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vi Contents
Ex. 4.1-2 Unsteady Laminar Flow between Two Ex. 6.2-2 Flow Rate for a Given Pressure
Parallel Plates 117 Drop 183
Ex. 4.1-3 Unsteady Laminar Flow near an §6.3 Friction Factors for Flow around Spheres 185
Oscillating Plate 120 Ex. 6.3-1 Determination of the Diameter of a Falling
§4.2O Solving Flow Problems Using a Stream Sphere 187
Function 121 §6.4O Friction Factors for Packed Columns 188
Ex. 4.2-1 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 122 Questions for Discussion 192
§4.3O Flow of Inviscid Fluids by Use of the Velocity Problems 193
Potential 126
Ex. 4.3-1 Potential Flow around a Cylinder 128 Chapter 7 Macroscopic Balances for
Ex. 4.3-2 Flow into a Rectangular Channel 130 Isothermal Flow Systems 197
Ex. 4.3-3 Flow near a Corner 131
§4.4O Flow near Solid Surfaces by Boundary-Layer §7.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balance 198
Theory 133 Ex. 7.1-1 Draining of a Spherical Tank 199
Ex. 4.4-1 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate §7.2 The Macroscopic Momentum Balance 200
(Approximate Solution) 136 Ex. 7.2-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part a) 201
Ex. 4.4-2 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate (Exact §7.3 The Macroscopic Angular Momentum
Solution) 137 Balance 202
Ex. 4.4-3 Flow near a Corner 139 Ex. 7.3-1 Torque on a Mixing Vessel 202
Questions for Discussion 140 §7.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 141 Balance 203
Ex. 7.4-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part b) 205
Chapter 5 Velocity Distributions in §7.5 Estimation of the Viscous Loss 205
Turbulent Flow 152 Ex. 7.5-1 Power Requirement for Pipeline
Flow 207
§5.1 Comparisons of Laminar and Turbulent §7.6 Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Steady-State
Flows 154 Problems 209
§5.2 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for Ex. 7.6-1 Pressure Rise and Friction Loss in a
Incompressible Fluids 156 Sudden Enlargement 209
§5.3 The Time-Smoothed Velocity Profile near a Ex. 7.6-2 Performance of a Liquid–Liquid
Wall 159 Ejector 210
§5.4 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Ex. 7.6-3 Thrust on a Pipe Bend 212
Momentum Flux 162 Ex. 7.6-4 The Impinging Jet 214
Ex. 5.4-1 Development of the Reynolds Stress Ex. 7.6-5 Isothermal Flow of a Liquid through an
Expression in the Vicinity of the Wall 164 Orifice 215
§5.5 Turbulent Flow in Ducts 165 §7.7O Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Unsteady-
Ex. 5.5-1 Estimation of the Average Velocity in a State Problems 216
Circular Tube 166 Ex. 7.7.1 Acceleration Effects in Unsteady Flow
Ex. 5.5-2 Application of Prandtl’s Mixing Length from a Cylindrical Tank 217
Formula to Turbulent Flow in a Circular Ex. 7.7-2 Manometer Oscillations 219
Tube 167 §7.8• Derivation of the Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Ex. 5.5-3 Relative Magnitude of Viscosity and Eddy Balance 221
Viscosity 167 Questions for Discussion 223
§5.6O Turbulent Flow in Jets 168 Problems 224
Ex. 5.6-1 Time-Smoothed Velocity Distribution in a
Circular Wall Jet 168 Chapter 8 Polymeric Liquids 231
Questions for Discussion 172
Problems 172 §8.1 Examples of the Behavior of Polymeric
Liquids 232
Chapter 6 Interphase Transport in §8.2 Rheometry and Material Functions 236
Isothermal Systems 177 §8.3 Non-Newtonian Viscosity and the Generalized
Newtonian Models 240
§6.1 Definition of Friction Factors 178 Ex. 8.3-1 Laminar Flow of an Incompressible
§6.2 Friction Factors for Flow in Tubes 179 Power-Law Fluid in a Circular Tube 242
Ex. 6.2-1 Pressure Drop Required for a Given Flow Ex. 8.3-2 Flow of a Power-Law Fluid in a Narrow
Rate 183 Slit 243
Contents vii
Ex. 8.3-3 Tangential Annular Flow of a Power- Chapter 10 Shell Energy Balances and
Law Fluid 244 Temperature Distributions in
§8.4O Elasticity and the Linear Viscoelastic Solids and Laminar Flow 290
Models 244
Ex. 8.4-1 Small-Amplitude Oscillatory §10.1 Shell Energy Balances; Boundary
Motion 247 Conditions 291
Ex. 8.4-2 Unsteady Viscoelastic Flow near an §10.2 Heat Conduction with an Electrical Heat
Oscillating Plate 248 Source 292
§8.5• The Corotational Derivatives and the Nonlinear Ex. 10.2-1 Voltage Required for a Given
Viscoelastic Models 249 Temperature Rise in a Wire Heated by an
Ex. 8.5-1 Material Functions for the Oldroyd 6- Electric Current 295
Constant Model 251 Ex. 10.2-2 Heated Wire with Specified Heat
§8.6• Molecular Theories for Polymeric Liquids 253 Transfer Coefficient and Ambient Air
Ex. 8.6-1 Material Functions for the FENE-P Temperature 295
Model 255 §10.3 Heat Conduction with a Nuclear Heat
Questions for Discussion 258 Source 296
Problems 258 §10.4 Heat Conduction with a Viscous Heat
Source 298
§10.5 Heat Conduction with a Chemical Heat
Source 300
Part II Energy Transport §10.6 Heat Conduction through Composite
Walls 303
Ex. 10.6-1 Composite Cylindrical Walls 305
Chapter 9 Thermal Conductivity and §10.7 Heat Conduction in a Cooling Fin 307
the Mechanisms of Energy Ex. 10.7-1 Error in Thermocouple
Transport 265 Measurement 309
§10.8 Forced Convection 310
§9.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (Molecular
§10.9 Free Convection 316
Energy Transport) 266
Ex. 9.1-1 Measurement of Thermal
Problems 320
Conductivity 270
§9.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Thermal
Conductivity 272 Chapter 11 The Equations of Change for
Ex. 9.2-1 Effect of Pressure on Thermal Nonisothermal Systems 333
Conductivity 273
§9.3O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Low §11.1 The Energy Equation 333
Density 274 §11.2 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 336
Ex. 9.3-1 Computation of the Thermal §11.3 The Boussinesq Equation of Motion for Forced
Conductivity of a Monatomic Gas at Low and Free Convection 338
Density 277 §11.4 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve Steady-
Ex. 9.3-2 Estimation of the Thermal Conductivity State Problems 339
of a Polyatomic Gas at Low Density 278 Ex. 11.4-1 Steady-State Forced-Convection Heat
Ex. 9.3-3 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Circular
of a Gas Mixture at Low Density 278 Tube 342
§9.4O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-2 Tangential Flow in an Annulus with
Liquids 279 Viscous Heat Generation 342
Ex. 9.4-1 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-3 Steady Flow in a Nonisothermal
a Liquid 280 Film 343
§9.5O Thermal Conductivity of Solids 280 Ex. 11.4-4 Transpiration Cooling 344
§9.6O Effective Thermal Conductivity of Composite Ex. 11.4-5 Free Convection Heat Transfer from a
Solids 281 Vertical Plate 346
§9.7 Convective Transport of Energy 283 Ex. 11.4-6 Adiabatic Frictionless Processes in an
§9.8 Work Associated with Molecular Ideal Gas 349
Motions 284 Ex. 11.4-7 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow:
Questions for Discussion 286 Velocity, Temperature, and Pressure Profiles in a
Problems 287 Stationary Shock Wave 350
viii Contents
§11.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §13.4O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
for Nonisothermal Systems 353 Tubes 411
Ex. 11.5-1 Temperature Distribution about a Long §13.5O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
Cylinder 356 Jets 415
Ex. 11.5-2 Free Convection in a Horizontal Fluid §13.6• Fourier Analysis of Energy Transport in Tube Flow
Layer; Formation of Bénard Cells 358 at Large Prandtl Numbers 416
Ex. 11.5-3 Surface Temperature of an Electrical Questions for Discussion 421
Heating Coil 360 Problems 421
Problems 361
Chapter 14 Interphase Transport in
Chapter 12 Temperature Distributions with More Nonisothermal Systems 422
than One Independent Variable 374 §14.1 Definitions of Heat Transfer Coefficients 423
Ex. 14.1-1 Calculation of Heat Transfer Coefficients
§12.1 Unsteady Heat Conduction in Solids 374
from Experimental Data 426
Ex. 12.1-1 Heating of a Semi-Infinite Slab 375
§14.2 Analytical Calculations of Heat Transfer
Ex. 12.1-2 Heating of a Finite Slab 376
Coefficients for Forced Convection through Tubes
Ex. 12.1-3 Unsteady Heat Conduction near a Wall
and Slits 428
with Sinusoidal Heat Flux 379
§14.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Ex. 12.1-4 Cooling of a Sphere in Contact with a
in Tubes 433
Well-Stirred Fluid 379
Ex. 14.3-1 Design of a Tubular Heater 437
§12.2O Steady Heat Conduction in Laminar,
Incompressible Flow 381
around Submerged Objects 438
Ex. 12.2-1 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
Flux at the Wall 383
through Packed Beds 441
Ex. 12.2-2 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
§14.6O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Free and Mixed
Flux at the Wall: Asymptotic Solution for the
Convection 442
Entrance Region 384
Ex. 14.6-1 Heat Loss by Free Convection from a
§12.3O Steady Potential Flow of Heat in Solids 385
Horizontal Pipe 445
Ex. 12.3-1 Temperature Distribution in a
§14.7O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensation of
Wall 386
Pure Vapors on Solid Surfaces 446
§12.4O Boundary Layer Theory for Nonisothermal
Ex. 14.7-1 Condensation of Steam on a Vertical
Flow 387
Surface 449
Ex. 12.4-1 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (the von
Problems 450
Kármán Integral Method) 388
Ex. 12.4-2 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (Asymptotic Chapter 15 Macroscopic Balances for
Solution for Large Prandtl Numbers) 391 Nonisothermal Systems 454
Ex. 12.4-3 Forced Convection in Steady Three-
Dimensional Flow at High Prandtl §15.1 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 455
Numbers 392 §15.2 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Questions for Discussion 394 Balance 456
Problems 395 §15.3 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems with Flat Velocity Profiles 458
Chapter 13 Temperature Distributions in Ex. 15.3-1 The Cooling of an Ideal Gas 459
Turbulent Flow 407 Ex. 15.3-2 Mixing of Two Ideal Gas
Streams 460
§13.1 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for §15.4 The d-Forms of the Macroscopic Balances 461
Incompressible Nonisothermal Flow 407 Ex. 15.4-1 Parallel- or Counter-Flow Heat
§13.2 The Time-Smoothed Temperature Profile near a Exchangers 462
Wall 409 Ex. 15.4-2 Power Requirement for Pumping a
§13.3 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Heat Compressible Fluid through a Long Pipe 464
Flux 410 §15.5O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve
Ex. 13.3-1 An Approximate Relation for the Wall Unsteady-State Problems and Problems with
Heat Flux for Turbulent Flow in a Tube 411 Nonflat Velocity Profiles 465
Contents ix
Ex. 15.5-1 Heating of a Liquid in an Agitated Ex. 17.2-3 Estimation of Binary Diffusivity at High
Tank 466 Density 524
Ex. 15.5-2 Operation of a Simple Temperature §17.3O Theory of Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 525
Controller 468 Ex. 17.3-1 Computation of Mass Diffusivity for
Ex. 15.5-3 Flow of Compressible Fluids through Low-Density Monatomic Gases 528
Head Meters 471 §17.4O Theory of Diffusion in Binary Liquids 528
Ex. 15.5-4 Free Batch Expansion of a Compressible Ex. 17.4-1 Estimation of Liquid Diffusivity 530
Fluid 472 §17.5O Theory of Diffusion in Colloidal
Questions for Discussion 474 Suspensions 531
Problems 474 §17.6O Theory of Diffusion in Polymers 532
§17.7 Mass and Molar Transport by Convection 533
Chapter 16 Energy Transport by Radiation 487 §17.8 Summary of Mass and Molar Fluxes 536
§17.9O The Maxwell–Stefan Equations for Multicomponent
§16.1 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation 488 Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 538
§16.2 Absorption and Emission at Solid Surfaces 490 Questions for Discussion 538
§16.3 Planck’s Distribution Law, Wien’s Displacement Problems 539
Law, and the Stefan–Boltzmann Law 493
Ex. 16.3-1 Temperature and Radiation-Energy
Emission of the Sun 496 Chapter 18 Concentration Distributions in
§16.4 Direct Radiation between Black Bodies in Vacuo at Solids and Laminar Flow 543
Different Temperatures 497 §18.1 Shell Mass Balances; Boundary Conditions 545
Ex. 16.4-1 Estimation of the Solar Constant 501 §18.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 545
Ex. 16.4-2 Radiant Heat Transfer between Ex. 18.2-1 Diffusion with a Moving
Disks 501 Interface 549
§16.5O Radiation between Nonblack Bodies at Different Ex. 18.2-2 Determination of Diffusivity 549
Temperatures 502 Ex. 18.2-3 Diffusion through a Nonisothermal
Ex. 16.5-1 Radiation Shields 503 Spherical Film 550
Ex. 16.5-2 Radiation and Free-Convection Heat §18.3 Diffusion with a Heterogeneous Chemical
Losses from a Horizontal Pipe 504 Reaction 551
Ex. 16.5-3 Combined Radiation and Ex. 18.3-1 Diffusion with a Slow Heterogeneous
Convection 505 Reaction 553
§16.6O Radiant Energy Transport in Absorbing §18.4 Diffusion with a Homogeneous Chemical
Media 506 Reaction 554
Ex. 16.6-1 Absorption of a Monochromatic Radiant Ex. 18.4-1 Gas Absorption with Chemical Reaction
Beam 507 in an Agitated Tank 555
Questions for Discussion 508 §18.5 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Gas
Problems 508 Absorption) 558
Ex. 18.5-1 Gas Absorption from Rising
Bubbles 560
Part III Mass Transport §18.6 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Solid
Dissolution) 562
§18.7 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction inside a Porous
Chapter 17 Diffusivity and the Mechanisms of
Catalyst 563
Mass Transport 513
§18.8O Diffusion in a Three-Component Gas
§17.1 Fick’s Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular Mass System 567
Transport) 514 Questions for Discussion 568
Ex. 17.1-1. Diffusion of Helium through Pyrex Problems 568
Glass 519
Ex. 17.1-2 The Equivalence of AB and BA 520 Chapter 19 Equations of Change for
§17.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Multicomponent Systems 582
Diffusivities 521
Ex. 17.2-1 Estimation of Diffusivity at Low §19.1 The Equations of Continuity for a Multicomponent
Density 523 Mixture 582
Ex. 17.2-2 Estimation of Self-Diffusivity at High Ex. 19.1-1 Diffusion, Convection, and Chemical
Density 523 Reaction 585
x Contents
§19.2 Summary of the Multicomponent Equations of §20.5• “Taylor Dispersion” in Laminar Tube Flow 643
Change 586 Questions for Discussion 647
§19.3 Summary of the Multicomponent Fluxes 590 Problems 648
Ex. 19.3-1 The Partial Molar Enthalpy 591
§19.4 Use of the Equations of Change for Mixtures 592
Chapter 21 Concentration Distributions in
Ex. 19.4-1 Simultaneous Heat and Mass
Transport 592 Turbulent Flow 657
Ex. 19.4-2 Concentration Profile in a Tubular §21.1 Concentration Fluctuations and the Time-
Reactor 595 Smoothed Concentration 657
Ex. 19.4-3 Catalytic Oxidation of Carbon §21.2 Time-Smoothing of the Equation of Continuity
Monoxide 596 of A 658
Ex. 19.4-4 Thermal Conductivity of a Polyatomic §21.3 Semi-Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Mass
Gas 598 Flux 659
§19.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §21.4O Enhancement of Mass Transfer by a First-Order
for Nonreacting Binary Mixtures 599 Reaction in Turbulent Flow 659
Ex. 19.5-1 Concentration Distribution about a Long §21.5• Turbulent Mixing and Turbulent Flow with
Cylinder 601 Second-Order Reaction 663
Ex. 19.5-2 Fog Formation during Questions for Discussion 667
Dehumidification 602 Problems 668
Ex. 19.5-3 Blending of Miscible Fluids 604
Problems 606 Chapter 22 Interphase Transport in
Nonisothermal Mixtures 671
Chapter 20 Concentration Distributions with §22.1 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in One

More than One Independent Phase 672
Variable 612 §22.2 Analytical Expressions for Mass Transfer
Coefficients 676
§20.1 Time-Dependent Diffusion 613 §22.3 Correlation of Binary Transfer Coefficients in One
Ex. 20.1-1 Unsteady-State Evaporation of a Liquid Phase 679
(the “Arnold Problem”) 613 Ex. 22.3-1 Evaporation from a Freely Falling
Ex. 20.1-2 Gas Absorption with Rapid Drop 682
Reaction 617 Ex. 22.3-2 The Wet and Dry Bulb
Ex. 20.1-3 Unsteady Diffusion with First-Order Psychrometer 683
Homogeneous Reaction 619 Ex. 22.3-3 Mass Transfer in Creeping Flow through
Ex. 20.1-4 Influence of Changing Interfacial Area Packed Beds 685
on Mass Transfer at an Interface 621 Ex. 22.3-4 Mass Transfer to Drops and
§20.2O Steady-State Transport in Binary Boundary Bubbles 687
Layers 623 §22.4 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in Two
Ex. 20.2-1 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction in Phases 687
Isothermal Laminar Flow along a Soluble Flat Ex. 22.4-1 Determination of the Controlling
Plate 625 Resistance 690
Ex. 20.2-2 Forced Convection from a Flat Plate at Ex. 22.4-2 Interaction of Phase Resistances 691
High Mass-Transfer Rates 627 Ex. 22.4-3 Area Averaging 693
Ex. 20.2-3 Approximate Analogies for the Flat Plate §22.5O Mass Transfer and Chemical Reactions 694
at Low Mass-Transfer Rates 632 Ex. 22.5-1 Estimation of the Interfacial Area in a
§20.3• Steady-State Boundary-Layer Theory for Flow Packed Column 694
around Objects 633 Ex. 22.5-2 Estimation of Volumetric Mass Transfer
Ex. 20.3-1 Mass Transfer for Creeping Flow around Coefficients 695
a Gas Bubble 636 Ex. 22.5-3 Model-Insensitive Correlations for
§20.4• Boundary Layer Mass Transport with Complex Absorption with Rapid Reaction 696
Interfacial Motion 637 §22.6O Combined Heat and Mass Transfer by Free
Ex. 20.4-1 Mass Transfer with Nonuniform Convection 698
Interfacial Deformation 641 Ex. 22.6-1 Additivity of Grashof Numbers 698
Ex. 20.4-2 Gas Absorption with Rapid Reaction and Ex. 22.6-2 Free-Convection Heat Transfer as a Source
Interfacial Deformation 642 of Forced-Convection Mass Transfer 698
Contents xi
§22.7O Effects of Interfacial Forces on Heat and Mass Ex. 23.6-2 Unsteady Operation of a Packed
Transfer 699 Column 753
Ex. 22.7-1 Elimination of Circulation in a Rising Ex. 23.6-3 The Utility of Low-Order
Gas Bubble 701 Moments 756
Ex. 22.7-2 Marangoni Instability in a Falling Questions for Discussion 758
Film 702 Problems 759
§22.8O Transfer Coefficients at High Net Mass Transfer
Rates 703 Chapter 24 Other Mechanisms for
Ex. 22.8-1 Rapid Evaporation of a Liquid from a Mass Transport 764
Plane Surface 710
Ex. 22.8-2 Correction Factors in Droplet §24.1• The Equation of Change for Entropy 765
Evaporation 711 §24.2• The Flux Expressions for Heat and Mass 767
Ex. 22.8-3 Wet-Bulb Performance Corrected for Ex. 24.2-1 Thermal Diffusion and the
Mass-Transfer Rate 711 Clusius–Dickel Column 770
Ex. 22.8-4 Comparison of Film and Penetration Ex. 24.2-2 Pressure Diffusion and the Ultra-
Models for Unsteady Evaporation in a Long centrifuge 772
Tube 712 §24.3O Concentration Diffusion and Driving Forces 774
Ex. 22.8-5 Concentration Polarization in §24.4O Applications of the Generalized Maxwell–Stefan
Ultrafiltration 713 Equations 775
§22.9• Matrix Approximations for Multicomponent Mass Ex. 24.4-1 Centrifugation of Proteins 776
Transport 716 Ex. 24.4-2 Proteins as Hydrodynamic
Questions for Discussion 721 Particles 779
Problems 722 Ex. 24.4-3 Diffusion of Salts in an Aqueous
Solution 780
Ex. 24.4-4 Departures from Local Electroneutrality:
Chapter 23 Macroscopic Balances for Electro-Osmosis 782
Multicomponent Systems 726 Ex. 24.4-5 Additional Mass-Transfer Driving
Forces 784
§23.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balances 727
§24.5O Mass Transport across Selectively Permeable
Ex. 23.1-1 Disposal of an Unstable Waste
Membranes 785
Product 728
Ex. 24.5-1 Concentration Diffusion between
Ex. 23.1-2 Binary Splitters 730
Preexisting Bulk Phases 788
Ex. 23.1-3 The Macroscopic Balances and Dirac’s
Ex. 24.5-2 Ultrafiltration and Reverse
“Separative Capacity” and “Value
Osmosis 789
Function” 731
Ex. 24.5-3 Charged Membranes and Donnan
Ex. 23.1-4 Compartmental Analysis 733
Exclusion 791
Ex. 23.1-5 Time Constants and Model
§24.6O Mass Transport in Porous Media 793
Insensitivity 736
Ex. 24.6-1 Knudsen Diffusion 795
§23.2O The Macroscopic Momentum and Angular
Ex. 24.6-2 Transport from a Binary External
Momentum Balances 738
Solution 797
§23.3 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 738
§23.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 799
Balance 739
§23.5 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems 739 Postface 805
Ex. 23.5-1 Energy Balances for a Sulfur Dioxide
Converter 739
Ex. 23.5-2 Height of a Packed-Tower Appendices
Absorber 742
Ex. 23.5-3 Linear Cascades 746 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation 807
Ex. 23.5-4 Expansion of a Reactive Gas Mixture
through a Frictionless Adiabatic Nozzle 749 §A.1 Vector Operations from a Geometrical
§23.6O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Viewpoint 808
Unsteady-State Problems 752 §A.2 Vector Operations in Terms of
Ex. 23.6-1 Start-Up of a Chemical Components 810
Reactor 752 Ex. A.2-1 Proof of a Vector Identity 814
xii Contents
§A.3 Tensor Operations in Terms of §C.3 Differentiation of Integrals (the Leibniz

Components 815 Formula) 854
§A.4 Vector and Tensor Differential Operations 819 §C.4 The Gamma Function 855
Ex. A.4-1 Proof of a Tensor Identity 822 §C.5 The Hyperbolic Functions 856
§A.5 Vector and Tensor Integral Theorems 824 §C.6 The Error Function 857
§A.6 Vector and Tensor Algebra in Curvilinear
Coordinates 825
§A.7 Differential Operations in Curvilinear Appendix D The Kinetic Theory of Gases 858
Coordinates 829
Ex. A.7-1 Differential Operations in Cylindrical §D.1 The Boltzmann Equation 858
Coordinates 831 §D.2 The Equations of Change 859
Ex. A.7-2 Differential Operations in Spherical §D.3 The Molecular Expressions for the
Coordinates 838 Fluxes 859
§A.8 Integral Operations in Curvilinear §D.4 The Solution to the Boltzmann Equation 860
Coordinates 839 §D.5 The Fluxes in Terms of the Transport
§A.9 Further Comments on Vector–Tensor Properties 860
Notation 841 §D.6 The Transport Properties in Terms of the
Intermolecular Forces 861
§D.7 Concluding Comments 861
Appendix B Fluxes and the Equations of
Change 843
§B.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity 843 Appendix E Tables for Prediction of

§B.2 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction 845 Transport Properties 863
§B.3 Fick’s (First) Law of Binary Diffusion 846
§E.1 Intermolecular Force Parameters and Critical
§B.4 The Equation of Continuity 846
Properties 864
§B.5 The Equation of Motion in Terms of ␶ 847
§E.2 Functions for Prediction of Transport Properties
§B.6 The Equation of Motion for a Newtonian Fluid
of Gases at Low Densities 866
with Constant and 848
§B.7 The Dissipation Function v for Newtonian
Fluids 849
Appendix F Constants and Conversion
§B.8 The Equation of Energy in Terms of q 849
§B.9 The Equation of Energy for Pure Newtonian
Factors 867
Fluids with Constant and k 850 §F.1 Mathematical Constants 867
§B.10 The Equation of Continuity for Species in Terms §F.2 Physical Constants 867
of j 850 §F.3 Conversion Factors 868
§B.11 The Equation of Continuity for Species A in
Terms of A for Constant AB 851 Notation 872
Appendix C Mathematical Topics 852 Author Index 877

§C.1 Some Ordinary Differential Equations and Their
Solutions 852 Subject Index 885
§C.2 Expansions of Functions in Taylor
Series 853 About the Authors 897
Chapter 0
The Subject of Transport

Phenomena
§0.1 What are the transport phenomena?
§0.2 Three levels at which transport phenomena can be studied
§0.3 The conservation laws: an example
§0.4 Concluding comments
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe the scope, aims, and methods of
the subject of transport phenomena. It is important to have some idea about the struc-
ture of the field before plunging into the details; without this perspective it is not possi-
ble to appreciate the unifying principles of the subject and the interrelation of the
various individual topics. A good grasp of transport phenomena is essential for under-
standing many processes in engineering, agriculture, meteorology, physiology, biology,
analytical chemistry, materials science, pharmacy, and other areas. Transport phenom-
ena is a well-developed and eminently useful branch of physics that pervades many
areas of applied science.
§0.1 WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT PHENOMENA?

The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynam-
ics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momentum,
heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the
transport of mass of various chemical species. These three transport phenomena should,
at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons:
• They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by it-
self is the exception rather than the rule.
• The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely re-
lated. The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solv-
ing problems “by analogy.”
• The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar.
Although it is not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be re-
quired to review various mathematical topics as the development unfolds. Learn-
ing how to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studying
transport phenomena.
• The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are very
closely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular
1
2 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena
motions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
diffusion.
The main aim of this book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phe-
nomena, present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use
them to solve problems.
There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass trans-
fer. In addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individual
subjects and even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents of
this book should find it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeply
into other aspects of the theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, design
methods, and applications. That is, this book should not be regarded as the complete
presentation of the subject, but rather as a stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge that
lies beyond.
§0.2 THREE LEVELS AT WHICH TRANSPORT

PHENOMENA CAN BE STUDIED
In Fig. 0.2-1 we show a schematic diagram of a large system—for example, a large piece
of equipment through which a fluid mixture is flowing. We can describe the transport of
mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum at three different levels.
At the macroscopic level (Fig. 0.2-1a) we write down a set of equations called the
“macroscopic balances,” which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum in the system change because of the introduction and removal of these enti-
ties via the entering and leaving streams, and because of various other inputs to the sys-
tem from the surroundings. No attempt is made to understand all the details of the
system. In studying an engineering or biological system it is a good idea to start with
this macroscopic description in order to make a global assessment of the problem; in
some instances it is only this overall view that is needed.
At the microscopic level (Fig. 0.2-1b) we examine what is happening to the fluid mix-
ture in a small region within the equipment. We write down a set of equations called the
“equations of change,” which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum change within this small region. The aim here is to get information about ve-
locity, temperature, pressure, and concentration profiles within the system. This more
detailed information may be required for the understanding of some processes.
At the molecular level (Fig. 0.2-1c) we seek a fundamental understanding of the mech-
anisms of mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum transport in terms of mol-
Q = heat added to system
"2"
"1" Fig. 0.2-1 (a) A macro-

scopic flow system contain-
Wm = Work done on the system by
ing N2 and O2; (b) a
the surroundings by means
of moving parts microscopic region within
the macroscopic system
containing N2 and O2,
(a) which are in a state of flow;
(c) a collision between a
molecule of N2 and a mole-
(b)
(c) cule of O2.
§0.2 Three Levels At Which Transport Phenomena Can Be Studied 3
ecular structure and intermolecular forces. Generally this is the realm of the theoretical
physicist or physical chemist, but occasionally engineers and applied scientists have to
get involved at this level. This is particularly true if the processes being studied involve
complex molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically reacting
systems.
It should be evident that these three levels of description involve different “length
scales”: for example, in a typical industrial problem, at the macroscopic level the dimen-
sions of the flow systems may be of the order of centimeters or meters; the microscopic
level involves what is happening in the micron to the centimeter range; and molecular-
level problems involve ranges of about 1 to 1000 nanometers.
This book is divided into three parts dealing with
• Flow of pure fluids at constant temperature (with emphasis on viscous and con-
vective momentum transport)—Chapters 1–8
• Flow of pure fluids with varying temperature (with emphasis on conductive, con-
vective, and radiative energy transport)—Chapters 9–16
• Flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition (with emphasis on diffusive and
convective mass transport)—Chapters 17–24
That is, we build from the simpler to the more difficult problems. Within each of these
parts, we start with an initial chapter dealing with some results of the molecular theory
of the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity). Then we
proceed to the microscopic level and learn how to determine the velocity, temperature,
and concentration profiles in various kinds of systems. The discussion concludes with
the macroscopic level and the description of large systems.
As the discussion unfolds, the reader will appreciate that there are many connec-
tions between the levels of description. The transport properties that are described by
molecular theory are used at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the equations devel-
oped at the microscopic level are needed in order to provide some input into problem
solving at the macroscopic level.
There are also many connections between the three areas of momentum, energy,
and mass transport. By learning how to solve problems in one area, one also learns the
techniques for solving problems in another area. The similarities of the equations in the
three areas mean that in many instances one can solve a problem “by analogy”—that is,
by taking over a solution directly from one area and, by changing the symbols in the
equations, immediately writing down the solution to a problem in another area.
The student will find that these connections—among levels, and among the various
transport phenomena—reinforce the learning process. As one goes from the first part of
the book (momentum transport) to the second part (energy transport) and then on to the
third part (mass transport) the story will be very similar but the “names of the players”
will change.
Table 0.2-1 shows the arrangement of the chapters in the form of a 3 8 “matrix.”
Just a brief glance at the matrix will make it abundantly clear what kinds of interconnec-
tions can be expected in the course of the study of the book. We recommend that the
book be studied by columns, particularly in undergraduate courses. For graduate stu-
dents, on the other hand, studying the topics by rows may provide a chance to reinforce
the connections between the three areas of transport phenomena.
At all three levels of description—molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic—the
conservation laws play a key role. The derivation of the conservation laws for molecu-
lar systems is straightforward and instructive. With elementary physics and a mini-
mum of mathematics we can illustrate the main concepts and review key physical
quantities that will be encountered throughout this book. That is the topic of the next
section.
Table 0.2-1 Organization of the Topics in This Book
Type of transport Momentum Energy Mass
Transport by 1 Viscosity 9 Thermal 17 Diffusivity

molecular motion and the stress conductivity and the
(momentum flux) and the heat-flux mass-flux
tensor vector vectors
Transport in one 2 Shell momentum 10 Shell energy 18 Shell mass

dimension (shell- balances and balances and balances and
balance methods) velocity temperature concentration
distributions distributions distributions
Transport in 3 Equations of 11 Equations of 19 Equations of

arbitrary continua change and their change and change and
(use of general use their use their use
transport equations) [isothermal] [nonisothermal] [mixtures]
Transport with two 4 Momentum 12 Energy transport 20 Mass transport

independent transport with with two with two
variables (special two independent independent independent
methods) variables variables variables
Transport in 5 Turbulent 13 Turbulent 21 Turbulent

turbulent flow, and momentum energy transport; mass transport;
eddy transport transport; eddy eddy thermal eddy
properties viscosity conductivity diffusivity
Transport across 6 Friction factors; 14 Heat-transfer 22 Mass-transfer

phase boundaries use of empirical coefficients; use coefficients; use
correlations of empirical of empirical
correlations correlations
Transport in large 7 Macroscopic 15 Macroscopic 23 Macroscopic

systems, such as balances balances balances
pieces of equipment [isothermal] [nonisothermal] [mixtures]
or parts thereof
Transport by other 8 Momentum 16 Energy 24 Mass transport

mechanisms transport in transport by in multi-
polymeric radiation component
liquids systems; cross
effects
§0.3 THE CONSERVATION LAWS: AN EXAMPLE

The system we consider is that of two colliding diatomic molecules. For simplicity we as-
sume that the molecules do not interact chemically and that each molecule is homonu-
clear—that is, that its atomic nuclei are identical. The molecules are in a low-density gas,
so that we need not consider interactions with other molecules in the neighborhood. In
Fig. 0.3-1 we show the collision between the two homonuclear diatomic molecules, A
and B, and in Fig. 0.3-2 we show the notation for specifying the locations of the two
atoms of one molecule by means of position vectors drawn from an arbitrary origin.
Actually the description of events at the atomic and molecular level should be made
by using quantum mechanics. However, except for the lightest molecules (H2 and He) at
§0.3 The Conservation Laws: An Example 5
2 Fig. 0.3-1 A collision

between homonuclear
1
diatomic molecules,
2 such as N2 and O2.
1 Molecule A is made up
Molecule A before collision
Molecule B before collision of two atoms A1 and
A2. Molecule B is made
up of two atoms B1
and B2.
1 2
1
2 Molecule B after collision

Molecule A after collision
temperatures lower than 50 K, the kinetic theory of gases can be developed quite satis-
factorily by use of classical mechanics.
Several relations must hold between quantities before and after a collision. Both be-
fore and after the collision the molecules are presumed to be sufficiently far apart that
the two molecules cannot “feel” the intermolecular force between them; beyond a dis-
tance of about 5 molecular diameters the intermolecular force is known to be negligible.
Quantities after the collision are indicated with primes.
(a) According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the molecules enter-
ing and leaving the collision must be equal:
mA mB mA mB (0.3-1)
Here mA and mB are the masses of molecules A and B. Since there are no chemical reac-
tions, the masses of the individual species will also be conserved, so that
mA mA and mB mB (0.3-2)
(b) According to the law of conservation of momentum the sum of the momenta of all
the atoms before the collision must equal that after the collision, so that
mA1ṙ A1 mA2ṙ A2 mB1ṙ B1 mB2ṙ B2 mA1ṙA1 mA2ṙA2 mB1ṙB1 mB2ṙB2 (0.3-3)
in which rA1 is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule A, and ṙ A1 is its velocity. We
now write rA1 rA RA1 so that rA1 is written as the sum of the position vector for the
R A2
R A1
Atom A2
Atom A1
rA Center of mass
rA1 of molecule A
rA2
O
Arbitrary origin Fig. 0.3-2 Position vectors for the atoms
fixed in space A1 and A2 in molecule A.
center of mass and the position vector of the atom with respect to the center of mass, and
we recognize that RA2 RA1; we also write the same relations for the velocity vectors.
Then we can rewrite Eq. 0.3-3 as
mAṙ A mBṙ B mAṙA mBṙB (0.3-4)
That is, the conservation statement can be written in terms of the molecular masses and
velocities, and the corresponding atomic quantities have been eliminated. In getting
Eq. 0.3-4 we have used Eq. 0.3-2 and the fact that for homonuclear diatomic molecules
mA1 mA2 2 mA.
1
(c) According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair of
molecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated mol-
ecule is the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential en-
ergy, A, which describes the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 of
molecule A, and is a function of the interatomic distance 兩rA2 rA1兩. Therefore, energy
conservation leads to
(12mA1r˙ 2A1 12mA2r˙ 2A2 A) (12mB1r˙ 2B1 12mB2r˙ 2B2 B)
(12mA1ṙA1
2 12mA2ṙA22 A) (12mB1ṙB12 12mB2ṙB2
2 B) (0.3-5)
Note that we use the standard abbreviated notation that ṙ2A1 (ṙ A1 ṙ A1). We now write
the velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of A
and the velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is, ṙ A1 ṙ A ṘA1. Then Eq.
0.3-5 becomes
(12mAr˙ 2A uA) (12mBr˙ 2B uB) (12mAṙA2 uA) (12mBṙB2 uB) (0.3-6)
in which uA 2mA1Ṙ2A1 2mA2Ṙ2A2 A is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms, re-
1 1
ferred to the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A.
That is, we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect to
fixed coordinates, and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibra-
tional, rotational, and potential energies). Equation 0.3-6 makes it clear that the kinetic
energies of the colliding molecules can be converted into internal energy or vice versa.
This idea of an interchange between kinetic and internal energy will arise again when
we discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.
(d) Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collision
to give
([rA1 mA1ṙ A1] [rA2 mA2ṙ A2]) ([rB1 mB1ṙ B1] [rB2 mB2ṙ B2])
([rA1 mA1ṙA1] [rA2 mA2ṙA2]) ([rB1 mB1ṙB1] [rB2 mB2ṙB2]) (0.3-7)
in which is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce the
center-of-mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtain
([rA mAṙ A] lA) ([rB mBṙ B] lB)

([rA mAṙA] lA) ([rB mBṙB] lB) (0.3-8)
in which lA [RA1 mA1ṘA1] [RA2 mA2ṘA2] is the sum of the angular momenta of the
atoms referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule—that is,
the “internal angular momentum.” The important point is that there is the possibility for
interchange between the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the origin
of coordinates) and their internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of mass
of the molecule). This will be referred to later in connection with the equation of change
for angular momentum.
§0.4 Concluding Comments 7
The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be ob-

tained from the results above as follows: Eqs. 0.3-1, 0.3-2, and 0.3-4 are directly applica-
ble; Eq. 0.3-6 is applicable if the internal energy contributions are omitted; and Eq. 0.3-8
may be used if the internal angular momentum terms are discarded.
Much of this book will be concerned with setting up the conservation laws at the mi-
croscopic and macroscopic levels and applying them to problems of interest in engineer-
ing and science. The above discussion should provide a good background for this
adventure. For a glimpse of the conservation laws for species mass, momentum, and en-
ergy at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, see Tables 19.2-1 and 23.5-1.
§0.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

To use the macroscopic balances intelligently, it is necessary to use information about in-
terphase transport that comes from the equations of change. To use the equations of
change, we need the transport properties, which are described by various molecular the-
ories. Therefore, from a teaching point of view, it seems best to start at the molecular
level and work upward toward the larger systems.
All the discussions of theory are accompanied by examples to illustrate how the the-
ory is applied to problem solving. Then at the end of each chapter there are problems to
provide extra experience in using the ideas given in the chapter. The problems are
grouped into four classes:
Class A: Numerical problems, which are designed to highlight important equa-
tions in the text and to give a feeling for the orders of magnitude.
Class B: Analytical problems that require doing elementary derivations using
ideas mainly from the chapter.
Class C: More advanced analytical problems that may bring ideas from other chap-
ters or from other books.
Class D: Problems in which intermediate mathematical skills are required.
Many of the problems and illustrative examples are rather elementary in that they in-
volve oversimplified systems or very idealized models. It is, however, necessary to start
with these elementary problems in order to understand how the theory works and to de-
velop confidence in using it. In addition, some of these elementary examples can be very
useful in making order-of-magnitude estimates in complex problems.
Here are a few suggestions for studying the subject of transport phenomena:
• Always read the text with pencil and paper in hand; work through the details of
the mathematical developments and supply any missing steps.
• Whenever necessary, go back to the mathematics textbooks to brush up on calculus,
differential equations, vectors, etc. This is an excellent time to review the mathemat-
ics that was learned earlier (but possibly not as carefully as it should have been).
• Make it a point to give a physical interpretation of key results; that is, get in the
habit of relating the physical ideas to the equations.
• Always ask whether the results seem reasonable. If the results do not agree with
intuition, it is important to find out which is incorrect.
• Make it a habit to check the dimensions of all results. This is one very good way of
locating errors in derivations.
We hope that the reader will share our enthusiasm for the subject of transport phe-
nomena. It will take some effort to learn the material, but the rewards will be worth the
time and energy required.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the definitions of momentum, angular momentum, and kinetic energy for a single
particle? What are the dimensions of these quantities?
2. What are the dimensions of velocity, angular velocity, pressure, density, force, work, and
torque? What are some common units used for these quantities?
3. Verify that it is possible to go from Eq. 0.3-3 to Eq. 0.3-4.
4. Go through all the details needed to get Eq. 0.3-6 from Eq. 0.3-5.
5. Suppose that the origin of coordinates is shifted to a new position. What effect would that
have on Eq. 0.3-7? Is the equation changed?
6. Compare and contrast angular velocity and angular momentum.
7. What is meant by internal energy? Potential energy?
8. Is the law of conservation of mass always valid? What are the limitations?
Part One
Momentum
Transport
9
Chapter 1
Viscosity and the Mechanisms

of Momentum Transport
§1.1 Newton’s law of viscosity (molecular momentum transport)
§1.2 Generalization of Newton’s law of viscosity
§1.3 Pressure and temperature dependence of viscosity
§1.4O Molecular theory of the viscosity of gases at low density
O
§1.5 Molecular theory of the viscosity of liquids
O
§1.6 Viscosity of suspensions and emulsions
§1.7 Convective momentum transport
The first part of this book deals with the flow of viscous fluids. For fluids of low molecu-
lar weight, the physical property that characterizes the resistance to flow is the viscosity.
Anyone who has bought motor oil is aware of the fact that some oils are more “viscous”
than others and that viscosity is a function of the temperature.
We begin in §1.1 with the simple shear flow between parallel plates and discuss how
momentum is transferred through the fluid by viscous action. This is an elementary ex-
ample of molecular momentum transport and it serves to introduce “Newton’s law of vis-
cosity” along with the definition of viscosity . Next in §1.2 we show how Newton’s law
can be generalized for arbitrary flow patterns. The effects of temperature and pressure
on the viscosities of gases and liquids are summarized in §1.3 by means of a dimension-
less plot. Then §1.4 tells how the viscosities of gases can be calculated from the kinetic
theory of gases, and in §1.5 a similar discussion is given for liquids. In §1.6 we make a
few comments about the viscosity of suspensions and emulsions.
Finally, we show in §1.7 that momentum can also be transferred by the bulk fluid
motion and that such convective momentum transport is proportional to the fluid density .
§1.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY (MOLECULAR

TRANSPORT OF MOMENTUM)
In Fig. 1.1-1 we show a pair of large parallel plates, each one with area A, separated by a
distance Y. In the space between them is a fluid—either a gas or a liquid. This system is
initially at rest, but at time t 0 the lower plate is set in motion in the positive x direc-
tion at a constant velocity V. As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum, and ulti-
mately the linear steady-state velocity profile shown in the figure is established. We
require that the flow be laminar (“laminar” flow is the orderly type of flow that one usu-
ally observes when syrup is poured, in contrast to “turbulent” flow, which is the irregu-
lar, chaotic flow one sees in a high-speed mixer). When the final state of steady motion
11
12 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport
Fig. 1.1-1 The buildup to

