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Techniques in Business and

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• We have revised example/solution sections in various chapters:
• Chapter 5 now includes a new example/solution used to demonstrate contin-
gency tables and tree diagrams. Also the example/solution demonstrating
the combination formula has been revised.
• Chapter 6 includes a revised example/solution demonstrating the binomial
distribution.
• Chapter 15 includes a new example/solution demonstrating contingency ta-
ble analysis.
• We have revised the simple regression example in Chapter 13 and increased the
number of observations to better illustrate the principles of simple linear
regression.
• We have reordered the nonparametric chapters to follow the traditional statistics
chapters.
• We moved the sections on one- and two-sample tests of proportions, placing all
analysis of nominal data in one chapter: Nonparametric Methods: Nominal Level
Hypothesis Tests.
• We combined the answers to the Self-Review Exercises into a new appendix.
• We combined the Software Commands into a new appendix.
• We combined the Glossaries in the section reviews into a single Glossary that fol-
lows the appendices at the end of the text.
• We improved graphics throughout the text.

vii
H O W A R E C H A P T E R S O R G A N I Z E D T O E N G AG E
S T U D E N T S A N D P R O M O T E L E A R N I N G?

Chapter Learning Objectives

Each chapter begins with a set of learning objectives designed to provide focus for the chapter and motivate
student learning. These objectives, located in the margins next to the topic, indicate what the student should be
able to do after completing each sec-
tion in the chapter. MERRILL LYNCH recently completed LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a study of online investment portfo- When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to:
LO2-1
Chapter Opening Exercise lios for a sample of clients. For the
70 participants in the study, organize
Summarize qualitative variables with frequency and
relative frequency tables.
Lin20522_ch03_050-092.indd Page 51 12/10/13 11:37 AM user-f-w-198 LO2-2 Display a frequency table using a bar or pie chart.
/201/MH02018/Lin20522_disk1of1/0078020522/Lin20522_pagefiles
A representative exercise opens the these data into a frequency distribu-
LO2-3 Summarize quantitative variables with frequency and
chapter and shows how the chapter tion. (See Exercise 43 and LO2-3.)
relative frequency distributions.
content can be applied to a real-world LO2-4 Display a frequency distribution using a histogram or
situation. frequency polygon.

Introduction to the Topic INTRODUCTION

Each chapter starts with a review of
the important concepts of the previ-
ous chapter and provides a link to the
material in the current chapter. This
step-by-step approach increases
comprehension by providing continu-
ity across the concepts.
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Chapter 2 began our study of descriptive statistics. To summarize raw data into a
meaningful form, we organized qualitative data into a frequency table and portrayed
the results in a bar chart. In a similar fashion, we organized quantitative data into a
frequency distribution and portrayed the results in a histogram. We also looked at
other graphical techniques such as pie charts to portray qualitative data and fre-
quency polygons to portray quantitative data.
This chapter is concerned with two numerical ways of describing quantitative
variables, namely, measures of location and measures of dispersion. Measures of
location are often referred to as averages. The purpose of a measure of location is to
/201/MH02018/Lin20522_disk1of1/0078020522/Lin20522_pagefiles
pinpoint the center of a distribution of data. An

Example/Solution E X A M P L E
The service departments at Tionesta Ford Lincoln Mercury and Sheffield Motors
After important concepts are intro- Inc., two of the four Applewood Auto Group dealerships, were both open 24 days
duced, a solved example is given. This last month. Listed below is the number of vehicles serviced last month at the two
example provides a how-to illustration dealerships. Construct dot plots and report summary statistics to compare the two
dealerships.
and shows a relevant business appli-
cation that helps students answer the
Tionesta Ford Lincoln Mercury
question, “What will I use this for?”
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
23 33 27 28 39 26
30 32 28 33 35 32
29 25 36 31 32 27
35 32 35 37 36 30

Self-Reviews
Self-Reviews are interspersed
The Quality Control department of Plainsville Peanut Company is responsible for checking the
throughout each chapter and weight of the 8-ounce jar of peanut butter. The weights of a sample of nine jars produced last
closely patterned after the hour are:

preceding examples. They SELF-REVIEW

help students monitor their 4–2 7.69 7.72 7.8 7.86 7.90 7.94 7.97 8.06 8.09

progress and provide imme- (a) What is the median weight?

diate reinforcement for that (b) Determine the weights corresponding to the first and third quartiles.
particular technique.

viii
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Statistics in Action
Statistics in Action articles are scattered through- STATISTICS IN ACTION
out the text, usually about two per chapter. They If you wish to get some
provide unique and interesting applications and attention at the next gath-
historical insights in the field of statistics. Page 63 12/10/13 ering you attend, announce
Lin20522_ch03_050-092.indd 11:37 AM user-f-w-198 /201/MH02018/Lin20522_disk1of1/0078020522/Lin20522_pagefiles
that you believe that at
least two people present
were born on the same
date—that is, the same day
of the year but not neces-
sarily the same year. If there
are 30 people in the room,

Definitions
Definitions of new terms or terms unique to
JOINT PROBABILITY A probability that measures the likelihood two or more
the study of statistics are set apart from the events will happen concurrently.
text and highlighted for easy reference and
review. They also appear in the Glossary at
the end of the book.

Formulas
Formulas that are used for the first time are
boxed and numbered for reference. In addi- SPECIAL RULE OF MULTIPLICATION P(A and B) 5 P(A)P(B) [5–5]

tion, a formula card is bound into the back

of the text that lists all the key formulas.

Exercises
Exercises are included after
sections within the chapter
and at the end of the chap-
ter. Section exercises cover
the material studied in the
section.
E X E R C I S E S 33. P(A1 ) 5 .60, P(A2 ) 5 .40, P(B1 ƒ A1 ) 5 .05, and P(B1 ƒ A2 ) 5 .10. Use Bayes’ theorem to de-
termine P(A1 ƒ B1 ).
34. P(A1 ) 5 .20, P(A2 ) 5 .40, P(A3 ) 5 .40, P(B1 ƒ A1 ) 5 .25, P(B1 ƒ A2 ) 5 .05, and P(B1 ƒ A3 ) 5 .10.
Use Bayes’ theorem to determine P(A3 ƒ B1 ).
35. The Ludlow Wildcats baseball team, a minor league team in the Cleveland Indians organi-
zation, plays 70% of their games at night and 30% during the day. The team wins 50% of
their night games and 90% of their day games. According to today’s newspaper, they won
yesterday. What is the probability the game was played at night?
36. Dr. Stallter has been teaching basic statistics for many years. She knows that 80% of the
students will complete the assigned problems. She has also determined that among those
who do their assignments, 90% will pass the course. Among those students who do not do

Computer Output
The text includes many software examples, using
Excel, MegaStat®, and Minitab.

ix
HOW DOES THIS TEXT RE INFORCE
S T U D E N T L E A R N I N G?

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BY C H A P T E R C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
I. A random variable is a numerical value determined by the outcome of an experiment.
II. A probability distribution is a listing of all possible outcomes of an experiment and the prob-
ability associated with each outcome.
Chapter Summary A. A discrete probability distribution can assume only certain values. The main features are:
1. The sum of the probabilities is 1.00.
2. The probability of a particular outcome is between 0.00 and 1.00.
Each chapter contains a brief sum- 3. The outcomes are mutually exclusive.
B. A continuous distribution can assume an infinite number of values within a specific range.
mary of the chapter material, includ- III. The mean and variance of a probability distribution are computed as follows.
A. The mean is equal to:
ing the vocabulary and the critical m 5 © [xP(x) ] [6–1]
formulas. B. The variance is equal to:
s2 5 © [ (x 2 m) 2P(x) ] [6–2]

Pronunciation Key P R O N U N C I A T I O N
SYMBOL MEANING
K E Y
PRONUNCIATION

This tool lists the mathematical symbol, itsPage 241 10/18/13 8:39 AM f-494
Lin20522_ch07_206-246.indd
P(A)
P(,A)
Probability of A P of A
/201-1/MH02018/Lin20522_disk1of1/0078020522/Lin20522_pagefiles
Probability of not A P of not A
meaning, and how to pronounce it. We believe P(A and B) Probability of A and B P of A and B
this will help the student retain the meaning of P(A or B) Probability of A or B P of A or B
P(A ƒ B) Probability of A given B has happened P of A given B
the symbol and generally enhance course P
n r
Permutation of n items selected r at a time Pnr
communications. n
Cr Combination of n items selected r at a time Cnr

Chapter Exercises C H A P T E R E X E R C I S E S
41. The amount of cola in a 12-ounce can is uniformly distributed between 11.96 ounces and
12.05 ounces.
Generally, the end-of-chapter exer- a. What is the mean amount per can?
b. What is the standard deviation amount per can?
cises are the most challenging and c. What is the probability of selecting a can of cola and finding it has less than 12 ounces?
integrate the chapter concepts. The d. What is the probability of selecting a can of cola and finding it has more than 11.98
ounces?
answers and worked-out solutions for e. What is the probability of selecting a can of cola and finding it has more than 11.00
ounces?
all odd-numbered exercises are in Ap- 42. A tube of Listerine Tartar Control toothpaste contains 4.2 ounces. As people use the tooth-
paste, the amount remaining in any tube is random. Assume the amount of toothpaste re-
pendix D at the end of the text. Many maining in the tube follows a uniform distribution. From this information, we can determine
the following information about the amount remaining in a toothpaste tube without invading
exercises are noted with a data file anyone’s privacy.
a. How much toothpaste would you expect to be remaining in the tube?
icon in the margin. For these exercises, b. What is the standard deviation of the amount remaining in the tube?
there are data files in Excel format lo- c. What is the likelihood there is less than 3.0 ounces remaining in the tube?
d. What is the probability there is more than 1.5 ounces remaining in the tube?
cated on the text’s website, www 43. Many retail stores offer their own credit cards. At the time of the credit application, the
customer is given a 10% discount on the purchase. The time required for the credit appli-
.mhhe.com/lind16e. These files help cation process follows a uniform distribution with the times ranging from 4 minutes to
10 minutes.
students use statistical software to a. What is the mean time for the application process?
b. What is the standard deviation of the process time?
solve the exercises. c. What is the likelihood a particular application will take less than 6 minutes?

Data Set Exercises D A T A S E T E X E R C I S E S

(The data for these exercises are available at the text website: www.mhhe.com/lind16e.)

The last several exercises at the end of 74. Refer to the Real Estate data, which report information on homes sold in the Goodyear,
Arizona, area during the last year.
each chapter are based on three large a. The mean selling price (in $ thousands) of the homes was computed earlier to be
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$221.10, with a standard deviation of $47.11. Use the normal distribution to estimate
data sets. These data sets are printed the percentage of homes selling for more than $280.0. Compare this to the actual re-
sults. Does the normal distribution yield a good approximation of the actual results?
in Appendix A in the text and are also b. The mean distance from the center of the city is 14.629 miles, with a standard deviation
of 4.874 miles. Use the normal distribution to estimate the number of homes 18 or more
on the text’s website. These data sets miles but less than 22 miles from the center of the city. Compare this to the actual re-
present the students with real-world sults. Does the normal distribution yield a good approximation of the actual results?

and more complex applications.

CHAPTER 5 b. In the Insert Function box, select Statistical as the cate-
gory, then scroll down to PERMUT in the Select a func-
Software Commands 5–1. The Excel Commands to determine the number of permuta-
tions shown on page 164 are:
a. Click on the Formulas tab in the top menu, then, on the
tion list. Click OK.
c. In the PERM box after Number, enter 8 and in the
far left, select Insert Function fx. Number_chosen box enter 3. The correct answer of 336
appears twice in the box.
Software examples using Excel, Mega-
Stat®, and Minitab are included through-
out the text. The explanations of the
computer input commands are placed at
the end of the text in Appendix C.

x
Answers to Self-Review 16–7 a.
Rank
The worked-out solutions to the Self-Reviews are provided x y x y d d2
at the end of the text in Appendix E. 805 23 5.5 1 4.5 20.25
777 62 3.0 9 26.0 36.00
820 60 8.5 8 0.5 0.25
682 40 1.0 4 23.0 9.00
777 70 3.0 10 27.0 49.00
810 28 7.0 2 5.0 25.00
805 30 5.5 3 2.5 6.25
840 42 10.0 5 5.0 25.00
777 55 3.0 7 24.0 16.00
820 51 8.5 6 2.5 6.25
0 193.00

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BY S E C T I O N
Section Reviews
After selected groups of chapters
(1–4, 5–7, 8 and 9, 10–12, 13 and
14, 15 and 16, and 17 and 18), a
Section Review is included. Much
like a review before an exam, these
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include a brief overview of the
chapters and problems for review.
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 1–4
This section is a review of the major concepts and terms introduced in Chapters 1–4. Chapter 1 began by describing the
meaning and purpose of statistics. Next we described the different types of variables and the four levels of measurement.
Chapter 2 was concerned with describing a set of observations by organizing it into a frequency distribution and then portray-
ing the frequency distribution as a histogram or a frequency polygon. Chapter 3 began by describing measures of location,
such as the mean, weighted mean, median, geometric mean, and mode. This chapter also included measures of dispersion,
or spread. Discussed in this section were the range, variance, and standard deviation. Chapter 4 included several graphing
techniques such as dot plots, box plots, and scatter diagrams. We also discussed the coefficient of skewness, which reports
the lack of symmetry in a set of data.
/201/MH02018/Lin20522_disk1of1/0078020522/Lin20522_pagefiles

Cases C A S E S
A. Century National Bank
The review also includes continuing The following case will appear in subsequent review sec-
tions. Assume that you work in the Planning Department of
cases and several small cases that the Century National Bank and report to Ms. Lamberg. You
will need to do some data analysis and prepare a short writ-
let students make decisions using ten report. Remember, Mr. Selig is the president of the bank,
so you will want to ensure that your report is complete and
tools and techniques from a variety accurate. A copy of the data appears in Appendix A.6.
Century National Bank has offices in several cities in
of chapters. the Midwest and the southeastern part of the United States.
Mr. Dan Selig, president and CEO, would like to know the
characteristics of his checking account customers. What is
the balance of a typical customer?
How many other bank services do the checking ac-
count customers use? Do the customers use the ATM ser-
vice and, if so, how often? What about debit cards? Who
uses them, and how often are they used?
balances for the four branches. Is there a difference
among the branches? Be sure to explain the difference
between the mean and the median in your report.
3. Determine the range and the standard deviation of the
checking account balances. What do the first and third
quartiles show? Determine the coefficient of skewness
and indicate what it shows. Because Mr. Selig does not
deal with statistics daily, include a brief description and
interpretation of the standard deviation and other
measures.
B. Wildcat Plumbing Supply Inc.: Do We
Have Gender Differences?
Wildcat Plumbing Supply has served the plumbing needs of
Southwest Arizona for more than 40 years. The company
was founded by Mr. Terrence St. Julian and is run today by

Practice Test
P R A C T I C E T E S T
The Practice Test is intended to
There is a practice test at the end of each review section. The tests are in two parts. The first part contains several objective
give students an idea of content questions, usually in a fill-in-the-blank format. The second part is problems. In most cases, it should take 30 to 45 minutes to
complete the test. The problems require a calculator. Check the answers in the Answer Section in the back of the book.
that might appear on a test and
Part 1—Objective
how the test might be structured. 1. The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in
The Practice Test includes both making effective decisions is called .
2. Methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in an informative way are
1.

objective questions and problems called .

3. The entire set of individuals or objects of interest or the measurements obtained from all
2.

covering the material studied in individuals or objects of interest are called the . 3.
4. List the two types of variables. 4.
the section.

xi
W H AT T E C H N O L O G Y C O N N E C T S S T U D E N T S
T O B U S I N E S S S TAT I S T I C S?

MCGRAW-HILL CONNECT®
BUSINESS STATISTICS
Less Managing. More Teaching. Greater Learning.
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• Offers students quick access to lectures, practice materials, eBooks, and more.
• Provides instant practice material and study questions, easily accessible on the go.

xii
LearnSmart
Students want to make the best use of their study time. The LearnSmart adaptive self-study technology within
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Connect® Business Statistics keeps instructors informed about how each student, section, and class is per-
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In short, Connect® Business Statistics offers you and your students powerful tools and features that optimize
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xiii
For more information about Connect, go to www.mcgrawhillconnect.com, or contact your local McGraw-Hill
sales representative.

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TEGRITY CAMPUS: LECTURES 24/7

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In fact, studies prove it. With Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key moments by using Tegrity Campus’s
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Many educational institutions today are focused on the notion of assurance of learning, an important element of
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Each test bank question for Statistical Techniques in Business & Economics maps to a specific chapter learn-
ing objective listed in the text. You can use our test bank software, EZ Test and EZ Test Online, or Connect® Busi-
ness Statistics to easily query for learning objectives that directly relate to the learning objectives for your course.
You can then use the reporting features of EZ Test to aggregate student results in similar fashion, making the
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At McGraw-Hill, we understand that getting the most from new technology can be challenging. That’s why our
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xiv
W H AT S O F T WA R E I S AVA I L A B L E W I T H
THIS TEXT?

MEGASTAT® FOR MICROSOFT EXCEL®

MegaStat® by J. B. Orris of Butler University is a full-featured Excel statistical analysis add-in that is available on
the MegaStat website at www.mhhe.com/megastat (for purchase). MegaStat works with recent versions of
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Once installed, MegaStat will always be available on the Excel add-ins ribbon with no expiration date or data limi-
tations. MegaStat performs statistical analyses within an Excel workbook. When a MegaStat menu item is se-
lected, a dialog box pops up for data selection and options. Since MegaStat is an easy-to-use extension of
Excel, students can focus on learning statistics without being distracted by the software. Ease-of-use features
include Auto Expand for quick data selection and Auto Label detect.
MegaStat does most calculations found in introductory statistics textbooks, such as descriptive statistics, fre-
quency distributions, and probability calculations as well as hypothesis testing, ANOVA chi-square, and regres-
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Video tutorials are included that provide a walkthrough using MegaStat for typical business statistics topics. A
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MINITAB®/SPSS®/JMP®
Minitab® Student Version 14, SPSS® Student Version 18.0, and JMP® Student Edition Version 8 are software
tools that are available to help students solve the business statistics exercises in the text. Each can be packaged
with any McGraw-Hill business statistics text.

xv
WHAT R E SO U RC E S AR E AVAI L AB LE FO R I N STR UC TO R S?

ONLINE LEARNING CENTER:

www.mhhe.com/lind16e
The Online Learning Center (OLC) provides the instructor with a complete Instructor’s Manual in Word format, the
complete Test Bank in both Word files and computerized EZ Test format, Instructor PowerPoint slides, text art
files, an introduction to ALEKS®, an introduction to McGraw-Hill Connect Business StatisticsTM, and more.

All test bank questions are available in an EZ Test electronic format. Included are a number of multiple-choice,
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edge category.

WebCT/Blackboard/eCollege
All of the material in the Online Learning Center is also
available in portable WebCT, Blackboard, or eCollege
content “cartridges” provided free to adopters of this
text.

xvi
W H AT R E S O U R C E S A R E AVA I L A B L E F O R S T U D E N T S?

ALEKS is an assessment and learning

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struction in Business Statistics, Busi-
ness Math, and Accounting. Available
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ready to learn. By providing topics to
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ALEKS helps students to master course
content quickly and easily.

ALEKS also includes a new instructor module with powerful, assignment-driven fea-
tures and extensive content flexibility. ALEKS simplifies course management and al-
lows instructors to spend less time with administrative tasks and more time directing
student learning. To learn more about ALEKS, visit www.aleks.com.

ONLINE LEARNING CENTER:

www.mhhe.com/lind16e
The Online Learning Center (OLC) provides students with the following content:
• Quizzes
• PowerPoints
• Data sets/files
• Appendixes
• Chapter 20

BUSINESS STATISTICS CENTER (BSC):

www.mhhe.com/bstat
The BSC contains links to statistical publications and resources,
software downloads, learning aids, statistical websites and
databases, and McGraw-Hill product websites and online
courses.

xvii
AC K N O W L E D G M E N T S

This edition of Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics is the product of many people: students, colleagues, reviewers,
and the staff at McGraw-Hill/Irwin. We thank them all. We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the survey and focus group par-
ticipants, and the reviewers:

Reviewers Mark Gius Ed Pappanastos

Quinnipiac University Troy University
Sung K. Ahn Clifford B. Hawley Michelle Ray Parsons
Washington State University– West Virginia University Aims Community College
Pullman Peter M. Hutchinson Robert Patterson
Vaughn S. Armstrong Saint Vincent College Penn State University
Utah Valley University Lloyd R. Jaisingh Joseph Petry
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Troy University Ken Kelley Champaign
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College State University University
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xviii
Stanley D. Stephenson
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Survey and Focus Group
Participants
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xix
Timothy J. Schibik William Stein Lee J. Van Scyoc
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University of Massachusetts, Augusta State University Fredonia
Boston Daniel Tschopp Zhiwei Zhu
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University University of Northern Iowa
Their suggestions and thorough reviews of the previous edition and the manuscript of this edi-
tion make this a better text.
Special thanks go to a number of people. Professor Malcolm Gold, Avila University, reviewed
the page proofs and the solutions manual, checking text and exercises for accuracy. Professor
Jose Lopez–Calleja, Miami Dade College–Kendall, prepared the test bank. Professor Vickie Fry,
Westmoreland County Community College, accuracy checked the Connect exercises.
We also wish to thank the staff at McGraw-Hill. This includes Thomas Hayward, Senior Brand
Manager; Kaylee Putbrese, Development Editor; Diane Nowaczyk, Content Project Manager; and
others we do not know personally, but who have made valuable contributions.

xx
E N H A N C E M E N T S T O S TAT I S T I C A L T E C H N I Q U E S
I N B U S I N E S S & E C O N O M I C S , 16 E
MAJOR CHANGES MADE TO INDIVIDUAL
CHAPTERS:
CHAPTER 1 What Is Statistics?
• New photo and chapter opening exercise on the Nook Color
sold by Barnes & Noble.
• New introduction with new graphic showing the increasing
amount of information collected and processed with new
technologies.
• New ordinal scale example based on rankings of states
based on business climate.
• The chapter includes several new examples.
• Chapter is more focused on the revised learning objectives
and improving the chapter’s flow.
• Revised exercise 17 is based on economic data.
CHAPTER 2 Describing Data: Frequency
Tables, Frequency Distributions, and Graphic
Presentation
• Revised Self-Review 2–3 to include data.
• Updated the company list in revised exercise 38.
• New or revised exercises 45, 47, and 48.
CHAPTER 3 Describing Data: Numerical
Measures
• Reorganized chapter based on revised learning objectives.
• Replaced the mean deviation with more emphasis on the
variance and standard deviation.
• Updated statistics in action.
CHAPTER 4 Describing Data: Displaying and
Exploring Data
• Updated exercise 22 with 2012 New York Yankee player
salaries.
CHAPTER 5 A Survey of Probability Concepts
• New explanation of odds compared to probabilities.
• New exercise 21.
• New example/solution for demonstrating contingency tables
and tree diagrams.
• New contingency table exercise 31.
• Revised example/solution demonstrating the combination
formula.
CHAPTER 6 Discrete Probability Distributions
• Revised the section on the binomial distribution.
• Revised example/solution demonstrating the binomial
distribution.
• Revised Self-Review 6–4 applying the binomial distribution.
• New exercise 10 using the number of “underwater” loans.
• New exercise using a raffle at a local golf club to demon-
strate probability and expected returns.
CHAPTER 7 Continuous Probability Distributions
• Updated Statistics in Action.
• Revised Self-Review 7–2 based on daily personal water
consumption.
• Revised explanation of the Empirical Rule as it relates to the
normal distribution.
CHAPTER 8 Sampling Methods and the Central
Limit Theorem
• New example of simple random sampling and the applica-
tion of the table of random numbers.
• The discussions of systematic random, stratified random,
and cluster sampling have been revised.
• Revised exercise 44 based on the price of a gallon of milk.
CHAPTER 9 Estimation and Confidence Intervals
• New Statistics in Action describing EPA fuel economy.
• New separate section on point estimates.
• Integration and application of the central limit theorem.
• A revised simulation demonstrating the interpretation of
confidence level.
• New presentation on using the t table to find z values.
• A revised discussion of determining the confidence interval
for the population mean.
• Expanded section on calculating sample size.
• New exercise 12 (milk consumption).
CHAPTER 10 One-Sample Tests of Hypothesis
• New example/solution involving airport parking.
• Revised software solution and explanation of p-values.
• New exercises 17 (daily water consumption) and 19 (number
of text messages by teenagers).
• Conducting a test of hypothesis about a population propor-
tion is moved to Chapter 15.
• New example introducing the concept of hypothesis
testing.
• Sixth step added to the hypothesis testing procedure em-
phasizing the interpretation of the hypothesis test results.
CHAPTER 11 Two-Sample Tests of Hypothesis
• New introduction to the chapter.
• Section of two-sample tests about proportions moved to
Chapter 15.
xxi
 • Changed subscripts in example/solution for easier
understanding.
• Updated exercise with 2012 New York Yankee player
salaries.
CHAPTER 12 Analysis of Variance
• New introduction to the chapter.
• New exercise 24 using the speed of browsers to search the
Internet.
• Revised exercise 33 comparing learning in traditional versus
online courses.
• New section on Comparing Two Population Variances.
• New example illustrating the comparison of variances.
• Revised section on two-way ANOVA with interaction with
new examples and revised example/solution.
• Revised the names of the airlines in the one-way ANOVA
example.
• Changed the subscripts in example/solution for easier
understanding.
• New exercise 30 (flight times between Los Angeles and
San Francisco).
CHAPTER 13 Correlation and Linear Regression
• Rewrote the introduction section to the chapter.
• The data used as the basis for the North American Copier
Sales example/solution used throughout the chapter has
been changed and expanded to 15 observations to more
clearly demonstrate the chapter’s learning objectives.
• Revised section on transforming data using the economic
relationship between price and sales.
• New exercises 35 (transforming data), 36 (Masters prizes
and scores), 43 (2012 NFL points scored versus points
allowed), 44 (store size and sales), and 61 (airline distance
and fare).
CHAPTER 14 Multiple Regression Analysis
• Rewrote the section on evaluating the multiple regression
equation.
• More emphasis on the regression ANOVA table.
• Enhanced the discussion of the p-value in decision making.
• More emphasis on calculating the variance inflation factor to
evaluate multicollinearity.
xxii
CHAPTER 15 Nonparametric Methods: Nominal
Level Hypothesis Tests
• Moved and renamed chapter.
• Moved one-sample and two-sample tests of proportions
from Chapters 10 and 11 to Chapter 15.
• New example introducing goodness-of-fit tests.
• Removed the graphical methods to evaluate normality.
• Revised section on contingency table analysis with a new
example/solution.
• Revised Data Set exercises.
CHAPTER 16 Nonparametric Methods: Analysis
of Ordinal Data
• Moved and renamed chapter.
• New example/solution and self-review demonstrating a
hypothesis test about the median.
• New example/solution demonstrating the rank-order
correlation.
CHAPTER 17 Index Numbers
• Moved chapter to follow nonparametric statistics.
• Updated dates, illustrations, and examples.
• Revised example/solution demonstrating the use of the Pro-
duction Price Index to deflate sales dollars.
• Revised example/solution demonstrating the comparison of
the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the Nasdaq using
indexing.
• New self-review about using indexes to compare two differ-
ent measures over time.
• Revised Data Set Exercise.
CHAPTER 18 Time Series and Forecasting
• Moved chapter to follow nonparametric statistics and index
numbers.
• Updated dates, illustrations, and examples.
• Revised section on the components of a time series.
• Revised graphics for better illustration.
CHAPTER 19 Statistical Process Control and
Quality Management
• Updated 2012 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
winners.
BRIEF CONTENTS

1 What Is Statistics? 1
2 Describing Data: Frequency Tables, Frequency Distributions, and
Graphic Presentation 17
3 Describing Data: Numerical Measures 50
4 Describing Data: Displaying and Exploring Data 93 Review Section

5 A Survey of Probability Concepts 131

6 Discrete Probability Distributions 173
7 Continuous Probability Distributions 206 Review Section

8 Sampling Methods and the Central Limit Theorem 247

9 Estimation and Confidence Intervals 279 Review Section

10 One-Sample Tests of Hypothesis 315

11 Two-Sample Tests of Hypothesis 348
12 Analysis of Variance 379 Review Section

13 Correlation and Linear Regression 426

14 Multiple Regression Analysis 476 Review Section

15 Nonparametric Methods: Nominal Level Hypothesis Tests 533

16 Nonparametric Methods: Analysis of Ordinal Data 570 Review Section

17 Index Numbers 608

18 Time Series and Forecasting 639 Review Section

19 Statistical Process Control and Quality Management 682

20 An Introduction to Decision Theory On the website:
www.mhhe.com/lind16e
Appendixes:
Data Sets, Tables, Software Commands, Answers 716

Glossary 816
Photo Credits 822
Index 823

xxiii
CONTENTS

A Note from the Authors vi

EXERCISES 40
1 What Is Statistics? 1
Chapter Summary 41
Introduction 2
Chapter Exercises 42
Why Study Statistics? 2
Data Set Exercises 49
What Is Meant by Statistics? 3
Types of Statistics 4
Descriptive Statistics 4
Inferential Statistics 5 3 Describing Data:
Types of Variables 6 Numerical Measures 50
Levels of Measurement 7 Introduction 51
Nominal-Level Data 7 Measures of Location 51
Ordinal-Level Data 8 The Population Mean 52
Interval-Level Data 9 The Sample Mean 53
Ratio-Level Data 10 Properties of the Arithmetic Mean 54
EXERCISES 11 EXERCISES 55
Ethics and Statistics 12 The Median 56
Computer Software Applications 12 The Mode 58
Chapter Summary 13 EXERCISES 60
Chapter Exercises 14 The Relative Positions of the Mean,
Median, and Mode 61
Data Set Exercises 16
EXERCISES 62
Software Solution 63
2 Describing Data: The Weighted Mean 64
Frequency Tables, EXERCISES 65
Frequency Distributions, The Geometric Mean 65
and Graphic EXERCISES 67
Presentation 17 Why Study Dispersion? 68
Introduction 18 Range 69
Constructing Frequency Tables 19 Variance 70

Relative Class Frequencies 20 EXERCISES 72

Graphic Presentation of Qualitative Data 20 Population Variance 73

Population Standard Deviation 75
EXERCISES 24
EXERCISES 75
Constructing Frequency Distributions 25
Sample Variance and Standard
Relative Frequency Distribution 30 Deviation 76
EXERCISES 31 Software Solution 77
Graphic Presentation of a Frequency EXERCISES 78
Distribution 32 Interpretation and Uses of the Standard
Histogram 32 Deviation 78
Frequency Polygon 34 Chebyshev’s Theorem 78
EXERCISES 36 The Empirical Rule 79
Cumulative Frequency Distributions 37 EXERCISES 80

xxiv
 CONTENTS xxv

The Mean and Standard Deviation of Classical Probability 135

Grouped Data 81 Empirical Probability 136
Arithmetic Mean of Grouped Data 81 Subjective Probability 138
Standard Deviation of Grouped Data 82 EXERCISES 139
EXERCISES 84 Rules of Addition for Computing Probabilities 140
Ethics and Reporting Results 85 Special Rule of Addition 140
Chapter Summary 85 Complement Rule 142
The General Rule of Addition 143
Pronunciation Key 87
EXERCISES 145
Chapter Exercises 87
Rules of Multiplication to Calculate
Data Set Exercises 91 Probability 146
Special Rule of Multiplication 146
4 Describing Data: General Rule of Multiplication 147
Displaying and Contingency Tables 149

Exploring Data 93 Tree Diagrams 152

Introduction 94 EXERCISES 154

Dot Plots 94 Bayes’ Theorem 156

Stem-and-Leaf Displays 96 EXERCISES 159

EXERCISES 100 Principles of Counting 160

Measures of Position 102 The Multiplication Formula 160

The Permutation Formula 161
Quartiles, Deciles, and Percentiles 102 The Combination Formula 163
EXERCISES 105 EXERCISES 165
Box Plots 106 Chapter Summary 165
EXERCISES 108 Pronunciation Key 166
Skewness 109 Chapter Exercises 166
EXERCISES 113 Data Set Exercises 171
Describing the Relationship between
Two Variables 114
6 Discrete Probability
Contingency Tables 116
EXERCISES 117
Distributions 173
Introduction 174
Chapter Summary 119
What Is a Probability Distribution? 174
Pronunciation Key 119
Random Variables 176
Chapter Exercises 120
Discrete Random Variable 177
Data Set Exercises 125 Continuous Random Variable 177
The Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation of a
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 1–4 125 Discrete Probability Distribution 178

PROBLEMS 126 Mean 178

Variance and Standard Deviation 178
CASES 128
EXERCISES 180
PRACTICE TEST 129
Binomial Probability Distribution 182
How Is a Binomial Probability Computed? 183
Binomial Probability Tables 185
5 A Survey of Probability EXERCISES 188
Concepts 131 Cumulative Binomial Probability
Introduction 132 Distributions 189
What Is a Probability? 133 EXERCISES 190
Approaches to Assigning Probabilities 135 Hypergeometric Probability Distribution 191
xxvi CONTENTS

EXERCISES 194 Simple Random Sampling 249

Systematic Random Sampling 252
Poisson Probability Distribution 194 Stratified Random Sampling 252
EXERCISES 199 Cluster Sampling 253
Chapter Summary 199 EXERCISES 254
Chapter Exercises 200 Sampling “Error” 256
Data Set Exercises 205 Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean 258
EXERCISES 261
7 Continuous Probability The Central Limit Theorem 262
Distributions 206 EXERCISES 268
Introduction 207 Using the Sampling Distribution
of the Sample Mean 269
The Family of Uniform Probability
Distributions 207 EXERCISES 272
EXERCISES 210 Chapter Summary 272
The Family of Normal Probability Pronunciation Key 273
Distributions 211 Chapter Exercises 273
The Standard Normal Probability Distribution 214 Data Set Exercises 278
Applications of the Standard Normal
Distribution 215 9 Estimation and
The Empirical Rule 215
Confidence Intervals 279
EXERCISES 217
Introduction 280
Finding Areas under the Normal Curve 217
Point Estimate for a Population Mean 280
EXERCISES 221
Confidence Intervals for a Population Mean 281
EXERCISES 223
Population Standard Deviation, Known s 282
EXERCISES 226 A Computer Simulation 286
The Normal Approximation to the Binomial 226 EXERCISES 288
Continuity Correction Factor 227 Population Standard Deviation, s Unknown 289
How to Apply the Correction Factor 229
EXERCISES 296
EXERCISES 230
A Confidence Interval for a Population
The Family of Exponential Distributions 231 Proportion 297
EXERCISES 235 EXERCISES 300
Chapter Summary 236 Choosing an Appropriate Sample Size 300
Chapter Exercises 237 Sample Size to Estimate a Population Mean 301
Data Set Exercises 241 Sample Size to Estimate a Population
Proportion 302
EXERCISES 304
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 5–7 242
Finite-Population Correction Factor 304
PROBLEMS 242
EXERCISES 306
CASES 243
Chapter Summary 307
PRACTICE TEST 245
Chapter Exercises 308
Data Set Exercises 311
8 Sampling Methods
and the Central Limit A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 8–9 312
Theorem 247
PROBLEMS 312
Introduction 248
CASE 313
Sampling Methods 248
PRACTICE TEST 313
Reasons to Sample 248
 CONTENTS xxvii

Comparing Dependent and

10 One-Sample Tests Independent Samples 368
of Hypothesis 315 EXERCISES 370
Introduction 316 Chapter Summary 371
What Is a Hypothesis? 316 Pronunciation Key 372
What Is Hypothesis Testing? 317 Chapter Exercises 372
Six-Step Procedure for Testing a Hypothesis 317 Data Set Exercises 378
Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis (H0) and the
Alternate Hypothesis (H1) 318
Step 2: Select a Level of Significance 319 12 Analysis of Variance 379
Step 3: Select the Test Statistic 320 Introduction 380
Step 4: Formulate the Decision Rule 320
Comparing Two Population Variances 380
Step 5: Make a Decision 321
Step 6: Interpret the Result 322 The F Distribution 380
Testing a Hypothesis of Equal Population
One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests of
Variances 381
Significance 322
EXERCISES 385
Testing for a Population Mean: Known Population
Standard Deviation 324 ANOVA: Analysis of Variance 385
A Two-Tailed Test 324 ANOVA Assumptions 385
A One-Tailed Test 327 The ANOVA Test 387
p-Value in Hypothesis Testing 328 EXERCISES 394
EXERCISES 330 Inferences about Pairs of Treatment Means 395
Testing for a Population Mean: Population EXERCISES 397
Standard Deviation Unknown 331 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 399
EXERCISES 336 EXERCISES 403
A Software Solution 337 Two-Way ANOVA with Interaction 404
EXERCISES 338 Interaction Plots 404
Type II Error 339 Testing for Interaction 405
Hypothesis Tests for Interaction 407
EXERCISES 342
EXERCISES 409
Chapter Summary 342
Chapter Summary 410
Pronunciation Key 343
Pronunciation Key 412
Chapter Exercises 344
Chapter Exercises 412
Data Set Exercises 347
Data Set Exercises 421

11 Two-Sample Tests A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 10–12 421

of Hypothesis 348
PROBLEMS 422
Introduction 349
CASES 424
Two-Sample Tests of Hypothesis:
PRACTICE TEST 424
Independent Samples 349
EXERCISES 354
Comparing Population Means with Unknown
13 Correlation and Linear
Population Standard Deviations 355 Regression 426
Two-Sample Pooled Test 355 Introduction 427
EXERCISES 359 What Is Correlation Analysis? 427
Unequal Population Standard Deviations 361 The Correlation Coefficient 430
EXERCISES 364 EXERCISES 435
Two-Sample Tests of Hypothesis: Testing the Significance of the Correlation
Dependent Samples 364 Coefficient 437
xxviii CONTENTS

EXERCISES 440 Variation in Residuals Same for Large and

Small ŷ Values 496
Regression Analysis 440 Distribution of Residuals 496
Least Squares Principle 441 Multicollinearity 497
Drawing the Regression Line 443 Independent Observations 499
EXERCISES 446 Qualitative Independent Variables 499
Testing the Significance of the Slope 448 Regression Models with Interaction 502
EXERCISES 450 Stepwise Regression 504
Evaluating a Regression Equation’s Ability EXERCISES 506
to Predict 450 Review of Multiple Regression 508
The Standard Error of Estimate 450 Chapter Summary 514
The Coefficient of Determination 451
Pronunciation Key 516
EXERCISES 452
Chapter Exercises 516
Relationships among the Correlation Coefficient,
the Coefficient of Determination, and the Data Set Exercises 527
Standard Error of Estimate 453
EXERCISES 454
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 13–14 528
Interval Estimates of Prediction 455
PROBLEMS 529
Assumptions Underlying Linear Regression 455
CASES 530
Constructing Confidence and Prediction
Intervals 456 PRACTICE TEST 531
EXERCISES 459
Transforming Data 459 15 Nonparametric Methods:
EXERCISES 462 Nominal Level Hypothesis
Chapter Summary 463 Tests 533
Pronunciation Key 465 Introduction 534
Chapter Exercises 465 Test a Hypothesis of a Population Proportion 534
Data Set Exercises 474 EXERCISES 537
Two-Sample Tests about Proportions 538
14 Multiple Regression EXERCISES 542
Analysis 476 Goodness-of-Fit Tests: Comparing Observed and
Introduction 477 Expected Frequency Distributions 543
Multiple Regression Analysis 477 Hypothesis Test of Equal Expected
Frequencies 543
EXERCISES 481
EXERCISES 548
Evaluating a Multiple Regression Equation 482
Hypothesis Test of Unequal Expected
The ANOVA Table 483 Frequencies 549
Multiple Standard Error of Estimate 484
Coefficient of Multiple Determination 484 Limitations of Chi-Square 551
Adjusted Coefficient of Determination 485 EXERCISES 553
EXERCISES 486 Testing the Hypothesis That a Distribution
Inferences in Multiple Linear Regression 487 Is Normal 554
Global Test: Testing the Multiple EXERCISES 557
Regression Model 487 Contingency Table Analysis 558
Evaluating Individual Regression
Coefficients 489 EXERCISES 561

EXERCISES 493 Chapter Summary 562

Evaluating the Assumptions of Multiple Pronunciation Key 563

Regression 494 Chapter Exercises 563
Linear Relationship 494 Data Set Exercises 569
 CONTENTS xxix

Paasche Price Index 618

16 Nonparametric Fisher’s Ideal Index 619
Methods: Analysis EXERCISES 620
of Ordinal Data 570 Value Index 621
Introduction 571 EXERCISES 622
The Sign Test 571 Special-Purpose Indexes 622
EXERCISES 575 Consumer Price Index 623
Using the Normal Approximation to the Producer Price Index 624
Binomial 576 Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) 625
EXERCISES 578 EXERCISES 626
Testing a Hypothesis about a Median 578 Consumer Price Index 627
EXERCISES 580 Special Uses of the Consumer Price
Index 628
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test for Dependent Shifting the Base 630
Populations 580
EXERCISES 633
EXERCISES 584
Chapter Summary 633
Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test for Independent
Populations 585 Chapter Exercises 634
EXERCISES 589 Data Set Exercise 638
Kruskal-Wallis Test: Analysis of Variance by
Ranks 589
EXERCISES 593
18 Time Series and
Rank-Order Correlation 595 Forecasting 639

Testing the Significance of rs 597 Introduction 640

EXERCISES 598 Components of a Time Series 640

Chapter Summary 600 Secular Trend 640

Cyclical Variation 641
Pronunciation Key 601 Seasonal Variation 642
Chapter Exercises 601 Irregular Variation 642
Data Set Exercises 604 A Moving Average 643
Weighted Moving Average 646
EXERCISES 649
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 15–16 604
Linear Trend 649
PROBLEMS 605
Least Squares Method 650
CASES 606
EXERCISES 652
PRACTICE TEST 607
Nonlinear Trends 653
EXERCISES 655
Seasonal Variation 655
17 Index Numbers 608
Determining a Seasonal Index 656
Introduction 609
EXERCISES 661
Simple Index Numbers 609
Deseasonalizing Data 662
Why Convert Data to Indexes? 612
Construction of Index Numbers 612 Using Deseasonalized Data to Forecast 663

EXERCISES 614 EXERCISES 665

Unweighted Indexes 614 The Durbin-Watson Statistic 665

Simple Average of the Price Indexes 615 EXERCISES 671

Simple Aggregate Index 616 Chapter Summary 671
Weighted Indexes 616 Chapter Exercises 671
Laspeyres Price Index 616 Data Set Exercise 678
xxx CONTENTS

EXERCISES
A REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 17–18 679
Opportunity Loss
PROBLEMS 680
EXERCISES
PRACTICE TEST 680
Expected Opportunity Loss
EXERCISES
19 Statistical Process Maximin, Maximax, and Minimax Regret
Control and Quality Strategies
Management 682 Value of Perfect Information
Introduction 683 Sensitivity Analysis
A Brief History of Quality Control 683 EXERCISES
Six Sigma 686 Decision Trees
Sources of Variation 686 Chapter Summary
Diagnostic Charts 687 Chapter Exercises
Pareto Charts 687
Fishbone Diagrams 689
APPENDIXES 715
EXERCISES 690
Purpose and Types of Quality Control Charts 691
Appendix A: Data Sets 716

Control Charts for Variables 691 Appendix B: Tables 726

Range Charts 694
Appendix C: Software Commands 744
In-Control and Out-of-Control Situations 696
EXERCISES 698 Appendix D: Answers to Odd-Numbered Chapter
Attribute Control Charts 699
Exercises & Review Exercises & Solutions to Practice
Tests 756
p-Charts 699
c-Bar Charts 702 Appendix E: Answers to Self-Review 802
EXERCISES 704
Acceptance Sampling 705
EXERCISES 709
Glossary 816

Chapter Summary 709 Photo Credits 822

Pronunciation Key 710 Index 823
Chapter Exercises 710

On the website: www.mhhe.com/lind16e

20 An Introduction
to Decision Theory
Introduction
Elements of a Decision
Decision Making under Conditions of Uncertainty
Payoff Table
Expected Payoff
What Is Statistics?
1

BARNES & NOBLE recently began LEARNING OBJECTIVES

selling an electronic book reader When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to:

called the Nook Color. With this de- LO1-1 Explain why knowledge of statistics is important.
vice, you can download from a selec- LO1-2 Define statistics and provide an example of how
statistics is applied.
tion of over two million e-books,
LO1-3 Differentiate between descriptive and inferential
newspapers, and magazines. It dis-
statistics.
plays downloaded materials in full
LO1-4 Classify variables as qualitative or quantitative, and
color. Assume you know the number discrete or continuous.
of Nook Color units sold each day for LO1-5 Distinguish between nominal, ordinal, interval, and
the last month at the Barnes & Noble ratio levels of measurement.
store at the Market Commons Mall in LO1-6 List the values associated with the practice of statistics.
Riverside, California. Describe a con-
dition in which this information could
be considered a sample. Illustrate a
second situation in which the same
data would be regarded as a popula-
tion. (See Exercise 11 and LO1-3.)
2 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Suppose you work for a large company and your supervisor asks you to decide if a
new version of a smartphone should be produced and sold. You start by thinking about
the product’s innovations and new features. Then, you stop and realize the weight of
the decision. The product will need to make a profit so the pricing and the costs of
production and distribution are all very important. The decision to introduce the
product is based on many alternatives. So how will you know? Where do you start?
Without a long experience in the industry, beginning to develop an intelligence that
will make you an expert is essential. You select three other people to work with and meet
with them. The conversation focuses on what you need to know and what information
and data you need. In your meeting, many questions are asked. How many competitors
are already in the market? How are smartphones priced? What design features do com-
petitors’ products have? What features does the market require? What do customers
want in a smartphone? What do customers like about the existing products? The an-
swers will be based on business intelligence consisting of data and information collected
through customer surveys, engineering analysis, and market research. In the end, your
presentation to support your decision regarding the introduction of a new smartphone is
based on the statistics that you use to summarize and organize your data, the statistics
that you use to compare the new product to existing products, and the statistics to esti-
mate future sales, costs, and revenues. The statistics will be the focus of the conversa-
tion that you will have with your supervisor about this very important decision.
As a decision maker, you will need to acquire and analyze data to support your
decisions. The purpose of this text is to develop your knowledge of basic statistical
techniques and methods and how to apply them to develop the business and per-
sonal intelligence that will help you make decisions.

LO1-1 WHY STUDY STATISTICS?

Explain why knowledge
of statistics is important.
If you look through your university catalogue, you will find that statistics is required for
many college programs. As you investigate a future career in accounting, economics,
human resources, finance, or other business area, you will also discover
that statistics is required as part of these college programs. So why is an
education in statistics a requirement in so many disciplines?
A major driver of the requirement for statistics knowledge is the tech-
nologies available for capturing data. Examples include the technology
that Google uses to track how Internet users access websites. As people
use Google to search the Internet, Google records every search and then
uses these data to sort and prioritize the results for future Internet
searches. One recent estimate indicates that Google processes 20,000
terabytes of information per day. Big-box retailers like Target, Walmart,
Kroger, and others scan every purchase and use the data to manage the
distribution of products, to make decisions about marketing and sales,
and to track daily and even hourly sales. Police departments collect and
use data to provide city residents with maps that communicate informa-
tion about crimes committed and their location. Every organization is col-
lecting and using data to develop knowledge and intelligence that will
help people make informed decisions, and to track the implementation of
their decisions. The graphic to the left shows the amount of data gener-
ated every minute (www.domo.com). A good working knowledge of sta-
tistics is useful for summarizing and organizing data to provide information
that is useful and supportive of decision making. Statistics is used to
make valid comparisons and to predict the outcomes of decisions.
In summary, there are at least three reasons for studying statistics:
(1) data are collected everywhere and require statistical knowledge to

LO1-2
Define statistics and
provide an example of
how statistics is applied.
STATISTICS IN ACTION
We call your attention to a
feature of our textbook—
Statistics in Action. Read
each one carefully to get
an appreciation of the wide
application of statistics in
management, economics,
nursing, law enforcement,
sports, and other disciplines.
• In 2013, Forbes pub-
lished a list of the richest
Americans. William
Gates, founder of Micro-
soft Corporation, is the
richest. His net worth is
estimated at $66.0 bil-
lion. (www.forbes.com)
• In 2013, the four largest
privately owned
American companies,
ranked by revenue, were
Cargill, Koch Industries,
Mars, and Bechtel.
(www.forbes.com)
• In the United States, a
typical high school
graduate earns $652 per
week, a typical college
graduate with a
bachelor’s degree earns
$1,066 per week, and a
typical college graduate
with a master’s degree
earns $1,300 per week.
(www.bls.gov/emp/
ep_chart_001.htm)
WHAT IS STATISTICS? 3
make the information useful, (2) statistical techniques are used to make professional
and personal decisions, and (3) no matter what your career, you will need a knowl-
edge of statistics to understand the world and to be conversant in your career. An
understanding of statistics and statistical method will help you make more effective
personal and professional decisions.
WHAT IS MEANT BY STATISTICS?
This question can be rephrased in two, subtly different ways: what are statistics and
what is statistics? To answer the first question, a statistic is a number used to com-
municate a piece of information. Examples of statistics are:
• The inflation rate is 2%.
• Your grade point average is 3.5.
• The price of a new Tesla premium electric sedan is $85,400.
Each of these statistics is a numerical fact and communicates a very limited piece of in-
formation that is not very useful by itself. However, if we recognize that each of these
statistics is part of a larger discussion, then the question “what is statistics” is applicable.
Statistics is the set of knowledge and skills used to organize, summarize, and analyze
data. The results of statistical analysis will start interesting conversations in the search for
knowledge and intelligence that will help us make decisions. For example:
• The inflation rate for the calendar year was 2%. By applying statistics we could
compare this year’s inflation rate to the past observations of inflation. Is it higher,
lower, or about the same? Is there a trend of increasing or decreasing inflation? Is
there a relationship between interest rates and government bonds?
• Your grade point average (GPA) is 3.5. By collecting data and applying statistics,
you can determine the required GPA to be admitted to the Master of Business
Administration program at the University of Chicago, Harvard, or the University of
Michigan. You can determine the likelihood that you would be admitted to a par-
ticular program. You may be interested in interviewing for a management position
with Procter & Gamble. What GPA does Procter & Gamble require for college
graduates with a bachelor’s degree? Is there a range of acceptable GPAs?
• You are budgeting for a new car. You would like to own an electric car with a small
carbon footprint. The price for the Tesla premium electric sedan is $85,400. By
collecting additional data and applying statistics, you can analyze the alterna-
tives. For example, another choice is a hybrid car that runs on both gas and elec-
tricity such as a Toyota Prius. It can be purchased for about $27,000. Another
hybrid, the Chevrolet Volt, costs about $32,000. What are the differences in the
cars’ specifications? What additional information can be collected and summa-
rized so that you can make a good purchase decision?
Another example of using statistics to provide information to evaluate decisions is
the distribution and market share of Frito-Lay products. Data are collected on each of the
Frito-Lay product lines. These data include the market share and the pounds of product
sold. Statistics is used to present this information in a bar chart in Chart 1–1. It clearly
shows Frito-Lay’s dominance in the potato, corn, and tortilla chip markets. It also shows
the absolute measure of pounds of each product line consumed in the United States.
These examples show that statistics is more than the presentation of numerical
information. Statistics is about collecting and processing information to create a con-
versation, to stimulate additional questions, and to provide a basis for making deci-
sions. Specifically, we define statistics as:
STATISTICS The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to assist in making more effective decisions.
4 CHAPTER 1

Potato Chips 64%

Tortilla Chips 75%

Pretzels 26%

Extruded Snacks 56% Frito-Lay

Rest of Industry
Corn Chips 82%

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Millions of Pounds
CHART 1–1 Frito-Lay Volume and Share of Major Snack Chip Categories in U.S. Supermarkets

In this book, you will learn the basic techniques and applications of statistics that
you can use to support your decisions, both personal and professional. To start, we
will differentiate between descriptive and inferential statistics.

LO1-3 TYPES OF STATISTICS

Differentiate between
descriptive and
When we use statistics to generate information for decision making from data, we use
inferential statistics.
either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. Their application depends on the
questions asked and the type of data available.

Descriptive Statistics
Masses of unorganized data—such as the census of population, the weekly earnings
of thousands of computer programmers, and the individual responses of 2,000 regis-
tered voters regarding their choice for president of the United States—are of little
value as is. However, descriptive statistics can be used to organize data into a mean-
ingful form. We define descriptive statistics as:

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting

data in an informative way.

The following are examples that apply descriptive statistics to summarize a large
amount of data and provide information that is easy to understand.
• There are a total of 46,837 miles of interstate highways in the United States. The
interstate system represents only 1% of the nation’s total roads but carries more
than 20% of the traffic. The longest is I-90, which stretches from Boston to Se-
attle, a distance of 3,099 miles. The shortest is I-878 in New York City, which is
0.70 mile in length. Alaska does not have any interstate highways, Texas has the
most interstate miles at 3,232, and New York has the most interstate routes with 28.
• The average person spent $103.00 on traditional Valentine’s Day merchandise in
2013. This is an increase of $0.50 from 2012. As in previous years, men spent
nearly twice the amount women spent on the holiday. The average man spent
$135.35 to impress the people in his life while women only spent $72.28. Family
pets also feel the love; the average person spent $3.27 on his or her furry friends,
up from $2.17 last year.
Statistical methods and techniques to generate descriptive statistics are pre-
sented in Chapters 2 and 4. These include organizing and summarizing data with
frequency distributions and presenting frequency distributions with charts and graphs.
Another random document with
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN