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Firefighting Strategies and Tactics 3rd Edition Ebook PDF Version
Firefighting Strategies and Tactics 3rd Edition Ebook PDF Version
Firefighting Strategies and Tactics 3rd Edition Ebook PDF Version
Chapter 3
Incident Management Systems
Introduction
The Incident Commander
NFPA 1561
Common Terminology
Modular Organization
Incident Action Plans
Evolution of Incident Management Systems
Fireground Command
National Interagency Incident Management System
National Incident Management System
Manageable Span of Control
Unified Command
Standard Operating Procedures/Guidelines
Chapter 4
Coordination and Control
Introduction
Communications
Size-up
Environment
Resources
Conditions/Situation
Incident Priorities
Life Safety
Incident Stabilization
Property Conservation
Priority Order Versus Order of Accomplishment
Strategic Goals
Tactical Objectives
Tactical Methods
Plan of Action
Concepts in Decision Making
Recognition-Primed Decision Making
Naturalistic Decision Making
Classical Decision Making
Chapter 5
Basic Building Construction
Introduction
Type V: Frame (Wood)
Types of Frame Buildings
Variables in Fire Performance of Wood
Wood Treatments
Size Matters
Type IV: Heavy Timber
Type III: Ordinary
Spreaders
Type II: Noncombustible
Type I: Fire Resistive
Truss Construction
Truss Problems
New Technology in Building Construction
Chapter 6
Fire Dynamics
Introduction
The Chemistry of Fire
Fire Triangle
Fire Tetrahedron
Classes of Fires
Smoke
The Physics of Fire
Fire Growth
Heat Transfer
Flashover
Backdraft
Smoke Behavior
Chapter 7
Preincident Planning
Introduction
The Concept of Preincident Planning
Phases and Methods of Preincident Planning
Touring the Building and Obtaining Information
Creating the Rough Sketch (Diagram)
Incorporating Photos
Completing the Drawings and Documents
Placing the Plans on the Apparatus
Sharing and Training
Touring Regularly
Updating Plans
Plan Format
Occupancy Classifications
Building Types
Chapter 8
Extinguishing Agents
Introduction
Water
Flow
Effective Fire Streams
Nozzles
Friction Loss and Basic Hydraulics
Foam
Foam Components
Application of Foam
Major Types of Foams
Dry Chemicals
Dry Powders
Other Extinguishing Agents
Wet Chemical Class K
Carbon Dioxide
Halon
Chapter 9
Built-in Fire Protection
Introduction
Sprinkler Systems
Wet Pipe Sprinkler Systems
Dry Pipe Sprinkler Systems
Preaction Sprinkler Systems
Deluge Sprinkler Systems
Residential Sprinkler Systems
Standpipe Systems
Class Characteristics
General Characteristics
Special Extinguishing Systems
Fire Department Support of Built-in Fire Protection
Chapter 10
Company Operations
Introduction
Engine Company Operations
The Apparatus
Engine Company Responsibilities
Ladder Company Operations
Ventilation
Search
Ladder Company Support Functions
Ladder Placement
Overhaul
Salvage Operations/Loss Control
Engine and Ladder Company Apparatus Placement
Chapter 11
One- and Two-Family Dwellings
Introduction
Construction
Post and Frame
Balloon Frame
Platform Frame
Ordinary Construction (Masonry)
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Ventilation
Overhaul
Salvage
Specific Fires
Basement Fires
First-Floor Fires
Upper-Floor Fires
Attic Fires
Attached Garage Fires
Manufactured (Mobile) Home Fires
Additional Considerations
Chapter 12
Multiple-Family Dwellings
Introduction
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Ventilation
Overhaul
Salvage
Firefighting Considerations for Specific Types of Multiple-Family
Dwellings
Older Apartment Buildings
Newer Apartment Buildings
Fire-Resistive Multiple-Family Dwellings
Row-Frame Multiple-Family Dwellings
Brownstone Multiple-Family Dwellings
Garden Apartments
Chapter 13
Commercial Buildings
Introduction
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Ventilation
Overhaul
Salvage
Firefighting Considerations for Specific Types of Commercial
Buildings
Strip Centers
Large Commercial Structures
Two- or Three-Story Commercial Structures
Stand-Alone Commercial Occupancies
Chapter 14
Places of Assembly
Introduction
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Ventilation
Overhaul
Salvage
Firefighting Considerations for Specific Types of Places of
Assembly
Places of Worship
Exhibit Halls
Arenas
Nightclubs and Showplaces
On-Site Emergency Personnel and Emergency Control Systems
Chapter 15
High-Rise Office Buildings
Introduction
Construction
Building Systems
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Ventilation
Overhaul
Salvage
Chapter 16
Vehicle Fires
Introduction
Fires in Passenger Vehicles
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Semitrailer and Heavy-Duty Truck Fires
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Recreational Vehicles
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Heavy Construction Equipment
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Transportation Vehicles and Buses
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Chapter 17
Wildland Fires
Introduction
The Wildland-Urban Interface
Causes of Fires in the Wildland-Urban Interface
The Rate and Intensity of Wildland Fires
Preventing Fires in the Wildland-Urban Interface
Types of Wildland Fires and Associated Hazards
Forest Fires
Brush Fires
Groundcover Fires
Strategic Goals of Wildland Fires
Fire Fighter Safety
Search and Rescue
Evacuation
Exposure Protection
Confinement
Extinguishment
Overhaul
Salvage
Tactical Objectives Specific to Wildland Fires
Using Standard Operating Guidelines
Defending Multiple Structures
Implementing Safeguards
Chapter 18
Special Fires
Introduction
Hazardous Materials
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Shipboard Fires
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Railcar Fires
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Aircraft Fires
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Bulk Storage Facilities
Hazards Encountered
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Electrical Substation
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Structures of Historical Importance
Chapter 19
After the Incident
Introduction
Incident Termination
Demobilization
Returning to Quarters
Postincident Analysis
Purpose
Informal PIA
Formal PIA
Reviewing and Updating Procedures
Critical Incident Stress Management
Types of CISM
Chapter 20
Putting It All Together
Introduction
Hypothetical Fire Department
Scenario 1: Single-Family Dwelling
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Company Assignments
Scenario 2: Multiple-Family Dwelling
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Company Assignments
Scenario 3: Commercial Building
Strategic Goals and Tactical Objectives
Company Assignments
Technology Resources
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
James S. Angle is the Program Director for the Fire Training Center at St.
Petersburg College, in St. Petersburg, Florida, for which he oversees recruit
fire fighter training and in-service training, and manages the training center.
He retired after nearly 40 years in the fire service with 17 as the Fire Chief of
Palm Harbor Fire Rescue Department in Pinellas County, Florida. The
department protects 62,000 people in a 20-square-mile area, operating from
four fire stations and providing a full range of services including fire
prevention, public education, advanced life support, rescue, hazardous
materials, and fire suppression.
James began his career in the Monroeville Fire Department in suburban
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, as well as the Pittsburgh EMS Bureau. His
background includes employment with five emergency service agencies, both
small and large, and he worked through the ranks from fire fighter/paramedic
to his most recent position as fire chief.
His education includes an Associate’s Degree in Fire Science
Administration from Broward Community College, a Bachelor’s Degree in
Fire Science and Safety Engineering from the University of Cincinnati, and a
Master’s Degree in Business from Nova University. He also holds instructor
certification in three areas from the Florida Bureau of Fire Standards and
Training, is certified as a paramedic, is a graduate of the Executive Fire
Officer program of the National Fire Academy, and holds Chief Fire Officer
Designation (CFOD) and Certified District Manager (CDM) designations. He
is an active National Fire Academy Adjunct and has delivered seminars to
national audiences at numerous Fire/Rescue Conferences.
Michael F. Gala, Jr. is a 27-year member of the New York City, New York,
Fire Department who serves as the Chief of Uniformed Personnel. In his
capacity he oversees the day-to-day operations covering all aspects of
personnel issues in this 10,000-member department. This includes
assignments, transfers, granting of tenure, overseeing promotional issues,
supervising all leaves, and interacting with all FDNY Bureaus, including
Operations, Safety, Fire Prevention, Training, Legal, and Health Services.
Mike has significant experience as a fire chief and company officer in a large
urban fire department and experience in teaching fire service personnel at the
New York City Fire Department Training Academy. Because of the diversity
in assignments, he has developed experience in command, engine and ladder
company functions, and operations in multiple-story buildings.
Mike is a graduate of the Fire Officers Management Institute at Columbia
University, the West Point Combating Terrorism Program, and the Master
Exercise Practitioner Program (MEPP) at the Emergency Management
Institute in Emmitsburg, Maryland. He holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Fire
Service Administration and a Master’s Degree in Protection Management
from John Jay College in New York.
T. David Harlow retired after 31 years of active service. Harlow retired from
active fire service after serving 2 years as Fire Chief in south Florida. Before
moving to Florida, he served more than 29 years with the Fairborn Fire
Department, where he retired as Division Chief. Most of his career was spent
in the field as a battalion chief. The Fairborn Fire Department is a full-time
fire department serving more than 40,000 people outside of Dayton, Ohio.
The city surrounds Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and is home to Wright
State University, a state college with more than 17,000 students. The city is a
mix of residential, commercial, light industry, and an old downtown area.
David holds an Associate of Applied Science in Fire Engineering, a
Bachelor’s Degree in Fire Administration, and a Master’s Degree in Urban
Administration. He is a graduate of the Executive Fire Officer program at the
National Fire Academy, where he was honored nationally as the author of an
outstanding research paper on organizational development. David has
significant experience in fire-ground operations, disaster management, and
incident command. He served as a certified fire instructor for the states of
Florida and Ohio. He served as a member of the faculty at Sinclair
Community College, Dayton, Ohio, where he was instrumental in the
development and teaching of the Hazardous Materials and Fire Officer
Development programs. David teaches for private industry and has presented
at various seminars and the Fire Department Instructor’s Conference. He
holds the International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) Chief Fire Officer
Designation.
William B. Lombardo In 1987, William B. Lombardo started as a career fire
fighter with South Trail Fire and Rescue in Fort Myers, Florida. He
progressed through the ranks and served as a lieutenant on an engine
company for 7 years. He was promoted to Training Chief in 1998 and played
a key role in implementing advanced life support engines at his department.
In 2007 he was appointed to serve as the Fire Chief.
Fort Myers and the surrounding areas have consistently experienced
extreme population growth and ongoing changes in demographics. The
response area is a mix of commercial and industrial, mid- and high-rise
complexes, various dwelling complexes, hospitals, nursing facilities,
assembly occupancies (such as the spring home of the Boston Red Sox and
the Minnesota Twins), and wildland-urban interface areas. The constant
changes have given him diverse experience in firefighting and emergency
services.
William’s education includes two Associate’s Degrees from Edison State
College, a Bachelor’s Degree in Executive Management from Hodges
University, and a Master of Arts Degree in Administration from Barry
University. He is also a graduate of the National Fire Academy’s Executive
Fire Officer Program and is a Certified District Manager through Florida
State University and the Florida Association of Special Districts (FASD).
William is certified as a paramedic and holds certifications from the Florida
Bureau of Fire Standards and Training as a fire inspector, fire officer, and
Instructor III.
William currently serves on the Florida Firefighters Employment,
Standards, and Training Council, and he teaches fire science courses at
Edison State College, in Fort Myers, Florida. He has experience teaching
recruit firefighting classes and local fire-related seminars. He has presented at
national- and state-level seminars, including the Fire Department Instructor’s
Conference, Fire-Rescue East, and the FASD Annual Conference.
Billy Baker
Fire Captain
Rocky Mount Fire Department
Rocky Mount, North Carolina
Tim Baker
Lansing Community College
Lansing, Michigan
Joshua Brady
Firefighter/Paramedic, Altoona Fire Department
Altoona, Iowa
Mercy College of Health Sciences, EMS Program
Des Moines, Iowa
Joe Brewer
Lieutenant
Haltom Fire Rescue
Haltom City, Texas
Jason W. Burrow
Firefighter Medic III—Training Officer
Hanover Fire EMS
Hanover, Virginia
Leo DeBobes
Associate Professor and Fire Protection Technology Program Coordinator
Suffolk County Community College
Selden, New York
Carl M. DeCarlo
Instructional Coordinator
Elgin Community College
Elgin, Illinois
Michael Dozier
Captain, Horry County Fire Rescue
Horry County, South Carolina
Loris Volunteer Fire Department
Loris, South Carolina
Travis Ford
District Chief
Nashville Fire Department
Nashville, Tennessee
Gregg Gerner
Fire Chief
GM Wentzville Assembly Center
Wentzville, Missouri
Karl Holder
Captain/Training Officer
Rochester Hills Fire Department
Rochester Hills, Michigan
Tom Jenkins
Fire Chief
City of Rogers Fire Department
Rogers, Arkansas
Gary R. Johnson
Fire Science Program Manager/Instructor
Central Ohio Technical College
Newark, Ohio
Kevin C. Lambert
Captain, Ottawa Fire Service
Ottawa Fire Training Centre and Ontario Fire College
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Stephen K. Lovette
Captain
High Point Fire Department
High Point, North Carolina
Daniel Manning
Professor, Anna Maria College, Colorado State University–Global Campus,
Pima Community College
Interim Chief of Training/Fire Captain, Fort Huachuca Fire Department
Fort Huachuca, Arizona
David McLean
Captain (ret.), City of Dover (NH) Fire & Rescue
Instructor, Fire Science Program, Southern Maine Community College
South Portland, Maine
Greg Mundy
Assistant Chief (ret.)
Irmo Fire District
Columbia, South Carolina
Terry J. Ramsey
Fire Chief, Little Miami Joint Fire & Rescue District
Instructor, Cincinnati State Technical & Community College
Cincinnati, Ohio
David Reeves
Director, Fire Academy
Guilford Technical Community College
Jamestown, North Carolina
Richard Scott Rhode
Assistant Professor, Fire Chief (ret.)
University of Hawaii-Honolulu Community College
Honolulu, Hawaii
Jesse Silva
Captain, City of Charlevoix Fire/EMS
Vice President, Michigan Fire Service Instructors Association
Director, Charlevoix County Fire Academy Director
Charlevoix, Michigan
Doug Smith
Instructor/Subject Area Committee Chair, Fire Protection Technology
Portland Community College
Portland, Oregon
Ronald Taylor
Lieutenant/Paramedic, Noblesville Fire Department
EMS Coordinator/Paramedic, Wayne Township Volunteer Fire Department
Noblesville, Indiana
CHAPTER
1
History of Fire Service Strategies
and Tactics
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain significant historical changes in fire service strategies and
tactics.
• List the fire fighter’s role in contemporary strategy and tactics.
• Explain why it is important for fire fighters to understand strategy and
tactics.
Case Study
“Chief … I’m still stuck back in the right rear of the building, in the
closet. We’re out of air … first floor, underneath the collapsed ceiling”
(Naum, 2011, p. 2). This was the last transmission made by two fire
fighters who perished in a Hackensack, New Jersey, Ford dealership at
332 River Street on July 1, 1988. Three other fire fighters also were
immediately trapped and died when the wooden bowstring truss roof
failed due to extensive fire involvement in the attic/truss area below the
roof assembly.
The initial call to the Hackensack Fire Department was from a woman
approximately one block away who reported seeing flames and smoke. An
engine from the Hackensack Fire Department was the first to arrive on the
scene of the 40- to 45-year-old building. Engine 304 initially reported
finding heavy smoke and a working fire. Initial attempts were made to
gain access to the attic area from the interior. Ultimately this access was
gained through scuttle holes in the service area of the building.
Meanwhile, Engine 301 was establishing a water supply and Truck 307
was laddering the building to vertically ventilate from the roof. As the
scuttle holes were opened, the fire fighters were met with high heat
conditions. Hose streams were directed into the attic from interior
positions. Also, Truck 307 stretched a hose line to the roof. The fire grew
in magnitude, but unfortunately the interior crews did not recognize the
growth of the fire, and they were making no notable progress toward
extinguishment. Truck 307 reported that a vent hole had been cut in the
roof and a large amount of fire was coming out of the hole. Additionally,
they reported that fire was breaking through the rear of the roof. The
battalion chief recognized that there was a problem and ordered all
companies to withdraw from the building. However, there was no radio
traffic indicating that interior fire fighters heard this important message.
Approximately two minutes after the order was made to evacuate the
building, at least one roof truss failed and the collapse occurred.
The collapse trapped five fire fighters inside the still-burning
automobile dealership. Chief officers knew they had fire fighters trapped,
but no one on the scene knew initially how many fire fighters were still in
the building. Unfortunately, the heroic rescue attempts were in vain. A 3-
inch line from Engine 305 was in the process of being stretched to Truck
307 to supply an elevated stream when the collapse occurred. Instead of a
master stream, a nozzle was placed on the line and it was directed into the
burning building. This line was extremely difficult to handle and was
never really effective. Ultimately, handlines were stretched into the
service area and a breaching operation took place. The fire was brought
under control 1 hour and 37 minutes after the initial telephone call. Five
fire fighters died in one of the worst tragedies in the history of the
Hackensack Fire Department.
This fire was analyzed, scrutinized, and investigated by various
agencies, including the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
which performed a 3-day, on-site investigation, and the International
Association of Firefighters (IAFF), which commissioned Demers
Associates, Inc., a consulting firm directed by David P. Demers. The
commission developed an independent “Fire Incident Analysis” for the
IAFF that examined the strategic and tactical aspects of the Hackensack
Ford fire (Demers, n.d.). The Demers report stated the following:
• “The most significant factor that resulted in the fatalities was the failure
of the fire ground commanders to recognize the wood bowstring roof
truss construction” (p. 1).
• “[There was a] lack of effective communications both on the fire
ground and between the fire ground and fire headquarters [dispatch]”
(p. 1).
• There was “the absence of an effective fire ground command structure”
(p. 1).
• “An important factor that had some impact on the incident was the
reduced manpower available” (p. 1).
The NFPA “Summary Investigation Report,” prepared by Director
Thomas J. Klem, was requested by Chief Anthony A. Aiellos of the
Hackensack Fire Department. The following are some of the significant
statements from that important report:
• “Trusses are vulnerable to collapse under fire conditions ….”
• “Unfortunately, in this incident the inherent wood truss construction
hazard was again a primary contributing factor resulting in firefighter
fatalities. This and earlier tragic incidents provide important lessons
that must be stressed throughout the fire service to avoid future loss of
life.”
The Hackensack Ford fire was a catalyst for change in the way fires
are fought, as risk management has come into the equation. Additionally,
strategy, tactics, and training have changed to some degree as a result of
major fires such as this one. There have been larger fires and unfortunately
more fire fighter deaths, but this fire was known and discussed in
firehouses nationwide.
1. Describe a building within your jurisdiction that might be similar to the
one described in the case above.
2. Describe your staffing levels for response to structural fires.
3. How would you fight this fire even if you had adequate resources?
Introduction
When Ben Franklin organized the first fire company in Philadelphia,
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.