do, say behaviorists,
because of the environmental conditions we have experienced and continue to experience.
Contemporary behaviorists still emphasize the importance of observing behavior to
understand an individual, and they use rigorous methods advocated by Watson and Skinner
(Gariépy & others, 2014). They also continue to stress the importance of environmental
determinants of behavior (Martin & Pear, 2014). However, not every behaviorist today
accepts the earlier behaviorists’ rejection of thought processes, which are often called
cognition (Bandura, 2011a, 2011b).

psychodynamic approach
The Psychodynamic Approach An approach to psychology
emphasizing unconscious
thought, the conflict between
The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between bio-
biological drives (such as the
logical drives (such as the drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood fam- drive for sex) and society’s
ily experiences. Practitioners of this approach believe that sexual and aggressive impulses demands, and early child-
buried deep within the unconscious mind influence the way people think, feel, and behave. hood family experiences.

Contem porary Approa c h es t o Ps ych ology // 9

 Sigmund Freud, the founding father of the psychodynamic approach, theo-
rized that early relationships with parents shape an individual’s personality.
Freud’s theory (1917) was the basis for the therapeutic technique that he called
psychoanalysis, which involves an analyst’s unlocking a person’s unconscious
conflicts by talking with the individual about his or her childhood memories,
dreams, thoughts, and feelings. Certainly, Freud’s views have been controversial,
but they remain a part of contemporary psychology. Today’s psychodynamic
theories tend to place less emphasis on sexual drives and more on cultural or
social experiences as determinants of behavior (Borden & Clark, 2012).

The Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, the humanistic
capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny. approach
Humanistic psychologists stress that people have the ability to control their An approach to
psychology em-
lives and are not simply controlled by the environment (Maslow, 1971; phasizing a per-
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Rogers, 1961). They theorize that rather than being driven by unconscious son’s positive
Freud was the founding father of the impulses (as the psychodynamic approach dictates) or by external rewards qualities, the ca-
psychodynamic approach. (as the behavioral approach emphasizes), people can choose to live by higher pacity for positive
© Ingram Publishing growth, and the
human values such as altruism (an unselfish concern for another person’s
freedom to choose
well-being) and free will. Many aspects of this optimistic approach appear in research any destiny.
on motivation, emotion, and personality psychology (Keltner & others, 2014; Sheldon,
Cheng, & Hilpert, 2011; Sheldon & Schüler, 2011).

The Cognitive Approach

According to cognitive psychologists, your brain houses a “mind” whose mental processes
allow you to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative (Sternberg, 2014a,
2014b). The cognitive approach, then, emphasizes the mental processes involved in know- cognitive
ing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve approach
problems. For example, cognitive psychologists want to know how we An approach to
psychology
solve math problems, why we remember some things for only a short ­emphasizing the
time but others for a lifetime, and how we can use our imaginations to mental processes
plan for the future (Kuo & others, 2014; Siegler & Thompson, 2014). involved in know-
Cognitive psychologists view the mind as an active and aware problem- ing: how we direct
solving system. This view contrasts with the behavioral outlook, which our attention, per-
ceive, remember,
portrays behavior as controlled by external environmental forces. From think, and solve
the cognitive perspective, an individual’s mental processes are in control problems.
of behavior through memories, perceptions, images, and thinking.

The Evolutionary Approach

evolutionary
approach
Although arguably all of psychology emerges out of evolutionary
An approach to
theory, some psychologists emphasize an evolutionary approach that psychology cen-
uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural tered on evolution-
selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. David ary ideas such as
Buss (2012) argues that just as evolution molds our physical features, adaptation, repro-
duction, and natu-
According to humanistic psychologists, warm, such as body shape, it also influences our decision making, level of
ral selection as the
supportive behavior toward others helps us to realize aggressiveness, fears, and mating patterns. Thus, evolutionary psy- basis for explain-
our tremendous capacity for self-understanding. chologists say, the way we are is traceable to problems early humans ing specific human
© Rick Diamond/Getty Images faced in adapting to their environments (Cosmides, 2011). behaviors.

10 // C H A P T E R 1 // T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c hol ogy
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN