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Third Edition
Introduction to
VETERINARY
SCIENCE
James B. Lawhead • meecee Baker
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
CONTENTS
Preface ix
About the Authors xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Unit I ■ Comparative Anatomy and Physiology

CHAPTER 1 Basic Cell Biology 2 CHAPTER 5 The Respiratory System 78
Cell Makeup ..................................................... 3 The Respiratory Tract
T ......................................79
Cell Structure ................................................... 6 Mechanisms of Breathing ...............................83
Cell Function .................................................... 8 Clinical Practice..............................................84
Protein Synthesis............................................10
CHAPTER 6 The Renal System 89
Mitosis and Cancer.........................................11
Renal System Structures ................................91
Mammalian Reproduction ..............................12
Renal System Functions .................................94
Clinical Practice..............................................13
Kidney Structures and Urine Formation and
CHAPTER 2 Tissue Types and Functions 18 Regulation......................................................95
Epithelial Tissues............................................20 Urine and Blood Evaluation ............................98
Connective Tissues .........................................24 Clinical Practice............................................102
Muscle Tissues ...............................................25 CHAPTER 7 The Digestive System 107
Nerve Tissues .................................................28 Digestive System Structures .........................109
Clinical Practice..............................................29 Monogastric Digestion ..................................116
CHAPTER 3 The Musculoskeletal System 33 Species Variation..........................................120
Musculoskeletal System Functions .................34 Clinical Practice............................................123
Bone Structure ...............................................35 CHAPTER 8 The Reproductive System 130
Joint TTypes and Movements ............................36 Male Anatomy and Hormonal Function .........132
Axial and Appendicular Skeletons...................37 Female Anatomy and Hormonal Function .....134
Bone Growth and Remodeling ........................45 Pregnancy and Parturition.............................138
Relation of Bones, Muscles, Clinical Practice............................................143
and Movement ...............................................46
Clinical Practice..............................................48 CHAPTER 9 The Nervous System 151
Neuron Function...........................................153
CHAPTER 4 The Circulatory System 54 Brain Structure and Function........................156
Blood Components and Functions..................56
Anatomy and Function of the
Mammalian Heart Structures..........................60 Spinal Cord ..................................................158
Blood Vessels and Blood Flow ........................61 Sensory Somatic and Autonomic Nervous
Electrocardiograms, Heart Sounds, and Systems .......................................................159
Blood Pressure ...............................................66 Clinical Practice............................................164
Clinical Practice..............................................72
vii
viii Contents
CHAPTER 10 The Endocrine System 169 CHAPTER 11 The Immune System 184
Endocrine System.........................................171 Antigens and Immunity.................................186
Endocrine Glands .........................................172 Immunity and Immune Response .................190
Clinical Practice............................................179 Clinical Practice............................................194
Unit II ■ Nutrition
CHAPTER 12 Basic Nutrients 202 Pet Food Labels............................................221
Nutrients ......................................................204 Equine Nutrition and Fiber Digestion ............225
Clinical Practice............................................214 Ruminant Nutrition and Fiber Digestion ........228
Clinical Practice............................................231
CHAPTER 13 Species Comparison 218
Animal Nutrition ...........................................220
Unit III ■ Diseases

CHAPTER 14 Principles of Infectious Disease 236 CHAPTER 16 Classification of Diseases 273
Koch’s Postulates .........................................238 Disease in Clinical Practice ..........................275
Disease Agents.............................................239 CHAPTER 17 Zoonoses 289
Clinical Practice............................................255 Zoonotic Diseases ........................................291
CHAPTER 15 Disease Prevention 263 Clinical Practice............................................298
Disease Prevention .......................................265 CHAPTER 18 Diagnosis of Disease 301
Vaccines.......................................................267 Disease Diagnosis........................................302
Clinical Practice............................................269 Clinical Practice............................................313
Unit IV ■ Surgery
CHAPTER 19 Principles of Surgery 320 Laceration Healing........................................326
Principles of Surgery.....................................323 Surgical Considerations ................................333
Unit V ■ Professionalism and Careers

CHAPTER 20 Safety 342 Educational Requirements for
Safety Regulations and OSHA.......................343 Veterinary Careers ......................................355
Safety in Veterinary Practice .........................344 Decision Making in Veterinary Practice..........356
CHAPTER 21 Careers and Decision Making

in Veterinary Science 351
Career Profiles .............................................353
Glossary 363
Bibliography 370
Index 375
PREFACE
Agriscience programs vary nationwide and most have These new activities will help instructors reinforce
undergone extensive curricular changes within the student learning using a variety of applications.
past decade. Many include advanced placement-type • The new safety chapter provides guidelines to
coursework, such as veterinary science. While teaching help teachers ensure student safety in the class-
agricultural education at Greenwood High School in room and field laboratories, while another new
Millerstown, Pennsylvania, Dr. Baker searched for ma- chapter further explores veterinary careers.
terials to be used in a new veterinary science course.
• Technical material has been further explained by
After a futile hunt, and hearing similar concerns from
the author, Dr. James Lawhead. These expanded
other instructors, Dr. Baker teamed with Dr. Lawhead,
and updated explanations will help students
a practicing veterinarian who served the local area
grasp more advanced material.
where she taught, in an effort to author a veterinary
science text that was both student and teacher friendly. • Additional photos and figures bring the veteri-
The authors believe that two of the most useful nary practice into the classroom, helping to keep
features in this book are the “A Day in the Life” of students engaged.
a veterinarian, coupled with the “Clinical Practice” • The new edition discusses the most current tech-
chapter features. These two elements tie the real-life nology used in veterinary practice, providing a
work of a veterinarian, which can have less than de- look into recent advances in the field of veterinary
sired outcomes, with the technical and, sometimes, dry medicine.
and difficult text material. Therefore, the next time a
student says, “I want to be a veterinarian,” a venture
into Introduction to Veterinary Science will provide the
learner with a realistic preview of both veterinary work EXTENSION TEACHING/LEARNING
and the academic rigor needed to achieve success in the MATERIALS
profession.
Simply put, the goals of this text are to afford learn- Instructor’s Companion Website
ers a base knowledge of veterinary science by moving
The Instructor Resources are now available on the
through topics ranging from the cell to surgery, and
companion website. Updated for the third edition, this
to provide a view of the practice of veterinary medi-
robust suite of teaching resources includes the follow-
cine through the eyes of an experienced practitioner.
ing components to help minimize instructor prep time
Chapters 1 and 2 begin the text with a comprehensive
and engage students:
investigation of cells and tissues. Following chapters
examine the musculoskeletal, circulatory, respiratory, • Instructor’s Guide to Text—The Instructor’s Guide
renal, digestive, reproductive, nervous, endocrine, and provides answers to the end-of-chapter questions
immune systems. The basic physiology learned in the and additional material to assist the instructor in
beginning of the text is then applied in concluding the preparation of lesson plans.
chapters covering nutrition, species differentiation in • PowerPoint—Chapter outlines with images for
nutrition, principles and prevention of infectious dis- each textbook chapter.
ease, disease classification, zoonotic diseases, disease
• Computerized Test Bank in Cognero—Hundreds
diagnosis, and surgery.
of modifiable questions for exams, quizzes, in-
class work, or homework assignments, in an on-
NEW TO THIS EDITION line platform.
• Image Gallery—Hundreds of images from the
• Additional hands-on activities that use easy- textbook that can be used to easily customize the
to-find materials have been added to the chapters. PowerPoint outlines.
ix
x Preface
CHAPTER 1
Each chapter in the textbook begins with
clear educational objectives to be learned Basic Cell Biology
by the student in the reading, a list of
important key terms, and an introduction
overview of the chapter content.
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Explain the molecular makeup of cells. ■ Discuss mitosis and its clinical significance in diseases
■ Identify the basic structures of the cell and their such as cancer.
corresponding functions. ■ Detail meiosis in mammalian reproduction.
■ Review the basic function of the cell. ■ Connect cellular parts and function to clinical veterinary
■ Describe the process of protein synthesis. practice.
Key Terms
anesthetize glucose metabolism active transport
antibiotics diabetes anabolism endocytosis
cancer glycogen catabolism benign
lipid enzymes homeostasis malignant
hydrophilic antibodies diffusion pathologists
hydrophobic exocytosis osmosis
Introduction
The cell is the basic structure of animal life. However, the body but also many different cell types. The com-
the cell contains other structures and molecules. Cells bination of these cell types makes an animal function.
conduct many functions and are also able to reproduce. This chapter will discuss the structure of cells, and how
Animals not only have millions of cells that comprise they work.
Chapter 4 The Circulatory System 55
A Day in the Life

ADR—Ain’t Doin’ Right…
I remember the day in veterinary school when our
stethoscopes arrived. The air filled with excitement as
we listened to our own heartbeats. This instrument be-
came a necessary tool in everyday life as I began to ex-
amine animals. I must admit I felt cool walking around
the hospital in a white lab coat with a stethoscope
Photograph courtesy Richard Musselman.
draped around my neck! It seems like yesterday, even

though more than a few years have passed.
Several months ago I examined a cow that was
ADR—ain’t doin’ right. As I walked into the pen, I
could see she obviously wasn’t feeling well at all. She
appeared quite droopy, had lost a lot of weight, and had
developed a swelling under her jaw. During the phys-
ical, I listened to her heart. It sounded like the noise
FIGURE 4–1 A hedgehog.
from a washing machine in midcycle. The heart made a
sloshing sound with every beat. Using the stethoscope,
I diagnosed hardware disease. The cow had eaten journal article. I had never even met one in real life.
a piece of metal that migrated from the stomach and Therefore, I advised the teacher of my lack of experi- Each
ach chapter features ““A Day in the Life”
lodged close to the heart. The location and structure of ence but agreed to examine Sonic.
the heart provided me with the information necessary to
interpret the symptoms of this disease. Hardware dis-
Sonic arrived at the office in a cage (Figure 4–1).
He looked just like a miniature porcupine. Because
of a veterinarian vignette that relays
ease is often found during my appointed rounds. The
next diagnosis is not.
hedgehogs are nocturnal animals, Sonic was apparently
taking his afternoon nap when he arrived at the office.
James Herriot–type stories with relevance
This week, Dr. Deppen and I were both doing eve-
ning small animal appointments at the office. It was
I disturbed him as I tried to examine his leg. Sonic
jumped and snorted in an attempt to scare me. To be to clinical practice and the real-life work
snowing heavily and we were hoping to finish at a rea- honest, it worked! His prickly quills were quite sharp.
sonable hour. Dr. Deppen was seeing Lucky, a 12-year-
old Schnauzer mix that had a history of having what the
My assistant and I then put on thick leather gloves and
proceeded with the examination. Sonic countered with
of a veterinarian.
owners thought was a seizure. She detected that the another protective measure. He rolled himself into a
dog’s heart rate was too slow and the rhythm was very tight ball, so tight his legs were completely hidden. I
irregular. I had a chance to listen to the dog’s heart as referred to the journal article for help.
well and agreed that we should do more tests to detect Following the recommendations, I anesthetized
the underlying problem. Sonic with an inhalant anesthetic. We placed him in
The author James Herriot portrayed veterinary the large clear mask. The anesthetic was slowly deliv-
work in his best-selling collection of stories, All Crea- ered with every breath. Finally Sonic relaxed enough so
tures Great and Small. Times have changed consider- I was able to have a more thorough look. Once Sonic’s
ably since Herriot practiced. Much more information leg was exposed, the problem was quite obvious. The
and sophisticated medicines and techniques are now rags that Sonic used as a nest had tattered edges with
readily available. Still, I cannot possibly be an expert loose strings. One of these strings had wrapped tightly
on all animals. Last year our office received a call from around his foot and stopped the circulation. The foot
a local school. The sixth grade class mascot, Sonic the had turned dark and was oozing. All mammals rely on
hedgehog, had a sore foot. In this case, my experience circulation to maintain their bodies. What happened to
with hedgehogs was limited to reading just one obscure Sonic’s foot when the blood supply was stopped?
Preface xi
Chapter 3 The Musculoskeletal System 41
Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae a species. The typical dog has 20 caudal vertebrae, but
this can range from 6 to 23.
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of
the forelimbs and hind limbs. A study of this part of
the skeleton provides a clear examination of compar-
ative anatomy. Although the same anatomic terms are
used for all mammals, great differences exist in the
numbers and sizes of bones in the mammalian appen-
dicular skeleton. For instance, a dog has four or five
© 2017 Cengage Learning®

toes, whereas a horse has only one.
The forelimb, or thoracic limb, does not have a bony
connection to the axial skeleton. The scapula, or shoul-
der blade, lies flat against the rib cage (Figure 3–15).
The scapula connects to the axial skeleton with a group
of muscles. This attachment allows the scapula to move
Sternum Rib
FIGURE 3–13 Radiograph of a cat, showing the thoracic and lumbar
spine. Ribs and sternum are also visible.
over the rib cage. This rotation ranges as high as
25 degrees in animals such as cats while running. This Each chapter contains combinations
flexibility is also useful in cats as they land after a jump.
attach to these vertebrae, forming a sling that supports
As the cat falls, it extends its front legs fully at both the
scapula and the elbow. As the front feet hit the ground,
of charts, illustrations, photographs,
internal organs.
The sacrum, a group of three sacral vertebrae,
fuses to support the pelvis (Figure 3–14). In addition,
the elbow flexes and the scapula rotates. The cat makes
this very coordinated act look quite graceful. Clinically, radiographs, and the like that help to
this is of significance when cats fall from extreme
the sacrum articulates with the last lumbar vertebra
and the first caudal vertebra. The sacrum then joins
heights. In large cities, this happens often as cats tumble
from balconies or windows of tall buildings. In high-rise
illustrate and enhance the concepts
with the pelvis, allowing the hind limbs to support the
presented.
syndrome, the falling cat rarely breaks a leg; however,
weight of the body. This connection can be damaged. it will often break its lower jaw. The high speed of the
The pelvis may split away from the sacrum when falling cat forces the jaw to contact the ground.
dogs and cats are hit by cars (HBC). During this type
of accident, fracture of the pelvis itself is also com-
mon. Very painful lameness often results from a split
pelvis or pelvic fracture. Many of these fractures heal
if the animal’s activities are restricted. In severe cases,
surgeries may be required.
The final group of vertebrae is called caudal. These
small vertebrae comprise the tail. As mentioned, the
numbers of vertebrae vary among species and within
Lumbar Vertebrae
Pelvis
Spine
FIGURE 3–14 Radiograph of the lumbar spine of a dog. A portion of the

pelvis is also visible. This dog is showing an age-related change called Chapter 1 Basic Cell Biology 5
spondylosis. In spondylosis, bone spurs are formed that can eventually
bridge between vertebrae. FIGURE 3–15 The scapula.
Purines Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
C N C N C
N C HN C HN C C 3
CH
CH CH
HC C C C O C CH
N N N N N
H2N
Thymine
Adenine Guanine
NH2
C
N CH
Base
(Purine or O C CH
Pyrimidine) N
OH Cytosine
HO P O CH2 O
O
O C C
H H C
H H HN CH
C C
O C CH
OH H N
OH Uracil
Deoxyribonucleotide
(In Ribonucleotides)
FIGURE 1–5 Chemical structure of a nucleotide.
allowing veterinarians to diagnose what specific organ- Notice that the bases are the same except for thymine
ism is causing the sickness. and uracil. The order of base combination determines
Nucleic acids provide plans for the differing con- what amino acids are used to make proteins. This infor-
struction of proteins. Nucleic acids are fabricated with mation is stored in the cell’s genetic material.
a series of nucleotides. The nucleotides are made up Both DNA and RNA have a backbone of sugar al-
of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a ni- ternating with phosphate. The nitrogenous bases are
trogen-containing base (Figure 1–5). Ribonucleic acid attached to this backbone. In DNA, a double-stranded
(RNA) claims ribose as its sugar, whereas deoxyribo- molecule is formed as the bases are loosely bonded
nucleic acid (DNA) has deoxyribose as its sugar. There together. The molecule has a twisted structure, which
are four different bases for RNA and DNA (Table 1–1). is described as a double helix (Figure 1–6). The bases
join, specifically, thymine to adenine and cytosine
to guanine. Later in the chapter, a process of tran-
scription will be described, in which the sequence of
Table 1–1 RNA and DNA Bases DNA nitrogenous bases is converted to a molecule
DNA Bases RNA Bases of RNA. In this situation, adenine in the DNA mole-
cule bonds to a uracil base of RNA. The sequence of
1. Adenine 1. Adenine nitrogenous bases is used to define the amino acids
2. Cytosine 2. Cytosine used in protein synthesis. A group of three nitroge-

nous bases is the code for a specific amino acid. The
3. Guanine 3. Guanine order of the nitrogenous bases makes up the genetic
code of the animal. Each gene provides the code for
4. Thymine 4. Uracil one peptide chain.
xii Preface
10 Unit 1 Comparative Anatomy and Physiology
Cytoplasm Extracellular enzyme begins at a specific series of bases (thymine,

Fluid adenine, cytosine) called a promoter. The RNA poly-
merase moves along the length of the DNA molecule,
creating a complementary strand of RNA. The RNA
bases are added in the specific order that bonds to the
bases of the DNA. The corresponding bases were dis-

cussed earlier in the chapter. This process continues un-
til the polymerase reaches a terminator series of bases
(adenine, thymine, thymine). The mRNA is released
and the DNA helix reconnects.
FIGURE 1–12 Endocytosis: A large particle is engulfed by the cell
membrane and brought into the cytoplasm within a vacuole.
DNA mRNA
Double Helix Strand
Cytoplasm Extracellular
Fluid C G C
G C G
A T A

C G C
A T A
A T A
FIGURE 1–13 Exocytosis: A membrane-bound sac joins with the cell C
C
membrane to release the particle.
T U A
C C G
(Figure 1–12). During endocytosis, the cell membrane
wraps around the particle, pinches off, and moves into T U A
the cytoplasm as a vacuole. Lysosomes then join with
the vacuole, providing the enzymes necessary to break G G C
down the particle. The smaller fragments produced are C C G
then released into the cell. RNA
In cells producing protein, the opposite process oc- T Polymerase U A
curs. In exocytosis, a membrane-bound sac containing A A T
the protein joins with the cell membrane and releases
A
it into the ECF (Figure 1–13). These sacs are produced T U
within the Golgi apparatus. In intestinal cells, fat drop- G G C
lets can be taken into the cell through endocytosis. The
C G RNA
vacuole is transported across the cell and released into C
Nucleotide
the bloodstream by exocytosis. T
A
G C
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
T A
Objective
C G
■ Describe the Process of Protein Synthesis
G C
As mentioned previously, every cell contains all the
genetic material of the animal. The expression of cer-
tain genes produces specific proteins that allow cell

Cytosine Uracil
specialization. Protein synthesis begins within the nucleus
on the basis of the DNA structure. During transcription, Adenine Thymine
information within the DNA is transferred to a strand of
messenger RNA (mRNA) that moves into the cytoplasm. Guanine
Chapter 3 The Musculoskeletal System An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to FIGURE 1–14 Transcription of mRNA: RNA polymerase separates the
DNA, causing a separation of the double-helix strands strands of DNA and creates a strand of mRNA coded by the nucleotides
(Figure 1–14). This pulling apart exposes a gene. The of the DNA molecule.
cat from that of a horse. Having muscles closely associ- Articular
ated with the skeleton provides movement of the bones Cartilage
Proximal Epiphysis
at a joint. The movement of bones allows locomotion
Bone Physis
and function of the animal. Marrow Metaphysis
The strength of bones also protects more fragile
tissues. The rib cage gives protection to the heart and Cancellous or
lungs, whereas the skull protects the delicate brain. Spongy Bone
Bone acts as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus.
In times of need, the minerals are moved from the bone
Medullary Cavity
and sent into the bloodstream. Excess minerals can be
stored in the bone. Calcium plays an essential role in
muscle contraction and enzyme activity. Phosphorus is Artery
necessary for energy metabolism within the cell. Bone,
in response to several hormones, maintains a tight A Compact Diaphysis
regulation on the blood level of these minerals. These Bone Tissue
hormones, calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, will be
Endosteum
discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 10.
The long bones are present in the legs (and arms in
humans). The femur and humerus are classified as long
bones. They have a dense outer shell and a hollow shaft.
Bone marrow is made in this hollow center, the medul-
Periosteum
lary cavity. Bone marrow in turn produces blood cells.
Metaphysis
Physis
BONE STRUCTURE Distal Epiphysis Each chapter is further enhanced by the

Objective
■ Detail the Structure of Bone
addition of repeat objectives to aid in
Splitting a long bone along its length shows the typ-
ical structure of bone (Figure 3–3). The outer shell is
student comprehension.
composed of dense or compact bone. The term cortical
bone is also used for this region. The greater the forces
placed on a bone, the thicker this layer will be. In the
femur, this compact bone is thickest in the middle of
the shaft, where greatest strain occurs.
Within compact bone lies a more loosely arranged
bone, called spongy or cancellous bone. Spongy bone B
is found within the long bones but not inside the flat
bones of the skull or pelvis. It only fills the ends of
these long bones. Spongy bone is made up of tiny
spicules and plates of bone. The spicules look random
but are actually arranged to maximize strength. The
spongy arrangement keeps the weight of the bones

much lighter than that of a solid bone of the same di-
mension. The medullary cavity is located in the hollow
center of the shaft. The bone marrow lies within the
medullary cavity and the spaces of the spongy bone. As
FIGURE 3–3 A. Illustration of bone structure. B. Photograph of the internal
mentioned earlier, bone marrow produces blood cells. structure of bone.
Bones are covered with a thin connective tissue
called the periosteum. The periosteum blends into
tendons and ligaments, binding them to the bone. The provides protection as the bones move against one
periosteum has an extensive blood and nerve supply. another within a joint. The open spaces within bone
Hence trauma to the periosteum is quite painful. The are covered with a similar connective tissue, the en-
portion of bone within the joint is covered with car- dosteum. Both the periosteum and endosteum provide
tilage and not by periosteum. This articular cartilage cells necessary for the repair of damage.
Preface xiii
SUMMARY
Being able to identify respiratory structures and their rate provides a key piece of information to practition-
associated functions, from the nose to the lungs, allows ers when assessing the overall health of animals. The
veterinarians to diagnose and treat such disease condi- status of the respiratory system affects the breathing
tions as pneumonia and roaring. Moreover, respiratory and therefore the total health of animals.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define any 10 of the following terms: 5. The human larynx is sometimes called the .
respiration 6. The trachea branches into two .
palpated
endotracheal tube
7. Gas exchanges occur in the smallest openings of A chapter summary highlights the topics
the respiratory system. These openings are called
inspiration
expiration
the . that have been presented, and the end of
cyanosis 8. The muscles between the ribs are called the .
pneumonia
pleural friction rub
9. Name the reflex action that occurs when there is each chapter is also followed by a series
an irritation in the nose.
contagious
roaring 10. What substance lines the lungs, making them eas- of review questions and student activities.
heaves ier to inflate?
bronchodilators 11. What controls the rate of respiration?
2. True or False: Mucus lines the epithelial tissue in 12. What is the normal respiration rate for a dog?
the nostrils.
13. What plays a more significant role in the control of
3. True or False: The cartilage rings of the trachea are respiration, oxygen, or carbon dioxide?
shaped like an O.
14. What medical tool is used to evaluate breathing?
4. The is the common area shared by the
15. What species can develop a condition referred to
nose and throat.
as roaring?
ACTIVITIES
Materials needed for completion of the activities: release the balloons yet. Plug the third opening of
stethoscope the Y piece. Hypothesize what will happen when
the balloons are released. Will the large balloon
balloons
Y-shaped polypropylene connecting tubes deflate and fill the smaller balloon to equalize the
size? Or will the smaller balloon deflate into the
1. Use the stethoscope to listen to normal lung other balloon? Surfactant prevents this problem
sounds. Have the “patient” take deep, slow from occurring between alveoli. Even though the
breaths. The patient should breathe quietly, not alveoli may be of different sizes, the pressure in
making noise through the nose and mouth. The each is similar. Without it, the small alveoli would
stethoscope can detect these noises. Listen to dif- deflate.
ferent areas on the chest, from both the front and 3. Observe the respiratory rates of classmates and
the back. pets or livestock. Compare to the normal rates
2. Take two identical balloons and inflate them listed in Table 5–1.
to different sizes. Slip a balloon onto an end of Chapter 21 Careers and Decision Making in Veterinary Science 355
Y-shaped polypropylene connecting tubes. Do not
Courtesy of Dr. David Sweet.

FIGURE 21–4 Dr. David Sweet, with assistance of registered veterinary
technician Michele Antoch, examines a surgical incision on a dog.
Courtesy of Dr. Cathy Hanlon.
EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

VETERINARY CAREERS
Objective
FIGURE 21–3 Dr. Hanlon working with a sedated raccoon that had been ■ Explain the Educational Requirements for a Variety of
captured in a live trap. Veterinary Careers
Veterinary technicians must complete either a two-
methods for prevention of rabies, and responds to year associate degree or four-year bachelor of science
questions about rabies from other public health profes- degree program. Further, they must pass a state
sionals and the public. licensing exam. The number of institutions offering
such coursework has grown significantly over the past
Veterinary Surgeon several years. Veterinary assistants are not required
Dr. David Sweet graduated in 1989 from the University to complete any formal classes. However, increasing
of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine. Fol- numbers of technical schools and community colleges
lowing his graduation, Dr. Sweet pursued further offer veterinary assistant programs.
training as an intern at the University of Pennsylvania Both technicians and assistants help the veter-
and a surgical residency at the North Carolina State inary practice by performing a wide range of tasks
University. Following that training, Dr. Sweet accepted (Figure 21–5). These individuals may greet patients,
an instructorship at Washington State University and keep records, bill clients, and restrain animals, as well
returned to the University of Pennsylvania as an assis- as feed, exercise, and provide basic health care for
tant professor. During his training, Dr. Sweet met the patients. The responsibilities vary from employer to
The new chapter on careers investigates rigorous qualifications necessary to become a diplomate
in the American College of Veterinary Surgeons. This
employer with technicians performing more technical
duties. Numbers of available jobs for veterinary assis-
occupations in veterinary science, honor earned by Dr. Sweet distinguishes him as a sur-
gical specialist.
tants and technicians will continue to grow with the
demand for veterinarians.
Dr. Sweet works at a referral practice. The cen- Level of degree separates veterinary assistants
including veterinary technicians, veterinary ter employs veterinary specialists in many fields,
including surgery. The veterinary practice provides
from veterinary specialists. Almost 30 programs grant
degrees in veterinary specialties. Most of these pro-
grams deliver master’s and doctorate degrees, al-
assistants, private practitioners, and
a service that allows private practitioners to refer
difficult cases for more specialized treatment. Dr. though a few award associate and bachelor’s degrees.
Sweet performs both soft tissue and orthopedic sur- Specialists may provide such supportive services as
veterinary specialists. gery (Figure 21–4). He performs many complicated
and difficult surgeries. As with all veterinarians, he
nutrition counseling, ration balancing, or radiology ex-
pertise to veterinary clinics. Conversely, other special-
attends continuing education conferences to learn ists may be employed in academia, where they perform
new procedures and information. research or extension duties in veterinary-related
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. James Lawhead is a veterinarian in a private Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C. In
mixed animal practice located in Millerstown, Penn- addition, Dr. Baker serves as an adjunct professor at
sylvania. As lead partner, he works primarily with the North Carolina State University. She earned both
dairy cattle, dogs, and cats. Dr. Lawhead joined this her bachelor’s and doctorate degrees from Pennsyl-
practice in 1987 following graduation from the Univer- vania State University in agricultural education and
sity of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine. a master’s of science degree from the University of
He gained acceptance to veterinary school following Delaware in agricultural economics. Dr. Baker was
completion of his bachelor’s degree at Juniata College. the first woman to be elected president of the Na-
Dr. Lawhead has a special interest in dairy cattle nu- tional Vocational Agriculture Teachers’ Association
trition, providing nutritional services to a number of (now known as the National Association of Agricul-
his clients. Dr. Lawhead enjoys teaching as well and tural Educators). Formerly, she taught high school
actively supports local school districts with lectures agriculture and worked in the executive office of
and demonstrations. the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture as co-
ordinator of agricultural education. Dr. Baker lives
Dr. MeeCee Baker owns Versant Strategies, an ag- on her family beef farm with her husband, Jim, and
ricultural and rural affairs firm that serves clients in daughter, Libby.
xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Although only two authors are listed for this text, the freshen objectives and questions for the third edition.
number of people responsible for the final product is We appreciate the use of reference material supplied
quite large. The authors would like to thank all of those by Mechelle Regester. The veterinary science students
people who supported and contributed to the text, es- at Greenwood High School completed activities, les-
pecially the Cengage Learning Team. Cengage Learn- sons, and accompanying assignments to help fine-
ing deserves special recognition for faith in the authors. tune the text and ancillary material. We appreciate
We would like to thank all the veterinarians and their thoughtful consideration.
staff at Millerstown Veterinary Associates for their In addition, we would like to thank Dr. David
assistance and contributions. Their help in obtaining Sweet, Dr. Cathy Hanlon, Dr. Abby Maxson Sage, and
case material and photographs for the text was in- Dr. Lawrence Hutchinson for their contributions of
valuable. Likewise, we appreciate the support of the photographs and support to the project.
clients who encouraged the use of their case material Having input from experts in various fields helped
for the text. Special thanks are in order for Leesa to strengthen the core material of the text. Our utmost
Landis, Dr. Robert Mikesell, and Krista Pontius for thanks to Dr. William Bacha Jr., Dr. Linda Bacha, and
their long hours of technical help in putting together Dr. Arthur Hattel for the photographic material pro-
the text. Caleb Wright, a Versant intern and newly vided. The histology and pathology photographs are a
minted agricultural education teacher, helped to tremendous benefit to the text.
xvii
Unit I
Comparative Anatomy
and Physiology
CHAPTER 1
Basic Cell Biology
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Explain the molecular makeup of cells. ■ Discuss mitosis and its clinical significance in diseases
■ Identify the basic structures of the cell and their such as cancer.
corresponding functions. ■ Detail meiosis in mammalian reproduction.
■ Review the basic function of the cell. ■ Connect cellular parts and function to clinical veterinary
■ Describe the process of protein synthesis. practice.
Key Terms
anesthetize glucose metabolism active transport
antibiotics diabetes anabolism endocytosis
cancer glycogen catabolism benign
lipid enzymes homeostasis malignant
hydrophilic antibodies diffusion pathologists
hydrophobic exocytosis osmosis
Introduction
The cell is the basic structure of animal life. However, the body but also many different cell types. The com-
the cell contains other structures and molecules. Cells bination of these cell types makes an animal function.
conduct many functions and are also able to reproduce. This chapter will discuss the structure of cells, and how
Animals not only have millions of cells that comprise they work.
2
Chapter 1 Basic Cell Biology 3
A Day in the Life

There Just Never Seems to be a Typical Day . . .
I headed to the office with the thought of doing only cow
work on this particular day. However, those plans were
short lived. Shortly after I arrived at work, two nervous
owners walked through the door with their Labrador re-
triever. Poor Jake had just been run over by the own-
er’s car! Amazingly, Jake was doing very well, although
he was a bit excited. Apart from a couple of cuts on his
jaw, he was ready to go home and play.
Then, at my first farm call of the day, the farmer
wanted me to look at his dog, Millie. Millie had a grape-

fruit-size lump under her jaw. The lump felt like it was
full of fluid. I asked him to bring Millie to the office so
I could work on her there. I finished my farm calls and
headed back to the small animal clinic.
Once there, I anesthetized Millie and made an in-
cision into the skin. Pus flowed from the lump (Figure FIGURE 1–1 Draining an abscess on the side of the face of an
1–1). I flushed the large pocket left behind and started anesthetized cat.
Millie on a course of antibiotics, drugs that fight bacte-
rial infections. Although I do not know why it started, I surgery. The surgery went well, and I was able to re-
do know Millie was fighting an infection with her body’s move the entire lump.
cells. In private practice, cells affect me every day. Today
Next I had the opportunity to remove a tumor from I saw Millie’s cells attacking the bacteria in her neck.
Penny, a 12-year-old cocker spaniel. Last week I gave Penny, on the other hand, had cancer
cancer-causing cells divid-
Penny a physical examination and administered blood ing uncontrollably. To understand how mammals work and
tests. Penny appeared healthy, and we elected to do how to treat them, I first had to learn how cells function.
CELL MAKEUP of these molecules. They possess the basic structure of

(CH2O)n (Figure 1–3). In this formula, n describes the
Objective number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The genetic
■ Explain the Molecular Makeup of Cells
material in the cell has the five-carbon sugars ribose
and deoxyribose. Glucose (blood sugar), a six-carbon
Cells and their structures are composed of molecules. sugar, is used for energy in the cells. The amount of
Biochemistry is the study of these molecules in living glucose in blood is routinely monitored. If there is too
creatures. One goal of this chapter is to identify the dif- much or too little glucose in the blood, the animal will
fering types of molecules and their properties. not function normally. In diabetes, the blood sugar
Lipids or fats combine hydrogen, carbon, and oxy- increases to very high levels, but the animal does not
gen in a form that is poorly dissolvable in water (this utilize it properly. Diabetes requires treatment to lower
is why fat floats to the top of water). Fat consists of the blood sugar.
a molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules Polysaccharides are composed of many monosac-
(Figure 1–2). Fats are stored in the cells of the body as charides. One example of a polysaccharide is starch,
a source of high energy. such as glycogen, which is used to store energy within
Phospholipids are similar but have only two fatty the cell. Glycogen is made when monosaccharides
acid groups and a phosphate group (PO4). This is sig- are taken into the cell and then assembled into a long
nificant because one end of the molecule is attracted to chain. Polysaccharides can be joined with protein mol-
or soluble in water (hydrophilic) and the other end is ecules to form glycoproteins, which assist in building
repelled by water (hydrophobic). These characteristics the cell structure.
of phospholipids are important in the structure of the Proteins play a key role in the structure and func-
cell membrane. tion of cells. Proteins make up 50% of the dry weight of
Carbohydrates supply energy and provide struc- animals. Proteins are large molecules of many amino
ture within the cell. Monosaccharides are the simplest acids. (Twenty-two different amino acids are used to
H NH
3
H C OH CH2
O O
C CH2
H C OH
CH2 CH2
H C OH
CH2 CH2
H
H2N C C OH H2N C C OH
Glycerol
H O H O
O Glutamic Acid (Glu) Lysine (Lys)
HO C R
RLong Hydrocarbon Chain Fatty Acid

OH
C
H O H H H H H H H HC CH
H C O C C C C C C C C H HC CH H3C CH3
C CH2
H H H H H H H
CH2 CH2
O H H H H H
H2N C C OH H2N C C OH

H C O C C C C C C H
H O H O
H H H H H
Tyrosine (Tyr) Leucine (Leu)
O H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C H
FIGURE 1–4 Chemical structure of selected amino acids.

H H H H H H
Lipid
make proteins; Figure 1–4.) A single protein can include
200 to 300 of these amino acids. It was mentioned earlier
that proteins could be joined to sugars. They may also
FIGURE 1–2 Chemical structure of glycerol, a fatty acid, and a typical
be joined with lipids and phosphate groups. Protein
lipid.
molecules are not only very large but also quite com-
plex molecules. Chemical bonding between amino acids
will fold the amino acid chains into a three-dimensional
structure. This complex structure is essential for the
function of certain protein molecules.
Proteins have many functions in cells. Muscle is
CH2OH largely composed of protein that is specially arranged
to allow cells to contract and move. Further, enzymes
C O
H H CH2OH O OH are protein molecules that speed the chemical reactions
H in the body (i.e., enzymes act as catalysts). Proteins also
C C C C
OH H H OH add strength to many of the structures in the body.
HO OH H CH2OH Proteins are found within the cell membrane and are
C C C C
commonly found in the intercellular matrix of tissues.
H OH OH H Protein can bind with other molecules to aid in their

transport in the bloodstream. In addition, proteins
Glucose Fructose found in blood help to carry oxygen, stop bleeding,
and fight off infection. These infection-fighting proteins
are called antibodies. In practice, antibodies specific
FIGURE 1–3 Chemical structure of selected sugars. to different diseases are measured in the blood, thus
Purines Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
C N C N C
N C HN C HN C C 3
CH
CH CH
HC C C C O C CH
N N N N N
H2N
Thymine
Adenine Guanine
NH2
C
N CH
Base
(Purine or O C CH
Pyrimidine) N
OH Cytosine
HO P O CH2 O
O
O C C
H H C
H H HN CH
C C
O C CH
OH H N

OH Uracil
Deoxyribonucleotide
(In Ribonucleotides)
FIGURE 1–5 Chemical structure of a nucleotide.
allowing veterinarians to diagnose what specific organ- Notice that the bases are the same except for thymine
ism is causing the sickness. and uracil. The order of base combination determines
Nucleic acids provide plans for the differing con- what amino acids are used to make proteins. This infor-
struction of proteins. Nucleic acids are fabricated with mation is stored in the cell’s genetic material.
a series of nucleotides. The nucleotides are made up Both DNA and RNA have a backbone of sugar al-
of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a ni- ternating with phosphate. The nitrogenous bases are
trogen-containing base (Figure 1–5). Ribonucleic acid attached to this backbone. In DNA, a double-stranded
(RNA) claims ribose as its sugar, whereas deoxyribo- molecule is formed as the bases are loosely bonded
nucleic acid (DNA) has deoxyribose as its sugar. There together. The molecule has a twisted structure, which
are four different bases for RNA and DNA (Table 1–1). is described as a double helix (Figure 1–6). The bases
join, specifically, thymine to adenine and cytosine
to guanine. Later in the chapter, a process of tran-
scription will be described, in which the sequence of
Table 1–1 RNA and DNA Bases DNA nitrogenous bases is converted to a molecule
DNA Bases RNA Bases of RNA. In this situation, adenine in the DNA mole-
cule bonds to a uracil base of RNA. The sequence of
1. Adenine 1. Adenine nitrogenous bases is used to define the amino acids
2. Cytosine 2. Cytosine used in protein synthesis. A group of three nitroge-

nous bases is the code for a specific amino acid. The
3. Guanine 3. Guanine order of the nitrogenous bases makes up the genetic
code of the animal. Each gene provides the code for
4. Thymine 4. Uracil one peptide chain.
P
Protein
Prote
rotein
in
Phospholipid
Phos
Phosph
phoolipid
lipid

R
Repelled
Repe
epelled
epelllle
ed
d by Water
Water
A
Attracted
Attracte
ttracted
d to Water
Water
Phosphate
Sugar
FIGURE 1–7 Illustration of cell membrane. The cell membrane has a dou-
ble layer of phospholipid. In addition, protein molecules are present on
Hydrogen Bonds
and within the phospholipid layers.
the inside of the cell contained. The cell membrane is

so fine that it cannot be seen with a normal light micro-
scope. The cell membrane is about half protein and half
lipid (phospholipid type). One end of phospholipids
is attracted to water, whereas the other end is repelled
by water. The cell membrane, which is surrounded by
water on both sides, has two layers of lipid in its wall
(Figure 1–7). The ends of the lipid that are attracted to
water face outward. Protein is also included in the mem-
brane, both between the lipid molecules and on the sur-
face. The position of the protein molecules is not firmly
established; rather, the molecules are mobile within the
membrane. Cholesterol, another molecule in the cell
membrane, provides stabilization of the membrane.
Cell membranes are semipermeable, meaning they
allow certain substances but not others to pass. Some
molecules, such as water, are able to pass through easily.
The specialized proteins in the cell membrane influence

Cytosine Guanine which molecules are able to pass readily. In addition, the
intrinsic membrane proteins can act as receptors. These
Thymine Adenine
receptors can process a signal from the extracellular
fluid to influence the cell’s interior (e.g., a hormone can
FIGURE 1–6 DNA structure: The structure is described as a double helix.
Phosphate and sugar groups make up the two strands. The strands are trigger a reaction within the cell). Other molecules, such
joined by hydrogen bonds between two nitrogenous bases. as proteins, starches, and some ions, are unable to pass.
Many of the organelles within the cell are also sur-
rounded by a membrane. The basic structure remains
CELL STRUCTURE the same for all the membranes. The specifics of the
makeup differ, depending on function.
Objective Cell contents are divided into the nucleus and the
■ Identify the Basic Structures of the Cell and Their cytoplasm. Cytoplasm generally describes the organelles
Corresponding Functions and fluid in the cell. A nucleus comes as a standard part
of most cells (with a few exceptions such as the red blood
Many cell types exist. These cells not only look dif- cell; Figure 1–8). The nucleus contains the genetic material
ferent but function differently as well. Nevertheless, (i.e., DNA) of the cell, which controls cellular activities
many features are common among cells. Specialized by coding for protein synthesis. The DNA in the nucleus
structures within the cells are called organelles. These is called chromatin. As the cell divides, the chromatin
organelles are present in most but not all cells. Red clumps into chromosomes. Identical DNA is passed to
blood cells, for example, lack a nucleus. all daughter cells. All the cells in the body have the same
The cell membrane (or plasma membrane) is com- chromatin. However, cells take on different roles by using
mon to all cells. It serves as the boundary that keeps certain areas of the chromatin more than others.
Ribosomes Centriole Lysosome
Vacuole Nucleolus
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Golgi Mitochondrion
Apparatus

(Complex)
Plasma Membrane
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

FIGURE 1–8 Illustration of cell structure.
A membrane made of two lipid bilayers surrounds Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has no
the nucleus. This membrane is often joined to other ribosomes attached. This form is not as common. Some
organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum and liver cells contain a large amount of SER. The SER in
ribosomes. Such a close association helps the nucleus these cells produces glycogen and lipids, and removes
control cell function. toxins.
In cells not dividing, a nucleolus is often seen in the The Golgi apparatus is formed with large amounts
nucleus. The nucleolus produces RNA that forms the of folded membrane that looks similar to SER. The
ribosomes, which in turn produce protein. Cells with Golgi apparatus produces polysaccharides and special
large nucleoli actively produce protein. protein sacs called lysosomes. Protein produced in
Ribosomes are small granular-like structures that the RER is moved to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
can be found in the cytoplasm. They contain roughly apparatus then changes the protein and collects it in
60% RNA and 40% other protein. Ribosomes manufac- the lysosomes. These sacs are pinched from the Golgi
ture the protein used in the cell. Growing cells require apparatus and then moved to the surface of the cell and
large amounts of protein and, therefore, have a greater released.
number of ribosomes. The specific proteins produced The proteins contained in the lysosomes are
by a cell are governed by the nucleus. enzymes (remember, enzymes are molecules that help
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a collection speed chemical reactions in the body). Lysosomes con-
of folded membrane. This membrane attaches to the tain enzymes that help to break down other mole-
membrane of the nucleus. The ribosomes often line cules. Varying enzymes match differing molecules.
this membrane, giving it a bumpy appearance and The membrane surrounding lysosome prevents the
therefore its name, rough endoplasmic reticulum enzymes from attacking other parts of the cell.
(RER). Protein produced by the ribosomes is then Lysosomes are used to digest food taken in by the
deposited into the RER. These proteins can be further cell and to destroy cell structures no longer needed. In
changed in the RER. This protein may be used by the Millie, the dog with the abscess, her white blood cells
cell or moved to the surface of the cell for secretion. were using lysosomes to destroy bacteria. Cells that
The protein is moved through the membrane in a pro- die in the body are eliminated when enzymes within
cess called exocytosis, which will be discussed later lysosomes are released into the cytoplasm. This process
in the chapter. of autolysis makes room for replacement cells.
Mitochondria are small rod-shaped organelles Table 1–2 Components of the Extracellular Fluid
found in varying numbers in cells. The more active the
cell, the more mitochondria are present. Mitochondria
1. Water
have a double membrane, similar to the cell membrane. 2. Dissolved gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide
The outer membrane is smooth and forms the shape of
the mitochondria. The inner membrane is highly folded. 3. Inorganic ions
These shelflike infolded ridges are called cristae. Macrominerals: sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate,
The role of mitochondria is well defined. The mito- calcium, bicarbonate
chondria convert food substances into energy that can Trace minerals: copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt,
be used by the cell. Mitochondria contain the enzymes selenium, fluoride, iron
necessary for this process. Because of this role, mito- 4. Organic compounds (carbon-containing compounds):
chondria are called the powerhouses of the cell. The proteins, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins

mitochondria are found within cells at their areas of
highest activity. 5. Hormones: compounds produced by glands to influence
metabolism of cells
CELL FUNCTION 6. Waste products
Objective eliminated by the ECF. Without elimination, the waste

■ Review the Basic Function of the Cell products actually become toxic to the cell.
Many of the products in ECF must be maintained
The cell constantly reacts to its environment. Metabolism at constant normal concentrations. Cells will be unable
describes all the reactions going on in cells. Metabo- to function properly if there is too much or too little of
lism can be categorized into two main types. Anabolism certain products. Glucose provides an excellent exam-
describes reactions in which smaller molecules are ple. Small puppies can become low in blood sugar if
combined into larger ones. The joining of amino acids they have too many parasites robbing them of nutri-
to form proteins serves as an example. Catabolism, the ents. When the sugar in ECF becomes too low, the cells
opposite, occurs when large molecules are broken down do not have adequate energy. The puppy can become
into smaller ones. The breaking down of glycogen to weak or, in severe cases, develop a seizure. Homeo-
release energy is an example of catabolism. stasis is the maintenance of ECF. Homeostasis allows
A liquid called extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds maintenance of normal concentrations of molecules in
living cells. The ECF supplies cells with all the prod- spite of a wide variety of external conditions.
ucts necessary for their functions. ECF is derived from Cells must be able to obtain products from the
blood. The outermost skin cells are not covered in liq- ECF. It is not enough that the chemicals just exist in
uid; however, they are no longer living. the ECF; there must be means for their exchange with
Other cells exposed to the surface, such as those of the cell. Table 1–3 summarizes the mechanisms by
the eye, need moisture. In the eye, tears produced by which materials are exchanged across the cell mem-
glands act as the source of moisture and nutrients. The brane. The first mechanism is a process called diffusion
eyelids help to sweep the tears across the surface of the (Figure 1–9), in which molecules move from higher to
eye. Certain breeds of dogs, such as the pug, have eyes lower concentrations. Because molecules are always
that bulge from the eye socket. The bulging can be so moving, there is a greater chance that they will move
severe that the eyelids cannot keep the surface of the toward areas of lower concentration. This movement
eye moist with tears. This results in a disease condition continues until the concentrations are equalized.
on the surface of the eye. Artificial tears are often used The cell membrane does not allow totally free
to keep the surface moist. diffusion. Diffusion is influenced by the size of the
Table 1–2 summarizes the makeup of ECF. Water molecule, its charge, and its ability to dissolve in lipid.
is the major component of ECF. Oxygen passes to the In general, the smaller the molecule, the more easily
cells through the ECF. Conversely, carbon dioxide
passes from the cells through it. There are many inor-
Table 1–3 Mechanisms of Cellular Exchange
ganic ions in the ECF. Some ions, macrominerals, are
present in large amounts. Trace minerals are present in 1. Diffusion
much smaller amounts. Both macrominerals and trace
minerals are essential for cellular function. Many of 2. Osmosis
the trace minerals are needed for enzymes to function. 3. Active transport
Organic compounds, including the lipids, proteins,
and carbohydrates, are also delivered by the ECF. 4. Endocytosis
Metabolism produces waste products, which must be
5. Exocytosis
removed from the cells. These waste products are
Molecule Hypotonic Solution

Hypertonic Solution
Water

Selectively
Permeable Membrane
FIGURE 1–10 Osmosis: The semipermeable membrane prevents the
passage of large molecules. In this situation, water moves across the
membrane to equalize the concentration.
In certain situations, a cell may require a higher

concentration of a molecule than is found in the ECF.
For example, red blood cells have higher levels of
potassium than the surrounding fluid. Diffusion con-
stantly attempts to equalize the concentrations (e.g.,
potassium continually diffuses from the cell). In this
case, the potassium is pumped back into the cell, and
the higher concentration is maintained. This process
is referred to as active transport (Figure 1–11). Active
transport requires the cell to burn energy and use en-
zymes to aid the process. Many different cell types per-
form the function. Another example occurs in intestinal
cells, which transport glucose into the bloodstream,
where it is present at higher levels.
Large molecules, such as proteins, must be moved

through the membrane in a process called endocytosis
Molecule at
Equilibrium Receptor Site
FIGURE 1–9 Diffusion: Random movement of molecules allows Outside
equalization of concentrations across a membrane.
the diffusion occurs. Some large molecules such as

proteins are unable to diffuse through the membrane
and must be transported in other ways.
As previously learned, the property of allowing Cell
Membrane
only certain molecules to diffuse through the mem-
brane is called semipermeability. This characteristic sets
the stage for a special type of diffusion, called osmosis.
A solvent (in the following case, water) moves across
the membrane to equalize the concentration; however,

the molecules dissolved in the water (called solutes)
cannot pass through the membrane (Figure 1–10). This Energy
process can be observed in red blood cells when they Inside
are placed in a concentrated solution. The water from Transport Channel
the cell moves outward into the solution. Microscopi- FIGURE 1–11 Active transport: Energy is used to actively pump molecules
cally, the red blood cells can be seen to shrink. into a region of higher concentration.
Cytoplasm Extracellular enzyme begins at a specific series of bases (thymine,

Fluid adenine, cytosine) called a promoter. The RNA poly-
merase moves along the length of the DNA molecule,
creating a complementary strand of RNA. The RNA
bases are added in the specific order that bonds to the
bases of the DNA. The corresponding bases were dis-

cussed earlier in the chapter. This process continues un-
til the polymerase reaches a terminator series of bases
(adenine, thymine, thymine). The mRNA is released
and the DNA helix reconnects.
FIGURE 1–12 Endocytosis: A large particle is engulfed by the cell
membrane and brought into the cytoplasm within a vacuole.
DNA mRNA
Double Helix Strand
Cytoplasm Extracellular
Fluid C G C
G C G
A T A
C G C
A T A
A T A
FIGURE 1–13 Exocytosis: A membrane-bound sac joins with the cell C
C
membrane to release the particle.
T U A
C C G
(Figure 1–12). During endocytosis, the cell membrane
wraps around the particle, pinches off, and moves into T U A
the cytoplasm as a vacuole. Lysosomes then join with
the vacuole, providing the enzymes necessary to break G G C
down the particle. The smaller fragments produced are C C G
then released into the cell. RNA
In cells producing protein, the opposite process oc- T Polymerase U A
curs. In exocytosis, a membrane-bound sac containing A A T
the protein joins with the cell membrane and releases
A
it into the ECF (Figure 1–13). These sacs are produced T U
within the Golgi apparatus. In intestinal cells, fat drop- G G C
lets can be taken into the cell through endocytosis. The
C G RNA
vacuole is transported across the cell and released into C
Nucleotide
the bloodstream by exocytosis. T
A
G C
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
T A
Objective
C G
■ Describe the Process of Protein Synthesis
G C
As mentioned previously, every cell contains all the
genetic material of the animal. The expression of cer-
tain genes produces specific proteins that allow cell
Cytosine Uracil
specialization. Protein synthesis begins within the nucleus
on the basis of the DNA structure. During transcription, Adenine Thymine
information within the DNA is transferred to a strand of
messenger RNA (mRNA) that moves into the cytoplasm. Guanine
An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to FIGURE 1–14 Transcription of mRNA: RNA polymerase separates the
DNA, causing a separation of the double-helix strands strands of DNA and creates a strand of mRNA coded by the nucleotides
(Figure 1–14). This pulling apart exposes a gene. The of the DNA molecule.
Color codes for the bases

A G
C T U
Nontranscribed Strand
5'
5'
3' Transcription
DNA
3'
3'
mRNA Transcribed Strand

(Complementary
Copy of
Transcribed mRNA
DNA Strand)
5'
Codon 1 Codon 2 C
Codon 3 C
Codon 4 C
Codon 5 C
Codon 6

Translation
Amino Amino Amino Amino Amino Amino O

H2N Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid
C
1 2 3 4 5 6 OH
FIGURE 1–15 Translation: The mRNA created in transcription is used to code the amino acid sequence in protein formation.
Translation, which occurs in the ribosomes, is the as the epithelia lining the intestinal tract, divide fre-
process in which the code of bases in the mRNA is con- quently to maintain the integrity of the layer. Other
verted to a series of amino acids. Each series of three cells, such as skeletal muscle, do not divide in an adult.
bases in the mRNA is a codon (Figure 1–15). The codon When these normal controls break down, the cells
provides the signal for a specific amino acid. The mol- can begin to undergo frequent mitosis. Uncontrolled
ecule of mRNA is bound by ribosomes. A molecule of mitosis results in cancer. New cells are produced more
transfer RNA (tRNA) that contains the three complemen- quickly than needed, resulting in an accumulation or
tary bases (anticodon) attaches to the mRNA. Each mole- mass of cells in a region. This mass of rapidly dividing
cule of tRNA carries the amino acid specific to the codon. cells is called a tumor.
Enzymes on the ribosome allow release of the amino In a nondividing cell, the genetic material is called
acid from the tRNA. A peptide bond is created between chromatin. In this form, the chromatin is loosely ar-
adjacent amino acids. This process is repeated along the ranged in the nucleus. The individual chromosomes
length of the mRNA molecule, creating a polypeptide. cannot be seen with a light microscope. These cells are
The proteins created may be used within the cytoplasm described as being in the interphase. In this stage, the
or processed further within the endoplasmic reticulum. cell is in the process of doubling its DNA. The steps of
division are broken down into four phases (Table 1–4).
The phases are identified to help understand the
MITOSIS AND CANCER
Objective
Table 1–4 Stages of Mitosis
■ Discuss Mitosis and its Clinical Significance in Diseases
Such as Cancer 1. Interphase
Cells must reproduce. In mitosis, the cells divide, pro- 2. Prophase

ducing two identical cells. Mitosis is necessary for the 3. Metaphase

growth and maintenance of the animal. Cell division
is controlled by a number of factors present within the 4. Anaphase
cell and the extracellular fluid. The rate of cell division
5. Telophase
is adapted to the needs of the animal. Some cells, such

Interphase Early Prophase Late Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase
FIGURE 1–16 Mitosis. Interphase: Cell in its normal state, as the chromosomes begin to replicate. Prophase: The chromatin thickens and becomes visible,
taking on an X shape. The nucleoli and nuclear membrane begin to disappear. Metaphase: The spindle forms between two centrioles. The chromosomes
align on the spindle. Anaphase: Chromosomes split at the centromeres, with each half moving to opposite ends. Telophase: The nucleus reforms and a
groove divides the two new cells.
process. However, actual cell division is a continuous the cells. These factors can either stimulate cell divi-
process, as seen in Figure 1–16. sion or inhibit it. Other factors found in the ECF help
Prophase begins as the chromatin thickens into vis- to control cell death in a process called apoptosis. A
ible chromosomes. This is the first time that the individ- classic example of this balance occurs in the cells that
ual chromosomes can be seen with a light microscope. line the gastrointestinal tract. Cells at the base of the
Along with this process, the nucleoli and nuclear mem- lining divide frequently at a rate that balances with the
brane begin to disappear. At this point, the chromosomes cells undergoing apoptosis and death at the surface of
show the doubling that occurred during interphase. The the lining. The programmed cell death is designed to
chromosomes have an X shape. The two identical halves, occur whenever there is significant cell damage such
or chromatids, are joined at a small point called the cen- as mutations.
tromere. Two small organelles, the centrioles, separate Different cells divide at varying rates. Cells found
and move to opposite ends of the cell. in certain areas such as the bone marrow and linings of
In metaphase, a spindle is formed between the the gastrointestinal tract have stem cells that actively
two centrioles. This is a collection of microtubules that divide on a regular basis. Other cells found in organs
stretch between the two centrioles. The chromosomes such as the liver, kidney, and pancreas do not routinely
move to the center of the cell and align themselves on divide. However, following injury or disease, these
the spindle. cells can become activated into frequent mitosis to al-
As anaphase begins, the chromosomes split at the low repair of the organ. A few specialized cells such as
centromere. At this point, the chromosomes are still nerve and muscle cells have very limited or no ability
on the spindle. Each chromatid begins to move out- to divide.
ward. The centromere portion moves first, giving the
chromosome a V shape. The chromosomes move to
opposite ends of the cell. MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION
Telophase is basically the reverse of prophase.
The chromosomes become loosely organized into chro- Objective
matin. The nuclear membrane and nucleoli return. A ■ Detail Meiosis in Mammalian Reproduction
groove then forms down the center of the cell. This
groove deepens until two identical cells are produced Mammals rely on sexual reproduction for species sur-
in a process called cytokinesis. vival. In sexual reproduction, a sperm cell and egg cell
Mitosis is essential in maintaining the population join to form the new embryo. In this process, half of the
size of cells in the body. The number of cells is estab- genetic material is provided by each of the cells. Mei-
lished on the basis of the frequency of mitosis, the dif- osis is the division in which the resulting cells contain
ferentiation of cells, and cell death. An increase in cell only half of the genetic material.
number can occur if the rate of cell division increases or There are two cell divisions during meiosis, with
the rate of death decreases. In certain instances, a com- only one doubling of the chromatin. The final result is
bination of these two changes has a cumulative effect. the formation of four cells, each with half the number
The rate of cell division is controlled by soluble of chromosomes. Just as in mitosis, meiosis divides into
factors found in the extracellular fluid surrounding phases (Figure 1–17).
The second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis.

The net effect of meiosis is the formation of four cells,
each with half of the original number of chromosomes.
Prophase I: Mammals should have an even number
of chromosomes. The chromosomes come in pairs, and
each member of a pair is called a homologue. Before
prophase I, the homologue of each pair replicates and
is formed by two strands (or chromatids). The chro-
Early Prophase I Middle Prophase I Late Prophase I matids are joined by a centromere. Prophase I is very
(Leptotene) (Zygotene) (Diplotene)
complex. The basic process allows the homologues to
pair up near the center of the cell. In this arrangement,
the homologues are joined at several points. At these
points, an exchange of DNA fragments occurs.
Metaphase I: This step is very similar to mitosis.
The nuclear membrane and nucleoli begin to disap-
pear. The paired chromosomes move into alignment
on the spindle. The important distinction in meiosis is
that the homologues align themselves where they will
Metaphase I Anaphase I be divided into opposite cells.
Anaphase I and Telophase I: In anaphase, the chro-
mosomes begin to move to opposite ends of the cell.
In this step, the centromere does not split. Rather, the
pairs of chromosomes are divided.
The length of interphase between the two divisions
Telophase I is variable, and may even be zero (i.e., this phase may
not occur at all). The two cells produced enter into the
second division. The second division of meiosis is basi-
cally the same as mitosis. In this division, the chromo-
somes align on the spindle, separate at the centromere,
Prophase II and send one strand to each new cell. The stages are
named just as they are in mitosis. The final result of
meiosis is the formation of four cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes of the original cell.
Meiosis allows genetic material to be provided
from each parent. The exchange of genetic material be-
Metaphase II
tween homologues in prophase I produces variability
in each cell. Offspring acquire traits from each parent.
With the variation, no two sperm or egg cells will pro-
vide the same genetic material.
Twinning can result in two animals having the
same genetic makeup. Identical twins occur when an
embryo splits. Each half then develops into a new em-
bryo. The resulting offspring begin life with identical
Anaphase II
chromosomes. Even identical twins, however, do not
appear completely identical. There is variation in the
way the genes are expressed.
CLINICAL PRACTICE
Telophase II
Objective
FIGURE 1–17 Meiosis: A two-division process. Prophase I: Homologous ■ Connect Cellular Parts and Function to Clinical Veterinary
chromosomes align in the center of the cell. The homologues exchange Practice
segments of genetic material. Metaphase I: Similar to the step in mitosis,
except that the homologues will separate into opposite cells. Anaphase I: In clinical practice, the appearance of cells is often
The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell. Telophase I: The cell is evaluated. A biopsy takes tissues or cells from an
divided into two daughter cells, each with half of the chromosome numbers
animal for microscopic review. This procedure allows
of the original cell.
diagnosis. In tumors, the cells divide without normal
Photograph courtesy Dr. Arthur Hattel, Pennsylvania State University.

control. This leads to a mass in the tissue or in an
organ. Tumors are divided into two major groups,
benign and malignant. Benign tumors are localized
to one area, have a well-defined margin, and do not
spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors
are more likely to invade surrounding tissues and
spread to other parts of the body. For example, cells
from a tumor may break away and move into the
bloodstream or lymph vessels and then settle into a
new location. The spread of a tumor from its primary
location is called metastasis. The word tumor, or
neoplasm, can be used to describe either a benign or
malignant mass. The term cancer is typically used in FIGURE 1–18 Photomicrograph (high power) of cancer (squamous cell
reference to a malignant tumor. With biopsy, cells are carcinoma) in the skin of a horse. There is variation in the shape and size
evaluated to determine the type of tumor that is pres- of the nucleus and cells. Many mitotic figures can also be seen.
ent. Penny’s tumor was submitted for biopsy. Fortu-
nately, the pathologists (who interpret and diagnose
changes in cells and tissues) found the tumor to be bloodstream. The walls of the smallest blood vessels
benign and did not find any tumor cells at the margins (capillaries) act as a semipermeable membrane. They
of the sample. This was great news for Penny, and we do not allow the protein within the blood to freely
were optimistic that her tumor would not cause any move to the extracellular fluid. Water, on the other
more problems. hand, is able to move freely in either direction.
Tumors develop because the cells are growing Osmosis occurs across the walls of the capillar-
rapidly and dividing without normal control. Changes ies. With normal blood protein levels, a balance is
that occur in DNA allow a tumor cell to divide, inde- reached between the extracellular fluid and the liq-
pendent of the inhibitory and stimulating control of uid portion of blood. As protein levels decline, there
normal growth factors. The tumor begins from a single is less osmotic pressure to keep water within the
defective cell. Further division can allow even further blood vessels. As protein continues to decline, water
mutations that influence some other aspect of the cell accumulates within the tissues. In sheep with severe
cycle. For example, tumor cells lose susceptibility to parasitism, the most common site for this fluid accu-
factors that control apoptosis. Normal cells require at- mulation to occur is below the jaw.
tachment to other cells and surrounding matrix. Cancer Sadie, a nine-year-old Papillon, presented with a
cells develop the ability to replicate without this at- distended abdomen. Previous workup by a specialist
tachment. This feature is critical to allow for metastasis had discovered a kidney problem that allowed protein
with cells spread from the original tumor being able to to leak into the urine. Table 1–5 shows that Sadie’s
replicate at a new location. total protein had dropped below normal. This was
Many features of cancer can be predicted with primarily due to the decrease in albumin. Sadie’s liver
this information. In cancerous cells, there is often a was unable to make albumin quickly enough to replace
large nucleus with many nucleoli. The chromatin is what was lost. As a result, Sadie developed ascites,
often clumped and visible. There are many more cells an accumulation of free fluid within the abdomen
involved in the process of cell division than in normal (Figure 1–19). On presentation, Sadie weighed four
tissue. Furthermore, many of the dividing cells have pounds, and more than one half pound of fluid was
an abnormal spindle. Only with an understanding of
the normal cell cycle can we interpret these abnormal
findings (Figure 1–18).
Bottle jaw is a term used to describe an accumula- Table 1–5 Blood Results for Sadie, a 9-Year-Old Spayed
tion of fluid within the tissues under the jaw. Edema Female Papillon
describes excess fluid within a tissue. In bottle jaw,
it is described as pitting edema, because finger pres- Sadie Reference Range
sure into the tissue creates a “pit” that only slowly Total protein 3.4 g/dl 5.2–8.2
resolves. Bottle jaw occurs in severely parasitized
sheep. Parasites within the intestinal tract consume Albumin 1.0 g/dl 2.2–3.9
such a large amount of protein that the animal is
Globulin 2.4 g/dl 2.5–4.5
unable to maintain normal protein levels within the

FIGURE 1–19 Photograph of Sadie showing her abdomen distended with ascites.
drawn from the abdomen. This lowered the pressure In peritoneal dialysis, an electrolyte solution is
on her internal organs and provided immediate relief. infused into the abdomen through a catheter. Urea
The low protein level meant the ascites would rapidly is able to diffuse across the membrane that lines the
recur. To slow this progression, Sadie was given a solu- abdomen. Because there is no urea within the infused
tion of hetastarch into her bloodstream. Hetastarch is electrolyte solution, the urea diffuses from the higher
a very large molecule that increases osmotic pressure concentration within the bloodstream into the solution.
within the bloodstream, helping to slow the recurrence The solution is then removed from the body, effectively
of ascites. The hetastarch slowly leaves the blood and reducing the level of urea in the bloodstream. Dialysis
thus provides only a temporary benefit. The goal in this must be repeated to remove the urea that is subse-
case is to improve the osmotic pressure until a more quently produced. Dialysis is used to maintain the
permanent cure can be found. animal in the hope that the kidneys will recover from
Diffusion and osmosis are used therapeutically in the toxic effect.
the process of dialysis. Dialysis is a treatment option in Understanding cellular function is essential for
kidney failure. As will be discussed later in the text, the sound veterinary practice. Although there is great
kidneys serve to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance similarity among all mammals, there are species dif-
within the body. In addition, the kidneys function to ferences. This chapter has discussed enzymes and their
remove many forms of soluble waste products. Ethyl- importance in cellular function. Cells contain enzymes
ene glycol found in certain antifreeze products is ex- that break down medication (that is why medicines
tremely toxic to the kidneys. Unfortunately, pets often must be given more than once). Furthermore, differ-
find the antifreeze palatable (i.e., tasty) and will ingest ences between animals can lead to reactions to med-
enough to severely damage the kidneys. ications. Cats possess much less of certain enzymes
When the kidneys do not function adequately, that break down many medications. Acetaminophen
toxins increase in the bloodstream, and many electro- (Tylenol), a common over-the-counter pain reliever,
lyte levels become imbalanced. The complete process has been proved quite safe for use in humans. Because
of dialysis is quite complex and requires extensive of the differences in the enzymes between species, this
monitoring to be done correctly. Urea will be used as product is very dangerous for cats. As little as half a
an example to describe the function of diffusion in di- tablet designed for adult humans can make a cat sick.
alysis. Urea is a breakdown product in the metabolism Cellular detail seems far removed from a complete an-
of protein. The kidneys normally excrete the urea into imal. However, the details of cells guide treatment of
the urine. With kidney failure the urea level increases animals in clinical practice.
in the bloodstream and acts as a toxin.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Introduction To Veterinary Science 3rd Edition Ebook PDF

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Introduction to Veterinary Science 3rd

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Unit I ■ Comparative Anatomy and Physiology

Unit III ■ Diseases

Unit V ■ Professionalism and Careers

CHAPTER 21 Careers and Decision Making

Chapter 4 The Circulatory System 55

A Day in the Life

draped around my neck! It seems like yesterday, even

Chapter 3 The Musculoskeletal System 41

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

FIGURE 3–14 Radiograph of the lumbar spine of a dog. A portion of the

FIGURE 1–5 Chemical structure of a nucleotide.

2. Cytosine 2. Cytosine used in protein synthesis. A group of three nitroge-

10 Unit 1 Comparative Anatomy and Physiology

Cytoplasm Extracellular enzyme begins at a specific series of bases (thymine,

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

BONE STRUCTURE Distal Epiphysis Each chapter is further enhanced by the

spongy arrangement keeps the weight of the bones

88 Unit 1 Comparative Anatomy and Physiology

Courtesy of Dr. David Sweet.

EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

A Day in the Life

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

CELL MAKEUP of these molecules. They possess the basic structure of

RLong Hydrocarbon Chain Fatty Acid

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

FIGURE 1–4 Chemical structure of selected amino acids.

H OH OH H Protein can bind with other molecules to aid in their

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

FIGURE 1–5 Chemical structure of a nucleotide.

2. Cytosine 2. Cytosine used in protein synthesis. A group of three nitroge-

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

the inside of the cell contained. The cell membrane is

The specialized proteins in the cell membrane influence

Ribosomes Centriole Lysosome

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

CELL FUNCTION 6. Waste products

Objective eliminated by the ECF. Without elimination, the waste

Molecule Hypotonic Solution

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

In certain situations, a cell may require a higher

Large molecules, such as proteins, must be moved

the diffusion occurs. Some large molecules such as

the membrane to equalize the concentration; however,

Cytoplasm Extracellular enzyme begins at a specific series of bases (thymine,

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

Color codes for the bases

mRNA Transcribed Strand

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

Amino Amino Amino Amino Amino Amino O

Cells must reproduce. In mitosis, the cells divide, pro- 2. Prophase

ducing two identical cells. Mitosis is necessary for the 3. Metaphase

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

The second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis.

diagnosis. In tumors, the cells divide without normal

Photograph courtesy Dr. Arthur Hattel, Pennsylvania State University.

© 2017 Cengage Learning®

RLong Hydrocarbon Chain Fatty Acid