4-Chapter Four - Sem1 Session 2023 - 2024

NMK 41003-Satellite Technology
CHAPTER FOUR
RADIO FREQUENCY LINK

AND
SATELLITE SYSTEM PLANNING
• The radio frequency (RF) or free space segment of the satellite

communications link is a critical element, which impacts the
design and performance of communications over the satellite.
• The basic parameters of the basic communications link are:
▪ Transmitted power, 𝑝𝑡 in watts.
▪ Received power, 𝑝𝑟 in watts.
▪ Transmit antenna gain, 𝑔𝑡 .
▪ Receive antenna gain, 𝑔𝑟 .
▪ Path distance, 𝑟 in meters.
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• An electromagnetic wave referred to as a radiowave at radio

frequencies nominally defined in the range of from 100 MHz to
100 GHz.
• The radiowave is characterized by variations of its electric and
magnetic fields.
• The frequency and wavelength in free space are related by:
𝑐
𝜆 = 𝑓 ; 𝑐 (phase velocity of light in a vacuum) = 3 × 108 m/s;
𝜆 is the free space wavelength

• The free space wavelength for the frequency in GHz can be

expressed as:
30 0.3
𝜆 cm = 𝑓(GHz) or 𝜆 m = 𝑓(GHz)
• Consider a radiowave propagating in free space from a point
source, 𝑃 of power, 𝑝𝑡 watts.
• The wave is isotropic in space that is spherically radiating from
the point source, 𝑃.
• The power flux density (pfd) or power density over the surface, 𝐴
of the sphere radius, 𝑟𝑎 from the point, 𝑃 is given by:
𝑝𝑡 W
𝑝𝑓𝑑 A = 2
,
4𝜋𝑟𝑎 m2

• Similarly, at the surface, 𝐵 the density over the sphere of radius,

𝑟𝑏 is given by:
𝑝𝑡 W
𝑝𝑓𝑑 B = 2
,
4𝜋𝑟𝑏 m2
• The ratio of power densities is given by:
𝑝𝑓𝑑 A 𝑟𝑏 2
= where 𝑝𝑓𝑑 B < 𝑝𝑓𝑑 A
𝑝𝑓𝑑 B 𝑟𝑎 2
• This relationship demonstrates the well-known inverse square law
of radiation: The power density of radiowave propagating from a
source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the source.


• An important parameter in the evaluation of the RF link is the effective

isotropic radiated power 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 defined as:
𝑒𝑖𝑟𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡 or in dB,
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡
• The power flux density 𝑃𝐹𝐷 expressed in dB will be:
𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡
𝑃𝐹𝐷 𝑡 = 10 log10
4𝜋𝑟 2
= 10 log10 𝑝𝑡 +10 log10 𝑔𝑡 −20 log10 𝑟 − 10 log10 4𝜋
With 𝑟 in meters,
𝑃𝐹𝐷 𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 − 20 log10 𝑟 −10.99 or
𝑃𝐹𝐷 𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 − 20 log10 𝑟 −10.99
Where 𝑃𝑡 , 𝐺𝑡 , and 𝐸𝐼𝑅P are the transmit power, transmit antenna gain,
effective radiated power, all expressed in dB.
• The pfd is an important parameter in the evaluation of power
requirements and interference levels for satellite communication links.
• Isotropic power radiation is usually not effective for satellite

communication links, since the power density levels will be low for
most applications.
• Some directivity or gain is desirable for both transmit and receive
antennas.
• The gain of the ideal lossless antenna with a physical aperture area, 𝐴
defined as:
4𝜋𝐴
𝑔ideal ≡ 2
𝜆
• Physical antennas are not ideal where some energy is reflected away by
the structure, some energy is absorbed by lossy components (e.g. feeds,
struts, subreflectors), hence, the effective aperture, 𝐴𝑒 is defined in
terms of an aperture efficiency, 𝜂𝐴 , such that:
𝐴𝑒 = 𝜂𝐴 𝐴

• Then, defining the “real” or physical antenna gain as:
4𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝑔real ≡ 𝑔 = 2
𝜆
Or,
4𝜋𝐴
𝑔 = 𝜂𝐴 2
𝜆
• Antenna gain in dB for satellite applications is usually expressed as the dB

value above the gain of an isotropic radiator, written as “dBi”, therefore:
4𝜋𝐴
𝐺 = 10 log10 𝜂𝐴 2 dBi
𝜆
• Note also, the effective aperture can be expressed as:
𝑔𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 =
4𝜋
• The aperture efficiency for a circular parabolic antenna typically about 0.55
(55%) whereas values of 0.77 (70%) or higher are available for high
performance antenna systems.
• Antenna: Revisited.
• The common types of antennas used in satellite systems are the linear
dipole, horn antenna, parabolic reflector and array antenna.
• The linear dipole antenna is an isotropic radiator, which radiates
uniformly in all directions.
• Dipole antennas are used primarily at VHF and UHF for tracking,
telemetry, command links, and for satellites that operate without attitude
control or body stabilization for LEO systems.
• Horn antennas are used at frequencies from about 4 GHz and up, when
relatively wide beams are required, such as global coverage from a GSO
satellite.
• A horn is a flared section of waveguide, which provides gains of up to
about 20 dBi with beamwidths of 10° or higher.
• Parabolic reflector antenna is the most often used antenna for satellite
systems operating above 10 GHz.
• Parabolic reflector antennas are usually illuminated by one or more horn

antenna feeds at the focus of the paroboloid.
• Parabolic reflectors offer a much higher gain than that achievable by the
horn antenna alone.
• Gains of 25 dB and higher, with beamwidths of 1° or less are achievable
with parabolic reflector antennas operating in the C, Ku, or Ka-bands.
• Narrow beam antennas usually require physical pointing mechanisms to
point the beam in the desired direction.
• There is an increasing interest in the use of array antennas for satellite
communications applications.
• A steerable focused beam can be formed by combining the radiation
from several small elements made up of dipoles, helices, or horns.
• Beamforming can be achieved by electronically phase shifting the signal
at each element.

• Proper selection of the phase characteristics between the elements

allows the direction and the beamwidth to be controlled without physical
movement of the antenna system as operated in phased-array antennas.
• The array antenna gain increases with the square of the number of
elements.
• Gains and beamwidths comparable to those available from parabolic
reflector antennas can be achieved with array antennas.
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/satellite-
communication-system
• http://propagation.ece.gatech.edu/ECE6390/project/Fall2012/Team08/sa
tcom/w-band-transponder-experiment/transponder-design/index.html
• http://www.antesky.com/principledesign-of-parabolic-antenna-prime-
focus-antenna/

CubeSat Dipole Antenna System S-Band and C-Band Horn Antenna
Satellite Parabolic Antenna Ku-Band Phased-Array Antenna

• The circular parabolic reflector is the most common type of antenna

used for satellite earth station and spacecraft antennas.
• It is easy to construct, has good gain and beamwidth characteristics
for a large range of applications.
• The physical area of the aperture of a circular parabolic reflector is:
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴= 4
where 𝑑 is the physical diameter of the antenna.

• Thus, the antenna gain is:

4𝜋𝐴 4𝜋 𝜋𝑑 2
𝑔 = 𝜂𝐴 = 𝜂𝐴
𝜆2 𝜆2 4
Or,
2
𝜋𝑑
𝑔 = 𝜂𝐴
𝜆
𝜋𝑑 2
• Expressed in dB form, 𝐺 = 10 log10 𝜂𝐴 𝜆
dBi
• For the antenna diameter, 𝑑 given in meters, frequency 𝑓 in GHz:
𝑔 = 𝜂𝐴 10.472𝑓𝑑 2 = 109.66𝑓 2 𝑑2 𝜂𝐴
Or, in dBi
𝐺 = 10 log10 109.66𝑓 2 𝑑 2 𝜂𝐴
• Table in the next slide present antenna gains for various diameters
and frequencies assuming antenna efficiency of 0.55 for all cases.


• Beamwidth: The boresight direction refers to the direction of

maximum gain, for which the value 𝑔 is determined.
• Beamwidth: The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) or 3-dB beamwidth
is the contained angle 𝜃 for which the gain has dropped to half of the
boresight value, that is the power is 3 dB down from the boresight
gain value.
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_radia
tion_pattern.htm

• Example 4.1: A satellite downlink at 12 GHz operates with a 𝑝𝑡 of

6 W and an antenna, 𝑑 of 3 m, and efficiency 𝜂𝐴 of 0.55. Calculate
EIRP.

• Example 4.1 Solution:

𝑔 = 𝜂𝐴 10.472𝑓𝑑 2 = 109.66𝑓 2 𝑑2 𝜂𝐴
= 109.66 × 122 × 32 × 0.55 = 78,165.648
𝐺 = 10 log10 𝑔 = 10 log10 78,165.648 = 48.93 dBi
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 10 log10 𝑝𝑡 + 𝐺 = 10 log10 6 + 48.93 = 56.71 dBW

• Beamwidth: The antenna pattern shows the gain as a function of the

distance from the boresight direction.
• Beamwidth: Most antennas have sidelobes or regions where the gain
may increase due to physical structure elements or the characteristics of
the antenna design.
• Beamwidth: Sidelobes possibly is a source for noise and interference,
particularly for satellite ground antennas located near to other antennas
or sources of power in the same frequency band as the satellite link.
• Beamwidth: A parabolic reflector antenna beamwidth is approximately
defined as:
𝜆 22.5
𝜃 ≅ 75 =
𝑑 𝑑𝑓
Where 𝜃 is the HPBW in degress, 𝑑 is the antenna diameter in meters, and
𝑓 is the frequency in GHz.

• Beamwidth: Based on enlisted Table below, the antenna beamwidth for

satellite links tend to be very small in most cases less than 1 degree
requiring careful antenna pointing and control to maintain the link.

• Free-space path loss: Based on Figure below, the power 𝑝𝑟 intercepted

by the receiving antenna is:
𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡
𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝𝑓𝑑 𝑟 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 , watts
2 𝑒
4𝜋𝑟
𝑔𝑟 𝜆2
• Replacing 𝐴𝑒 = 4𝜋 , the power 𝑝𝑟 becomes:
𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡 𝑔𝑟 𝜆2
𝑝𝑟 = 2
, watts
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋

𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡
• Free-space path loss: is power flux density (pfd) in WΤm2 whereas
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑔𝑟 𝜆2
4𝜋
is spreading loss in m2.
• Free-space path loss: The term spreading loss, 𝑠 is a function of
wavelength or frequency can be found as:
𝜆2 0.00716
𝑠= =
4𝜋 𝑓2
𝑆 dB = −20 log10 𝑓 − 21.45
Where the frequency is specified in GHz.
• Free-space path loss: 𝑆 is -44.37 dB at 14 GHz, -47.47 dB at 20 GHz,
and -50.99 dB at 30 GHz.
• Free-space loss: The receiver power, 𝑝𝑟 equation can be rearranged as
below:
2
𝜆
𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡 𝑔𝑟
4𝜋𝑟
𝜆 2
Where the term accounts for the inverse square loss.
4𝜋𝑟
• Free-space path loss: The term is usually used in its reciprocal form as
the free-space path loss, ℓFS that is:
2
4𝜋𝑟
ℓFS =
𝜆
Or, expressed in dB:
4𝜋𝑟
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 .
𝜆
• Free-space path loss: The term is inverted for “engineering
convenience” to maintain 𝐿FS dB as a positive quantity such that ℓFS >
1.
• Free-space path loss: The 𝐿FS dB or ℓFS is present for all radiowaves
propagating in free space or in regions whose characteristics
approximate the uniformity of free-space, such the earth’s atmosphere.
• Free-space path loss: The term ℓFS can be re-expressed in terms of

frequency as:
2 2
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟𝑓
ℓFS = =
𝜆 𝑐
• Free-space path loss: For the range 𝑟 in meters, and 𝑓 in GHz:
2 2
4𝜋𝑟 𝑓 × 109 40𝜋
ℓFS = = 𝑟𝑓
3 × 108 3
40𝜋
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 𝑓 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 20 log10
3
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 𝑓 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 32.44
• Free-space path loss: For the range 𝑟 in km, and 𝑓 in GHz:
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 𝑓 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 92.44

• Free-space path loss: Table enlists some path loss for a range of satellite
link frequencies and representative GSO and non GSO orbit ranges.
• Free-space path loss: Values are near 200 dB for GSO and 150 dB for
non GSO orbits are to be expected and must be accounted for any link
design. Why?

• Received power: The receiver power, 𝑝𝑟 is given as:

1 1
𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑡 𝑔 = 𝑒𝑖𝑟𝑝 𝑔
ℓFS 𝑟 ℓFS 𝑟
Or, in expressed in dB
𝑃𝑟 dB = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿FS
• Received power: This result gives the basic link equation referred to as
the Link Power Budget Equation for satellite communications link then
becomes as the “design equation” from which satellite design and
performance evaluations proceed from.

• Example 4.2: Find free-space path loss, 𝐿𝐹𝑆 for an uplink

operating at 6 GHz with a distance 𝑟 = 42,000 km. If the earth
station EIRP is 120 dBW, what will be the receiver power, 𝑃𝑟 in
dBm by assuming that receiver has no gain?

• Example 4.2 Solution: Free-space path loss: For the range 𝑟 in

km, and 𝑓 in GHz:
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 𝑓 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 92.44
𝐿FS dB = 20 log10 6 + 20 log10 42,000 + 92.44 = 200.47 dB
• The received power, 𝑃𝑟 in dBm
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿FS
𝑃𝑟 dBW = 120 + 0 − 200.47 = −80.47 dBW
𝑝𝑟 = 10−80.47Τ10 = 8.9743 × 10−9 W
𝑝𝑟
𝑃𝑟 dBm = 10 log10 1 mW = 10 log10 (8.9743 ×
10−6 ) = −50.47 dBm

• Example 4.3: Sample calculation for Ku-band uplink. Based on Figure

below, given the transmit power is 10 W, and both the transmit and
receive parabolic antennas have a diameter of 3 m. The antenna
efficiency is 55% for both antennas. The satellite is in a GSO location
with a range of 35,900 km. The frequency of operation is 12 GHz.
These are typical parameters for a moderate rate private network
very-small-aperture terminal (VSAT) uplink terminal. Determine the
received power and power flux density for the link.

• Solution Example 4.3: First the antenna gains are determined:

𝐺 = 10 log10 109.66𝑓 2 𝑑2 𝜂𝐴
𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = 10 log10 109.66 × 122 × 32 × 0.55 = 48.93 dBi
• The effective isotropic radiated power, in dBW is:
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 = 10 log10 10 + 48.93 = 58.93 dBW
• The free-space path loss is:
𝐿FS = 20 log10 𝑓 + 20 log10 𝑟 + 32.44
= 20 log10 12 + 20 log10 3.59 × 107 + 32.44
= 21.58 + 151.08 + 32.44 = 205.1 dB
• The received power, in dB is then found in the link power budget
equation:
𝑃𝑟 dB = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿FS = 58.93 + 48.93 − 205.1 = −97.24 dBW
• The received power in watts is:
−97.24
𝑝𝑟 = 10 10 = 1.89 × 10−10 W
• The power flux density in dB is determined as:

𝑃𝐹𝐷 𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 − 20 log10 𝑟 − 10.99
= 58.93 − 20 log10 3.59 × 107 − 10.99 = −103.14 dB WΤm2
• Note that the received power is very low and this is an important
consideration in designing links for adequate performance when noise is
introduced in the link later on.

• System noise: Undesired power or signals (noise) can be introduced into

the satellite link at all locations along the signal path from the
transmitter through final signal detection and demodulation.
• Sources of noise: Each amplifier in the receiver system will produce
noise power in the information bandwidth, and must be accounted for in
a link performance calculation.
• Sources of noise: Other sources include mixers, upconverters,
downconverters, switches, combiners, and multiplexers.
• The system noise produced by these hardware elements is additive to the
noise produced in the radiowave transmission path by atmospheric
conditions.
• Noise that is introduced into the communication system at the receiver
front end is the most significant, however, since that is where the desired
signal level is the lowest.

• The shaded portions in the Figure below indicate the receiver front end
area in the satellite link.
• The four sources of noise in the front end area are:
1. The receiver front end.
2. The receiver antenna.
3. The connecting elements between them..
4. Noise entering from the free-space path often referred to as radio
noise.

• The receiver antenna, receiver front-end, and the connecting elements

between them (consisting both active and passive components) are the
sub-systems that must be designed to minimize the effects of noise on
the performance of the satellite link.
• Both the ground terminal antenna/receiver (downlink) and the satellite
antenna/receiver (uplink) are possible sources of noise degradation.
• The major contributor of noise at radio frequencies is thermal noise
caused by the thermal motion of electrons in the devices of the receiver
(both the active and passive devices).
• The noise introduced by each device in the system is quantified by the
introduction of an equivalent noise temperature, 𝑡𝑒 .
• The equivalent or excess noise temperature, 𝑡𝑒 is defined as the
temperature of a passive resistor producing a noise power per unit
bandwidth that is equal to that produced by the device.

• Typical 𝑡𝑒 for receiver front end elements in satellite communications

systems are:
o Low noise receiver (C, Ku, and Ka bands): 100 to 500 Kelvin (K).
o 1-dB transmission line loss: 60 K.
o 3-dB transmission line loss: 133 K.
o Cooled parametric amplifier (paramp), used in the NASA Deep
Space Network: 15 to 30 K.
• Note that °𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15.
• The noise power, 𝑛𝑁 is defined by the Nyquist formula as:
𝑛𝑁 = 𝑘 × 𝑡𝑒 × 𝑏𝑁
dBm
Joules 198
Where 𝑘 = Boltzmann′ s constant = 1.39 × 10−23 K =− K
=
Hz
dBm
228.6
K
− Hz ; 𝑡𝑒 = equivalent noise temperature in K; 𝑏𝑁 =
noise bandwidth in Hz.
• The 𝑏𝑁 is the RF bandwidth of the information bearing signal usually it

is filtered in the final detector/demodulator of the link.
• The 𝑏𝑁 must be considered for both analog and digital based signals.
• The Nyquist result shows that 𝑛𝑁 is independent of frequency that is the
noise power is uniformly distributed across the bandwidth.
• For higher frequencies, above the radio communications spectrum,
quantum noise rather than thermal noise will dominate and the quantum
formula for noise power must be used.
• The transition frequency between thermal and quantum noise occurs
when:
𝑓 ≈ 21𝑡𝑒
Where 𝑓 is in GHz and 𝑡𝑒 is in K.
• Thermal noise dominates below this frequency, quantum noise above.

• Table below enlists the transition frequency for the range of effective
noise temperatures experienced in satellite radio communications
systems.
• Except for very low noise system, where 𝑡𝑒 is less than about 5 K,
thermal noise will dominate radio communications systems and the
satellite links we are concerned with here.

• Since thermal noise is independent of frequency of operation, it is often

useful to express the noise power as a noise power density or noise
power spectral density, 𝑛0 of the form:
𝑛𝑁 𝑘𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑁
𝑛0 = = = 𝑘𝑡𝑒 WΤHz
𝑏𝑁 𝑏𝑁
• The noise power density is usually the parameter of choice in the
evaluation of system noise power in satellite link communications
systems.
• Another convenient way of quantifying the noise produced by an
amplifier or other device in the communications signal path is the noise
figure, 𝑛𝑓.
• The nf is defined by considering the ratio of the desired signal power to
noise power ratio at the input of the device to the signal power to noise
power ratio at the output of the device.

• Consider a device with a gain, 𝑔 and equivalent effective noise

temperature, 𝑡𝑒 as shown in Figure below, the 𝑛𝑓 of the device is
defined in terms of the device parameters as:
𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑡0 𝑏
𝑛𝑓 ≡ 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑔𝑝𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑘 𝑡0 +𝑡𝑒 𝑏
Where 𝑡0 is the input reference temperature usually set at 290 K, and 𝑏 is
the noise bandwidth.

• Simplifying the terms:

𝑡0 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒
𝑛𝑓 = = 1+
𝑡0 𝑡0
• The noise figure expressed in dB is:
𝑡𝑒
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log10 1 + dB
𝑡0
𝑡
• The 1 + 𝑡𝑒 is sometimes referred as the noise factor when expressed
0
as a numerical value.
• The noise out, 𝑛out of the device in terms of the noise figure is:
𝑡
𝑛out = 𝑔𝑘 𝑡0 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 1 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑔𝑛in
0
• Note also that:
𝑡𝑒
𝑛out = 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 + 𝑔𝑘𝑡𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑔𝑘 𝑡0 𝑏
𝑡0
• Hence,
𝑛out = 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 + 𝑛𝑓 − 1 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏
Where 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 represents input noise contribution and 𝑛𝑓 − 1 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏
signifies the device noise contribution, respectively.
• This shows that the noise figure quantifies the noise introduced into the
signal path by the device, which is directly added to the noise already
present at the device input.
• Finally the effective noise temperature can be expressed in terms of the
𝑡0 +𝑡𝑒 𝑡
noise figure by inverting 𝑛𝑓 = = 1 + 𝑡𝑒 becomes:
𝑡0 0
𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡0 𝑛𝑓 − 1
• Or, with the noise figure expressed in dB:
𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡0 10𝑁𝐹Τ10 − 1
• The result provides the equivalent noise temperature for a device with a
noise figure of 𝑁𝐹 dB.
• Table below enlists noise figure and the equivalent effective noise
temperature for the range of values expected in a satellite
communications link.
• A typical low noise amplifier at C-band would have a noise figures
between 1 and 2 dB, Ku-band between 1.5 and 3 dB, and Ka-band
between 3 and 5 dB, respectively.

• Noise figures of 10 to 20 dB are not unusual to find in a

communications link, particularly in the high power portion of the
circuit.
• However, it is usually essential to keep the components in the receiver
front end area to noise figures in the low single digits to maintain viable
link performance.
• Next, procedures to determine the equivalent noise tempersture for three
types of devices or communications circuit components, which are
active devices, passive devices, and receiver antenna system will be
discussed.
• Active devices include amplifiers and other components that increase
the signal level where an output power is greater than the input power
𝑔 > 1, 𝐺 > 0 dB .
• https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/radio-frequency-analysis-
design/rf-principles-components/active-components-in-rf-circuits/
• Examples of other active devices are upconverters, downconverters,

mixers, active filters, modulators, demodulators, and some forms of
active combiners and multiplexers.
• Amplifiers and other active devices can represented by an equivalent
noise circuit to best determine the noise contributions to the link.
• Figure below shows the equivalent noise circuit for an active device
with a gain, 𝑔 and noise figure, 𝑁𝐹 in dB.

• Besides gain, the ideal amplifier also has an additive noise source, 𝑡𝑒IN
at its input through an ideal (noiseless) summer represented as below:
𝑡𝑒IN = 290 𝑛𝑓 − 1
• This is based on device noise contribution parameter with gain, 𝑔 can be
presented as 𝑡0 𝑛𝑓 − 1 , in the equation 𝑛out = 𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 + ൫ 𝑛𝑓 −
1൯𝑔𝑘𝑡0 𝑏 where 𝑡0 is the input reference temperature set to at 290 K.
𝑡0 +𝑡𝑒
• By expressing the noise figure based on the equation 𝑛𝑓 = 𝑡0
=
𝑡
1 + 𝑡𝑒 , the equivalent noise circuit additive noise source for the active
0
device is not surprisingly equal to the device equivalent noise
temperature:
𝑡𝑒
𝑡𝑒IN = 290 1 + − 1 = 𝑡𝑒
290

• The noise source in terms of the 𝑁𝐹 the active device in dB is then:
𝑡𝑒IN = 290 10𝑁𝐹 Τ10 − 1
• The equivalent noise circuit along with the input noise contribution of the
𝑡𝑒
equations, 𝑡𝑒IN = 290 1+ − 1 = 𝑡𝑒 or 𝑡𝑒IN =
290
290 10𝑁𝐹 Τ10 − 1 can be used to represent each active device in
communications path for the purpose of determining the noise contributions to
the system.
• Waveguides, cable runs, diplexers, filters switches are examples of passive or
absorptive devices, which reduce the level of the power passing through the
device i.e. 𝑔 < 1, 𝐺 < 0 dB.
• https://www.slideshare.net/peichechang/diplexer-duplexer
• https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/news/high-frequency-upconversion-and-
downconversion-a-new-rf-mixer-from-linear-t/
• A passive device is defined by the loss factor, ℓ as represented below:
𝑃𝑖𝑛
ℓ=
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP) 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• The loss of the device in dB is:

𝐴 dB = 10 log10 ℓ
• Figure below shows the equivalent noise circuit for a passive device
with a loss of 𝐴 dB .
1
• The equivalent circuit consists of an ideal amplifier of gain, ℓ and an
additive noise source, 𝑡𝑒IN at the input to the ideal amplifier through an
ideal (noiseless) summer.

• The input noise contribution of the passive device will be:

𝑡𝑒IN = 290 ℓ − 1 = 290 10𝐴(dB)Τ10 − 1
• The “gain” of the ideal amplifier in terms of the loss is:
1 1
= 𝐴(dB)Τ10 = 10−𝐴(dB)Τ10
ℓ 10
• The equivalent noise circuit along with input noise contribution given
by the equation, 𝑡𝑒IN = 290 ℓ − 1 = 290 10𝐴(dB)Τ10 − 1 and
1 1
“ideal” gain given by, = = 10−𝐴(dB)Τ10 can be used to
ℓ 10𝐴(dB)Τ10
represent each passive device with a loss of 𝐴 dB in the
communications path for the purpose of determining the noise
contribution to the system.
• https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/radio-frequency-analysis-
design/rf-principles-components/passive-components-in-rf-circuits/
• Noise can be introduced into the system at the receiver antenna in two
possible ways:
1. From the physical antenna structure itself in the form of antenna
losses.
2. From the radio path usually referred to as radio noise or sky noise.
• Antenna losses are absorptive losses produced by the physical structure
(main reflector, subreflector, struts, etc.), which effectively reduce the
power level of the radiowave.
• The equivalent antenna noise temperature for antenna losses is in the
range of 10s of degrees K (0.5 to 1 dB loss).

• Radio noise can be introduced into the transmission path from both
natural and human induced sources.
• The primary natural components in radio noise on a satellite link are:
o Galactic noise: ~ 2.4 K for frequencies > 1 GHz.
o Atmospheric constituents: These include oxygen, water vapor,
clouds, and rain (most severe impact satellite communications link
for frequencies > 10 GHz).
o Extraterrestrial sources: These include the moon, sun, and planet.
• Figure in the next slide shows reprentative values for the increase in
antenna temperature due to atmospheric constitutent (no rain vs. rain)
for both the downlink and uplink paths, respectively.
• Human sources of radio noise consist of interference noise in the same
information bandwidth induced from both satellite and terrestrial
communications links, machinery, and other electronic devices in the
vicinity of the ground terminal.

• Often interference noise will enter the system via the sidelobes or
backlobes of the ground receiver antenna.
• For most applications, measurements and simulations are used to
estimate interference noise.
• The noise contributions of each device in the communications
transmission path including sky noise will combine to produce a total
system noise temperature, which can be used to evaluate the overall
performance of the link.
• Figure (a) in the next slide shows a typical satellite receiver system
where the receiver front end consists of an antenna with a noise
temperature of 𝑡A , a LNA with a gain of 𝑔LA and noise temperature
of 𝑡LA , a cable with a line loss of 𝐴 dB connecting the LNA to a
downconverter (mixer) with a gain of 𝑔DC and noise temperature of
𝑡DC , and an intermediate frequency amplifier with a gain of 𝑔IF and
noise temperature of 𝑡IF.

• Figure (b) in the previous slide shows each device by its equivalent
noise circuit either active or passive.
• Note that, all devices are active except for the cable line loss.
• All noise temperature contributions will be summed at the Reference
Point as shown in the Figure.
• The total system noise:
290 ℓ−1 𝑡DC 𝑡IF
𝑡S = 𝑡A + 𝑡LA + 𝑔LA
+ 1 + 1
𝑔LA 𝑔DC 𝑔LA
ℓ ℓ
• The system noise figure can be obtained from 𝑡S :

𝑡S
𝑁𝐹S = 10 log10 1 +
290
• Figure in the next slide presents the satellite receiver noise system
with specific parameters for each device.
• The equivalent noise temperatures for each device:
𝑡𝑒IN = 290 10𝑁𝐹Τ10 − 1
𝑡LA = 290 104Τ10 − 1 = 438 K
𝑡DC = 290 1010Τ10 − 1 = 2,610 K
𝑡IF = 290 1020Τ10 − 1 = 28,710 K

• The equivalent noise temperatures for the line loss:
𝑡𝑒IN = 290 ℓ − 1
𝑡LA = 290 103Τ10 − 1 = 289 K
• The numerical values for each gains is:
𝑔LA = 1030Τ10 = 1,000
1 1 1
= 3Τ10 =
ℓ 10 2
𝑔DC = 1010Τ10 = 10
𝑔IF = 1040Τ10 = 10,000
• The total noise temperature, 𝑡S is then found as below:
290 ℓ − 1 𝑡DC 𝑡IF
𝑡S = 𝑡A + 𝑡LA + + + = 509.3 K
𝑔LA 1 1
𝑔 𝑔DC 𝑔
ℓ LA ℓ LA
• The 𝑡A and 𝑡LA are the major contributors.
• The system noise figure, 𝑁𝐹S can be determined from 𝑡S as below:

𝑡S 509.3
𝑁𝐹S = 10 log10 1 + = 10 log10 1 + = 4.40 dB
290 290
• Finally the noise power density can be determined:
𝑁0 = 𝐾 + 𝑇S = −228.6 + 10 log10 509.3 = −201.5 dBW Hz
𝑛0 = 10−201.5Τ10 = 7.03 × 10−21 W
• The quality or efficiency of the receiver portions of a satellite
communications link is often specified by figure of merit defined as:
𝐺
𝑀≡ = 𝐺r − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐺r − 10 log10 𝑡s
𝑇
Where 𝐺r is the receiver antenna gain in dBi and 𝑡s is the receiver
system noise temperature in K.

𝐺
• The is a single parameter measure of the performance of the
𝑇
receiver system and is analogous to 𝑒𝑖𝑟𝑝 as the single
parameter measure of performance for the transmitter portion
of the link.
𝐺
• values cover a wide range in operational satellite systems
𝑇
including negative dB values.

• Example 4.4: An antenna has a noise temperature of 35 K and

is matched into a receiver, which has a noise temperature of
100 K. Calculate the noise density and the noise power with a
bandwidth of 36 MHz.

• Example 4.4 Solution: The noise density:

𝑛𝑁 𝑘𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑁
𝑛0 = = = 𝑘𝑡𝑒 = 1.380649 × 10−23 × 35 + 100
𝑏𝑁 𝑏𝑁
= 1.86388 × 10−21 WΤHz
• The noise power:
𝑛N = 𝑛0 𝑏N = 𝑘𝑡𝑒 𝑏N = 1.86388 × 10−21 × 36 × 106
= 6.70995 × 10−14 w = 0.0670995 pW

• Example 4.5: Convert noise figure, 𝑁𝐹 of 4.0 dB and 4.1 dB to

equivalent temperature, 𝑡𝑒 with input reference temperature,
𝑡0 = 300 K.

• Example 4.5 Solution : Noise figure in dB is defined as:
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log10 𝑛𝑓
• Hence, noise factor, 𝑛𝑓 is found as:
𝑁𝐹 = 4.0 dB: 𝑛𝑓 = 10𝑁𝐹Τ10 = 104Τ10 = 100.4 = 2.51189
and
𝑁𝐹 = 4.1 dB: 𝑛𝑓 = 10𝑁𝐹Τ10 = 104.1Τ10 = 100.41 = 2.57040
• The noise factor in terms of equivalent and input reference
temperatures is defined as:
𝑡0 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒
𝑛𝑓 = = 1+
𝑡0 𝑡0

• Hence,
𝑁𝐹 = 4.0 dB: 𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡0 𝑛𝑓 − 1 = 300 2.51189 − 1
= 453.57 K
𝑁𝐹 = 4.1 dB: 𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡0 𝑛𝑓 − 1 = 300 2.57040 − 1
= 471.12 K
• Note that, a 0.1 dB difference in noise figure led to about
17 degrees of Kelvin difference in equivalent temperature.

• Example 4.6: Consider a representative 12 GHz link with a

1 m receiver antenna, 3 dB receiver noise figure, and an
antenna noise temperature of 30 K (assume no line loss and an
antenna efficiency of 55%). Find the gain, system noise
temperature, and figure of merit.

• Example 4.6 Solution : The gain and system noise

temperatures are found as:
𝐺r = 10 log10 109.66 × 12 2 × 1 2 × 0.55 = 39.4 dBi
𝑡S = 30 + 290 103Τ10 − 1 = 30 + 290 = 320 K
• The figure of merit is then determined as:
𝑀 = 𝐺r − 𝑇s = 39.4 − 10 log10 320 = 14.4 dB/K
𝐺
• Operational satellite links can have values of 20 dB/K and
𝑇
higher than and as low as -3 dB/K.
• The lower values are typically found in satellite receivers
(uplinks) with broadbeam antennas where the gain may be
lower than the system noise temperature, 𝑇𝑠 expressed in dB.

𝑐
• The carrier-to-noise ratio is the primary parameter of interest for
𝑛
defining the overall system performance in a communications
system.
• It can be defined at any point in the link, such as at the receiver
antenna terminals or at the input to the demodulator.
𝑐
• The 𝑛
can be expressed in terms of the eirp, G/T, and other link
parameters developed earlier.
• Based on Figure below, the free space path loss is defined as:
4𝜋𝑟 2
ℓFS = 𝜆

• Other losses defined as:
ℓo = ෍ Other Losses
Where losses could be from the free-space path itself, such as rain, and
atmospheric attenuations or from hardware elements, such as antenna feeds,
and line losses.
• The power at the antenna receiver is found as:
1
𝑝r = 𝑝t 𝑔t 𝑔r
ℓFS ℓo
• The noise power at the receiver antenna terminals is:
𝑛r = 𝑘𝑡S 𝑏N
• The carrier-to-noise ratio at the receiver terminals is then:
1
𝑐 𝑝r 𝑝 𝑔 𝑔
t t r ℓ ℓ
FS o
= =
𝑛 𝑛r 𝑘𝑡S 𝑏N
Or:
𝑐 eirp 𝑔r 1
=
𝑛 𝑘𝑏N 𝑡S ℓFS ℓo
Expessed in dB:
𝐶 𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + − 𝐿FS + ෍ Other Losses + 228.6 − 𝐵N
𝑁 𝑇
Where the EIRP is in dBW, the bandwidth 𝐵N is in dBHz, and
𝑘 = −228.6 dBWΤKΤHz .
• Other losses include receiver feeder, antenna misalignment,
atmospheric absorption, and polarization mismatch losses.
𝐶
• The larger the the better the satellite communications link will
𝑁
perform or operate.

𝐶
• Typical communications links require minimum 𝑁
values of 6 to
10 dB for acceptable performance.
• Some modern communications, which employ significant coding
can operate at much lower values.
𝐶
• Spread spectrum systems can operate with negative 𝑁 values and
still achieve acceptable performance.
• The carrier-to-noise density in terms of noise power density, 𝑛0 is:
𝑛N 𝑘𝑡s 𝑏N
𝑛0 ≡ = = 𝑘𝑡s
𝑏N 𝑏N
• The two ratios are related through the noise bandwidth:
𝑐 𝑐 Τ 𝑛0
=
𝑛 𝑏𝑁
Or,
𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑏N
𝑛0 𝑛
In dB,
𝐶 𝐶
𝑁
= 𝑁0
− 𝐵N (dB)
𝐶 𝐶
𝑁0
= 𝑁
+ 𝐵N (dBHz)
• The carrier-to-noise density behaves similarly to the carrier-to-noise
ratio in terms of performance.
• The bit energy is more useful than carrier power in describing the
link performance.
• The bit energy is related to the carrier power from:
𝑒b = 𝑐𝑇b
Where 𝑐 is the carrier power and 𝑇b is the bit duration in second.
• The energy-per-bit to noise density ratio is the most frequently

used parameter to describe digital communications link
performance defined as:
𝑒b 𝑐 1 𝑐
= 𝑇b =
𝑛0 𝑛0 𝑅b 𝑛0
Where 𝑅b is the bit rate in bit per second (bps).
• Note also that:
𝑒b 1 𝑐 1 𝑐
= = 𝑏N
𝑛0 𝑅b 𝑛0 𝑅b 𝑛
Or,
𝑒b 𝑏N 𝑐
=
𝑛0 𝑅b 𝑛
𝑒b 𝑐 𝑐
• The also behaves similarly to the and the in
𝑛0 𝑛 𝑛0
terms of system performance where the larger the value the
better the performance.
• All three parameters can usually be considered interchangebly
when evaluating satellite links with respect to their impact on
system performance.

• Link Budget: Accounting all losses and gains from the
transmitter, the medium (channel) to the receiver.

The Link Power Budget Equation
• Example 4.7:
A satellite link operating at 14 GHz has receiver feeder losses of
1.5 dB and a free-space loss, 𝐿FS of 207 dB. The atmospheric
absorption loss is 0.5 dB and the antenna pointing loss is 0.5 dB.
Depolarization losses may be neglected. The equivalent isotropic
radiated power, 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 is 250 dBW and a received antenna gain, 𝐺𝑟
of 42.5 dBi. Calculate:
a) The total link loss for clear-sky condition.
b) The receiver power, 𝑃𝑟 in dBW.

The Link Power Budget Equation

a) The total link loss for clear-sky condition.
Total Link Loss = 𝐿FS + σ Other Losses = 207 + 1.5 + 0.5 +
0.5 = 209.5 dB.
b) The receiver power, 𝑃𝑟 in dBW.

𝑃𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐺𝑟 − Total Link Loss = 250 + 42.5 − 209.5 =
83 dBW.

Uplink Budget
• The uplink of a satellite is where the earth station is transmitting
the signal and the satellite receiving it.
𝐶
𝑁 𝑈
𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑈 + − 𝐿FS + ෍ Other Losses + 228.6 − 𝐵N
𝑇 𝑈
𝑈
Where the 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 is in dBW, the bandwidth 𝐵N is in dBHz, and


Uplink Budget
• Example 4.8: An uplink at 14 GHz requires 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 of 35 dBW
with the total losses of 180 dB and the full transponder
bandwidth, 𝐵N of 25 MHz. Given that the satellite figure of
𝐺
merit, 𝑇 is 26 dB/K. Calculate the uplink carrier-to-noise
𝑈
𝐶
density, .
𝑁0 𝑈

Uplink Budget
• Example 4.8 Solution :
𝐶 𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑈 + − 𝐿FS + σ Other Losses 𝑈 + 228.6 −
𝑁 𝑈 𝑇 𝑈
𝐵N = 35 + 26 − 180 + 228.6 − 25 = 84.6 dB
𝐶 𝐶
= + 𝐵N = 84.6 + 25 = 109.6 dBHz.
𝑁0 𝑁 𝑈

Downlink Budget
• The downlink of a satellite is where the satellite is transmitting the
signal and the earth station receiving it.
𝐶
𝑁 𝐷
𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝐷 + − 𝐿FS + ෍ Other Losses + 228.6 − 𝐵N
𝑇 𝐷 𝐷
Where the EIRP is in dBW, the bandwidth 𝐵N is in dBHz, and


Downlink Budget
• Example 4.9: A satellite TV signal occupies the full transponder
𝐶
bandwidth, 𝐵N of 36 MHz and it must provide a at the
𝑁 𝐷
destination earth station of 42 dB. Given that the total
transmission losses are 200 dB and the earth station figure of
𝐺
merit, is 31 dB/K. Calculate the satellite 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 required.
𝑇 𝐷

Downlink Budget
• Example 4.9 Solution :
𝐶 𝐺
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝐷 + − 𝐿FS + σ Other Losses 𝐷 + 228.6 −
𝑁 𝐷 𝑇 𝐷
𝐵N
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝐷
𝐶 𝐺
= − + 𝐿FS + ෍ Other Losses − 228.6 + 𝐵N
𝑁 𝐷 𝑇 𝐷 𝐷
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝐷 = 42 − 31 + 200 − 228.6 + 36 = 18.4 dBW

Overall Link Budget
𝐶
• Overall link budget is a combination of uplink and downlink 𝑁
.
𝐶
• To obtain the combined value of , the reciprocal of individual
𝑁
𝑁
values (uplink and downlink) must be added to obtain 𝐶 overall
𝑁 𝐶
and then reciprocal of the 𝐶 to get the .
overall 𝑁 overall
𝐶 𝑁
= −10 log10
𝑁 𝐶
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
= +
𝐶 overall
𝐶 𝑈
𝐶 𝐷
𝐶 1
=
𝑁 overall 𝑁Τ𝐶 overall

Overall Link Budget
• In other words, the overall link budget can be defined as:
𝐶 1
=
𝑁 1 1
overall +
𝐶 Τ𝑁 𝑈 𝐶 Τ𝑁 𝐷

Overall Link Budget
𝐶
• Example 4.10: For a satellite circuit, the individual link 𝑁 𝑈
is
𝐶
100 dB and is 87 dB, respectively. Calculate the combined
𝑁 𝐷
𝐶
value of 𝑁 overall
.

Overall Link Budget
𝐶 1 1 1 8700
= 1 1 = 1 1 = 87+100 = = 46.52 dB.
𝑁 overall + + 187
𝐶Τ𝑁 𝑈 𝐶Τ𝑁 𝐷 100 87 8700

4-Chapter Four - Sem1 Session 2023 - 2024

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NMK 41003-Satellite Technology

RADIO FREQUENCY LINK

• The radio frequency (RF) or free space segment of the satellite

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• An electromagnetic wave referred to as a radiowave at radio

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• The free space wavelength for the frequency in GHz can be

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Similarly, at the surface, 𝐵 the density over the sphere of radius,

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• An important parameter in the evaluation of the RF link is the effective

• Isotropic power radiation is usually not effective for satellite

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Antenna gain in dB for satellite applications is usually expressed as the dB

• Parabolic reflector antennas are usually illuminated by one or more horn

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Proper selection of the phase characteristics between the elements

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

CubeSat Dipole Antenna System S-Band and C-Band Horn Antenna

Satellite Parabolic Antenna Ku-Band Phased-Array Antenna

• The circular parabolic reflector is the most common type of antenna

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Thus, the antenna gain is:

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Beamwidth: The boresight direction refers to the direction of

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 4.1: A satellite downlink at 12 GHz operates with a 𝑝𝑡 of

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 4.1 Solution:

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Beamwidth: The antenna pattern shows the gain as a function of the

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Beamwidth: Based on enlisted Table below, the antenna beamwidth for

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Free-space path loss: Based on Figure below, the power 𝑝𝑟 intercepted

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Free-space path loss: The term ℓFS can be re-expressed in terms of

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Received power: The receiver power, 𝑝𝑟 is given as:

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 4.2: Find free-space path loss, 𝐿𝐹𝑆 for an uplink

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 4.2 Solution: Free-space path loss: For the range 𝑟 in

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Example 4.3: Sample calculation for Ku-band uplink. Based on Figure

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Solution Example 4.3: First the antenna gains are determined:

• The power flux density in dB is determined as:

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• System noise: Undesired power or signals (noise) can be introduced into

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• The receiver antenna, receiver front-end, and the connecting elements

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Typical 𝑡𝑒 for receiver front end elements in satellite communications

• The 𝑏𝑁 is the RF bandwidth of the information bearing signal usually it

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS (UniMAP)

• Since thermal noise is independent of frequency of operation, it is often