Fluid initially the steady, laminar velocity
Y t<0 profile for a fluid contained
at rest
between two plates. The
flow is called “laminar” be-
cause the adjacent layers of
fluid (“laminae”) slide past
Lower plate
t=0 one another in an orderly
set in motion
fashion.
V
Velocity buildup
vx(y, t) Small t
in unsteady flow
V
vx(y)
Final velocity
Large t distribution in
y steady flow
x V
has been attained, a constant force F is required to maintain the motion of the lower
plate. Common sense suggests that this force may be expressed as follows:
F V
(1.1-1)
A Y
That is, the force should be proportional to the area and to the velocity, and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The constant of proportionality is a
property of the fluid, defined to be the viscosity.
We now switch to the notation that will be used throughout the book. First we re-
place F/A by the symbol yx, which is the force in the x direction on a unit area perpen-
dicular to the y direction. It is understood that this is the force exerted by the fluid of
lesser y on the fluid of greater y. Furthermore, we replace V/Y by dvx/dy. Then, in
terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomes
dvx
yx (1.1-2)1
dy
This equation, which states that the shearing force per unit area is proportional to the
negative of the velocity gradient, is often called Newton’s law of viscosity.2 Actually we
1
Some authors write Eq. 1.1-2 in the form
dvx
gcyx (1.1-2a)
dy
in which yx [] lbf/ft2, vx [] ft/s, y [] ft, and [] lbm/ft s; the quantity gc is the “gravitational
conversion factor” with the value of 32.174 poundals/lbf. In this book we will always use Eq. 1.1-2 rather
than Eq. 1.1-2a.
2
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), a professor at Cambridge University and later Master of the Mint,
was the founder of classical mechanics and contributed to other fields of physics as well. Actually Eq.
1.1-2 does not appear in Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), but the
germ of the idea is there. For illuminating comments, see D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics,
Oxford University Press, 1990, §6.1.
§1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 13
should not refer to Eq. 1.1-2 as a “law,” since Newton suggested it as an empiricism3—
the simplest proposal that could be made for relating the stress and the velocity gradi-
ent. However, it has been found that the resistance to flow of all gases and all liquids
with molecular weight of less than about 5000 is described by Eq. 1.1-2, and such fluids
are referred to as Newtonian fluids. Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and
other complex fluids are not described by Eq. 1.1-2 and are referred to as non-Newtonian
fluids. Polymeric liquids are discussed in Chapter 8.
Equation 1.1-2 may be interpreted in another fashion. In the neighborhood of the
moving solid surface at y 0 the fluid acquires a certain amount of x-momentum. This
fluid, in turn, imparts momentum to the adjacent layer of liquid, causing it to remain in
motion in the x direction. Hence x-momentum is being transmitted through the fluid in
the positive y direction. Therefore yx may also be interpreted as the flux of x-momentum
in the positive y direction, where the term “flux” means “flow per unit area.” This interpre-
tation is consistent with the molecular picture of momentum transport and the kinetic
theories of gases and liquids. It also is in harmony with the analogous treatment given
later for heat and mass transport.
The idea in the preceding paragraph may be paraphrased by saying that momentum
goes “downhill” from a region of high velocity to a region of low velocity—just as a sled
goes downhill from a region of high elevation to a region of low elevation, or the way
heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. The veloc-
ity gradient can therefore be thought of as a “driving force” for momentum transport.
In what follows we shall sometimes refer to Newton’s law in Eq. 1.1-2 in terms of
forces (which emphasizes the mechanical nature of the subject) and sometimes in terms
of momentum transport (which emphasizes the analogies with heat and mass transport).
This dual viewpoint should prove helpful in physical interpretations.
Often fluid dynamicists use the symbol to represent the viscosity divided by the
density (mass per unit volume) of the fluid, thus:
/ (1.1-3)
This quantity is called the kinematic viscosity.
Next we make a few comments about the units of the quantities we have defined. If
we use the symbol [] to mean “has units of,” then in the SI system yx [] N/m2 Pa,
vx [] m/s, and y [] m, so that
冢dvdy 冣
1
[] (Pa)[(m/s)(m1)]1 Pa s
x
yx (1.1-4)
since the units on both sides of Eq. 1.1-2 must agree. We summarize the above and also
give the units for the c.g.s. system and the British system in Table 1.1-1. The conversion
tables in Appendix F will prove to be very useful for solving numerical problems involv-
ing diverse systems of units.
The viscosities of fluids vary over many orders of magnitude, with the viscosity of
air at 20C being 1.8 105 Pa s and that of glycerol being about 1 Pa s, with some sili-
cone oils being even more viscous. In Tables 1.1-2, 1.1-3, and 1.1-4 experimental data4 are
3
A relation of the form of Eq. 1.1-2 does come out of the simple kinetic theory of gases (Eq. 1.4-7).
However, a rigorous theory for gases sketched in Appendix D makes it clear that Eq. 1.1-2 arises as the
first term in an expansion, and that additional (higher-order) terms are to be expected. Also, even an
elementary kinetic theory of liquids predicts non-Newtonian behavior (Eq. 1.5-6).
4
A comprehensive presentation of experimental techniques for measuring transport properties can be
found in W. A. Wakeham, A. Nagashima, and J. V. Sengers, Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1991). Sources for experimental data are: Landolt-Börnstein, Zahlenwerte und
Funktionen, Vol. II, 5, Springer (1968–1969); International Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, New York (1926);
Y. S. Touloukian, P. E. Liley, and S. C. Saxena, Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Plenum Press, New York
(1970); and also numerous handbooks of chemistry, physics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer.
Table 1.1-1 Summary of Units for Quantities

Related to Eq. 1.1-2
SI c.g.s. British
yx Pa dyn/cm2 poundals/ft2

vx m/s cm/s ft/s
y m cm ft
Pa s g/cm s poise lbm/ft s
m2/s cm2/s ft2/s
Note: The pascal, Pa, is the same as N/m2, and the newton,
N, is the same as kg m/s2. The abbreviation for “centipoise”
is “cp.”
Table 1.1-2 Viscosity of Water and Air at 1 atm Pressure
Water (liq.)a Airb

Temperature Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Viscosity Kinematic viscosity
T (C) (mPa s) (cm2/s) (mPa s) (cm2/s)
0 1.787 0.01787 0.01716 0.1327

20 1.0019 0.010037 0.01813 0.1505
40 0.6530 0.006581 0.01908 0.1692
60 0.4665 0.004744 0.01999 0.1886
80 0.3548 0.003651 0.02087 0.2088
100 0.2821 0.002944 0.02173 0.2298
a
Calculated from the results of R. C. Hardy and R. L. Cottington, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, 42,
573–578 (1949); and J. F. Swidells, J. R. Coe, Jr., and T. B. Godfrey, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, 48, 1–31
(1952).
b
Calculated from “Tables of Thermal Properties of Gases,” National Bureau of Standards Circular 464
(1955), Chapter 2.
Table 1.1-3 Viscosities of Some Gases and Liquids at Atmospheric Pressurea
Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

Gases T (C) (mPa s) Liquids T (C) (mPa s)
i-C4H10 23 0.0076c (C2H5)2O 0 0.283

SF6 23 0.0153 25 0.224
CH4 20 0.0109b C6H6 20 0.649
H 2O 100 0.01211d Br2 25 0.744
CO2 20 0.0146b Hg 20 1.552
N2 20 0.0175b C2H5OH 0 1.786
O2 20 0.0204 25 1.074
Hg 380 0.0654d 50 0.694
H2SO4 25 25.54
Glycerol 25 934.
a
Values taken from N. A. Lange, Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 15th edition
(1999), Tables 5.16 and 5.18.
b
H. L. Johnston and K. E. McKloskey, J. Phys. Chem., 44, 1038–1058 (1940).
c
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1999).
d
Landolt-Börnstein Zahlenwerte und Funktionen, Springer (1969).
§1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 15
Table 1.1-4 Viscosities of Some Liquid Metals
Temperature Viscosity
Metal T (C) (mPa s)
Li 183.4 0.5918
216.0 0.5406
285.5 0.4548
Na 103.7 0.686
250 0.381
700 0.182
K 69.6 0.515
250 0.258
700 0.136
Hg 20 1.85
20 1.55
100 1.21
200 1.01
Pb 441 2.116
551 1.700
844 1.185
Data taken from The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, Atomic

Energy Commission AECD-3646, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (May 1955), pp. 258
et seq.
given for pure fluids at 1 atm pressure. Note that for gases at low density, the viscosity
increases with increasing temperature, whereas for liquids the viscosity usually decreases
with increasing temperature. In gases the momentum is transported by the molecules in
free flight between collisions, but in liquids the transport takes place predominantly by
virtue of the intermolecular forces that pairs of molecules experience as they wind their
way around among their neighbors. In §§1.4 and 1.5 we give some elementary kinetic
theory arguments to explain the temperature dependence of viscosity.
EXAMPLE 1.1-1 Compute the steady-state momentum flux yx in lbf/ft2 when the lower plate velocity V in Fig.
1.1-1 is 1 ft/s in the positive x direction, the plate separation Y is 0.001 ft, and the fluid viscos-
Calculation of ity is 0.7 cp.
Momentum Flux
SOLUTION
Since yx is desired in British units, we should convert the viscosity into that system of units.
Thus, making use of Appendix F, we find (0.7 cp)(2.0886 105) 1.46 105 lbf s/ft2.
The velocity profile is linear so that
dvx vx 1.0 ft/s
1000s1 (1.1-5)
dy y 0.001 ft
Substitution into Eq. 1.1-2 gives
dvx
yx (1.46 105)(1000) 1.46 102 lbf/ft2 (1.1-6)
dy
§1.2 GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

In the previous section the viscosity was defined by Eq. 1.1-2, in terms of a simple
steady-state shearing flow in which vx is a function of y alone, and vy and vz are zero.
Usually we are interested in more complicated flows in which the three velocity compo-
nents may depend on all three coordinates and possibly on time. Therefore we must
have an expression more general than Eq. 1.1-2, but it must simplify to Eq. 1.1-2 for
steady-state shearing flow.
This generalization is not simple; in fact, it took mathematicians about a century and a
half to do this. It is not appropriate for us to give all the details of this development here,
since they can be found in many fluid dynamics books.1 Instead we explain briefly the main
ideas that led to the discovery of the required generalization of Newton’s law of viscosity.
To do this we consider a very general flow pattern, in which the fluid velocity may
be in various directions at various places and may depend on the time t. The velocity
components are then given by
vx vx(x, y, z, t); vy vy(x, y, z, t); vz vz(x, y, z, t) (1.2-1)
In such a situation, there will be nine stress components ij (where i and j may take on
the designations x, y, and z), instead of the component yx that appears in Eq. 1.1-2. We
therefore must begin by defining these stress components.
In Fig. 1.2-1 is shown a small cube-shaped volume element within the flow field,
each face having unit area. The center of the volume element is at the position x, y, z. At
x, y, z
␶x z z z
␶y
p␦x
y y p␦y y ␶z p␦z
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.2-1 Pressure and viscous forces acting on planes in the fluid perpendicular to the three
coordinate directions. The shaded planes have unit area.
1
W. Prager, Introduction to Mechanics of Continua, Ginn, Boston (1961), pp. 89–91; R. Aris, Vectors,
Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1962), pp. 30–34,
99–112; L. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Pergamon, London, 2nd edition (1987), pp. 44–45.
Lev Davydovich Landau (1908–1968) received the Nobel prize in 1962 for his work on liquid helium and
superfluid dynamics.
§1.2 Generalization of Newton’s Law of Viscosity 17
any instant of time we can slice the volume element in such a way as to remove half the
fluid within it. As shown in the figure, we can cut the volume perpendicular to each of
the three coordinate directions in turn. We can then ask what force has to be applied on
the free (shaded) surface in order to replace the force that had been exerted on that sur-
face by the fluid that was removed. There will be two contributions to the force: that as-
sociated with the pressure, and that associated with the viscous forces.
The pressure force will always be perpendicular to the exposed surface. Hence in (a)
the force per unit area on the shaded surface will be a vector p␦x—that is, the pressure (a
scalar) multiplied by the unit vector ␦x in the x direction. Similarly, the force on the
shaded surface in (b) will be p␦y, and in (c) the force will be p␦z. The pressure forces will
be exerted when the fluid is stationary as well as when it is in motion.
The viscous forces come into play only when there are velocity gradients within the
fluid. In general they are neither perpendicular to the surface element nor parallel to it,
but rather at some angle to the surface (see Fig. 1.2-1). In (a) we see a force per unit area
␶x exerted on the shaded area, and in (b) and (c) we see forces per unit area ␶y and ␶z.
Each of these forces (which are vectors) has components (scalars); for example, ␶x has
components xx, xy, and xz. Hence we can now summarize the forces acting on the three
shaded areas in Fig. 1.2-1 in Table 1.2-1. This tabulation is a summary of the forces per
unit area (stresses) exerted within a fluid, both by the thermodynamic pressure and the
viscous stresses. Sometimes we will find it convenient to have a symbol that includes both
types of stresses, and so we define the molecular stresses as follows:
ij p ij ij where i and j may be x, y, or z (1.2-2)
Here ij is the Kronecker delta, which is 1 if i j and zero if i j.
Just as in the previous section, the ij (and also the ij) may be interpreted in two ways:
ij p ij force in the j direction on a unit area perpendicular to the i direction,
ij
where it is understood that the fluid in the region of lesser xi is exerting
the force on the fluid of greater xi
ij p ij ij flux of j-momentum in the positive i direction—that is, from the region
of lesser xi to that of greater xi
Both interpretations are used in this book; the first one is particularly useful in describ-
ing the forces exerted by the fluid on solid surfaces. The stresses xx p xx, yy p
yy, zz p zz are called normal stresses, whereas the remaining quantities, xy xy,
yz yz, . . . are called shear stresses. These quantities, which have two subscripts associ-
ated with the coordinate directions, are referred to as “tensors,” just as quantities (such
as velocity) that have one subscript associated with the coordinate directions are called
Table 1.2-1 Summary of the Components of the Molecular Stress Tensor (or Molecular
Momentum-Flux Tensor)a
Direction Components of the forces (per unit area)
normal Vector force acting on the shaded face (components of the
to the per unit area on the momentum flux through the shaded face)
shaded shaded face (momentum
face flux through shaded face) x-component y-component z-component
x ␲x p␦x ␶x xx p xx xy xy xz xz

y ␲y p␦y ␶y yx yx yy p yy yz yz
z ␲z p␦z ␶z zx zx zy zy zz p zz
a
These are referred to as components of the “molecular momentum flux tensor” because they are
associated with the molecular motions, as discussed in §1.4 and Appendix D. The additional “convective
momentum flux tensor” components, associated with bulk movement of the fluid, are discussed in §1.7.
“vectors.” Therefore we will refer to ␶ as the viscous stress tensor (with components ij)
and ␲ as the molecular stress tensor (with components ij). When there is no chance for
confusion, the modifiers “viscous” and “molecular” may be omitted. A discussion of
vectors and tensors can be found in Appendix A.
The question now is: How are these stresses ij related to the velocity gradients in
the fluid? In generalizing Eq. 1.1-2, we put several restrictions on the stresses, as follows:
• The viscous stresses may be linear combinations of all the velocity gradients:
vk
ij klijkl where i, j, k, and l may be 1, 2, 3 (1.2-3)
xl
Here the 81 quantities ijkl are “viscosity coefficients.” The quantities x1, x2, x3 in
the derivatives denote the Cartesian coordinates x, y, z, and v1, v2, v3 are the same
as vx, vy, vz.
• We assert that time derivatives or time integrals should not appear in the expres-
sion. (For viscoelastic fluids, as discussed in Chapter 8, time derivatives or time in-
tegrals are needed to describe the elastic responses.)
• We do not expect any viscous forces to be present, if the fluid is in a state of pure
rotation. This requirement leads to the necessity that ij be a symmetric combina-
tion of the velocity gradients. By this we mean that if i and j are interchanged, the
combination of velocity gradients remains unchanged. It can be shown that the
only symmetric linear combinations of velocity gradients are
冢 x xv 冣冢 vx 冣
vj i x
vy vz
and ij (1.2-4)
i j y z
• If the fluid is isotropic—that is, it has no preferred direction—then the coefficients
in front of the two expressions in Eq. 1.2-4 must be scalars so that
冢 x xv 冣 B冢 vx 冣
vj i x
vy vz
ij A ij (1.2-5)
i j y z
We have thus reduced the number of “viscosity coefficients” from 81 to 2!
• Of course, we want Eq. 1.2-5 to simplify to Eq. 1.1-2 for the flow situation in Fig.
1.1-1. For that elementary flow Eq. 1.2-5 simplifies to yx A dvx/dy, and hence the
scalar constant A must be the same as the negative of the viscosity .
• Finally, by common agreement among most fluid dynamicists the scalar constant
B is set equal to 3 , where is called the dilatational viscosity. The reason for
2
writing B in this way is that it is known from kinetic theory that is identically
zero for monatomic gases at low density.
Thus the required generalization for Newton’s law of viscosity in Eq. 1.1-2 is then
the set of nine relations (six being independent):
冢 x xv 冣 ( )冢 vx 冣
vj i x
vy vz
ij
2
3 ij (1.2-6)
i j y z
Here ij ji, and i and j can take on the values 1, 2, 3. These relations for the stresses in a
Newtonian fluid are associated with the names of Navier, Poisson, and Stokes.2 If de-
2
C.-L.-M.-H. Navier, Ann. Chimie, 19, 244–260 (1821); S.-D. Poisson, J. École Polytech., 13, Cahier 20, 1–174
(1831); G. G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, 287–305 (1845). Claude-Louis-Marie-Henri Navier (1785–1836)
(pronounced “Nah-vyay,” with the second syllable accented) was a civil engineer whose specialty was road
and bridge building; George Gabriel Stokes (1819–1903) taught at Cambridge University and was president
of the Royal Society. Navier and Stokes are well known because of the Navier–Stokes equations (see Chapter
3). See also D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Mechanics, Oxford University Press (1990), pp. 209–212, 218.
§1.2 Generalization of Newton’s Law of Viscosity 19
sired, this set of relations can be written more concisely in the vector-tensor notation of
Appendix A as
␶ ( v ( v)†) (3 )( v)␦

2
(1.2-7)
in which ␦ is the unit tensor with components ij, v is the velocity gradient tensor with
components ( / xi)vj, ( v)† is the “transpose” of the velocity gradient tensor with com-
ponents ( / xj)vi, and ( v) is the divergence of the velocity vector.
The important conclusion is that we have a generalization of Eq. 1.1-2, and this gen-
eralization involves not one but two coefficients3 characterizing the fluid: the viscosity
and the dilatational viscosity . Usually, in solving fluid dynamics problems, it is not
necessary to know . If the fluid is a gas, we often assume it to act as an ideal
monoatomic gas, for which is identically zero. If the fluid is a liquid, we often assume
that it is incompressible, and in Chapter 3 we show that for incompressible liquids
( v) 0, and therefore the term containing is discarded anyway. The dilatational vis-
cosity is important in describing sound absorption in polyatomic gases4 and in describ-
ing the fluid dynamics of liquids containing gas bubbles.5
Equation 1.2-7 (or 1.2-6) is an important equation and one that we shall use often.
Therefore it is written out in full in Cartesian (x, y, z), cylindrical (r, , z), and spherical
(r, , ) coordinates in Table B.1. The entries in this table for curvilinear coordinates are
obtained by the methods outlined in §§A.6 and A.7. It is suggested that beginning stu-
dents not concern themselves with the details of such derivations, but rather concen-
trate on using the tabulated results. Chapters 2 and 3 will give ample practice in doing
this.
In curvilinear coordinates the stress components have the same meaning as in Carte-
sian coordinates. For example, rz in cylindrical coordinates, which will be encountered
in Chapter 2, can be interpreted as: (i) the viscous force in the z direction on a unit area
perpendicular to the r direction, or (ii) the viscous flux of z-momentum in the positive r
direction. Figure 1.2-2 illustrates some typical surface elements and stress-tensor compo-
nents that arise in fluid dynamics.
The shear stresses are usually easy to visualize, but the normal stresses may cause
conceptual problems. For example, zz is a force per unit area in the z direction on a
plane perpendicular to the z direction. For the flow of an incompressible fluid in the
convergent channel of Fig. 1.2-3, we know intuitively that vz increases with decreas-
ing z; hence, according to Eq. 1.2-6, there is a nonzero stress zz 2( vz/ z) acting
in the fluid.
Note on the Sign Convention for the Stress Tensor We have emphasized in connection with
Eq. 1.1-2 (and in the generalization in this section) that yx is the force in the positive x di-
rection on a unit area perpendicular to the y direction, this being the force per unit area
exerted by the fluid in the region of the lesser y on the fluid of greater y. In most fluid
dynamics and elasticity books, the words “lesser” and “greater” are interchanged and
Eq. 1.1-2 is written as yx (dvx/dy). The advantages of the sign convention used in
this book are: (a) the sign convention used in Newton’s law of viscosity is consistent
with that used in Fourier’s law of heat conduction and Fick’s law of diffusion; (b) the
sign convention for ij is the same as that for the convective momentum flux vv (see
3
Some writers refer to as the “shear viscosity,” but this is inappropriate nomenclature inasmuch
as can arise in nonshearing flows as well as shearing flows. The term “dynamic viscosity” is also
occasionally seen, but this term has a very specific meaning in the field of viscoelasticity and is an
inappropriate term for .
4
L. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, op. cit., Ch. VIII.
5
G. K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press (1967), pp. 253–255.
Solid sphere
Solid cylinder of radius R
of radius R z
Force by fluid in
+ direction on Force by fluid in
y
surface element + direction on
(Rd )(dz) is surface element
y (Rd )(R sin d) is
– r ⎪r = R R d dz
x – r ⎪r = R R2 sin d d
x
z
Solid cylinder z Solid sphere

of radius R of radius R
Force by fluid in Force by fluid in
y +z direction on + direction on
surface element surface element
(Rd )(dz) is y (Rd )(R sin d) is
– rz⎪r = R R d dz – r⎪r = R R2 sin d d
x x
Solid notched
Force by fluid in
cylinder Force by fluid in +r direction on
y +z direction on surface element
surface element Solid cone (dr)(r sin d) is
(dr)(dz) is with half – r⎪ = r sin dr d
+ z⎪ = (/2) – dr dz angle
x
z

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2-2 (a) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the cylindrical coordinate system.
(b) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the spherical coordinate system.
§1.7 and Table 19.2-2); (c) in Eq. 1.2-2, the terms p ij and ij have the same sign affixed,
and the terms p and ii are both positive in compression (in accordance with common
usage in thermodynamics); (d) all terms in the entropy production in Eq. 24.1-5 have
the same sign. Clearly the sign convention in Eqs. 1.1-2 and 1.2-6 is arbitrary, and either
sign convention can be used, provided that the physical meaning of the sign convention
is clearly understood.
§1.3 Pressure and Temperature Dependence of Viscosity 21
Flow Fig. 1.2-3 The flow in a converging duct is an example of a situation

in which the normal stresses are not zero. Since vz is a function of
r and z, the normal-stress component zz 2( vz/ z) is nonzero.
Also, since vr depends on r and z, the normal-stress component
rr 2( vr/ r) is not equal to zero. At the wall, however, the
vz(r)
normal stresses all vanish for fluids described by Eq. 1.2-7 provided
that the density is constant (see Example 3.1-1 and Problem 3C.2).
vz(r)
y
x
§1.3 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

OF VISCOSITY
Extensive data on viscosities of pure gases and liquids are available in various science
and engineering handbooks.1 When experimental data are lacking and there is not time
to obtain them, the viscosity can be estimated by empirical methods, making use of other
data on the given substance. We present here a corresponding-states correlation, which fa-
cilitates such estimates and illustrates general trends of viscosity with temperature and
pressure for ordinary fluids. The principle of corresponding states, which has a sound
scientific basis,2 is widely used for correlating equation-of-state and thermodynamic
data. Discussions of this principle can be found in textbooks on physical chemistry and
thermodynamics.
The plot in Fig. 1.3-1 gives a global view of the pressure and temperature dependence
of viscosity. The reduced viscosity r /c is plotted versus the reduced temperature Tr
T/Tc for various values of the reduced pressure pr p/pc. A “reduced” quantity is one
that has been made dimensionless by dividing by the corresponding quantity at the criti-
cal point. The chart shows that the viscosity of a gas approaches a limit (the low-density
limit) as the pressure becomes smaller; for most gases, this limit is nearly attained at 1 atm
pressure. The viscosity of a gas at low density increases with increasing temperature,
whereas the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature.
Experimental values of the critical viscosity c are seldom available. However, c
may be estimated in one of the following ways: (i) if a value of viscosity is known at a
given reduced pressure and temperature, preferably at conditions near to those of
1
J. A. Schetz and A. E. Fuhs (eds.), Handbook of Fluid Dynamics and Fluid Machinery, Wiley-
Interscience, New York (1996), Vol. 1, Chapter 2; W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, and Y. I. Cho, Handbook
of Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd edition (1998), Chapter 2. Other sources are mentioned in
fn. 4 of §1.1.
2
J. Millat, J. H. Dymond, and C. A. Nieto de Castro (eds.), Transport Properties of Fluids, Cambridge
University Press (1996), Chapter 11, by E. A. Mason and F. J. Uribe, and Chapter 12, by M. L. Huber and
H. M. M. Hanley.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Transport Phenomena, Revised 2nd

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Chapter 20 Concentration Distributions with §22.1 Deﬁnition of Transfer Coefﬁcients in One

§A.3 Tensor Operations in Terms of §C.3 Differentiation of Integrals (the Leibniz

§B.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity 843 Appendix E Tables for Prediction of

Appendix C Mathematical Topics 852 Author Index 877

The Subject of Transport

§0.1 WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT PHENOMENA?

§0.2 THREE LEVELS AT WHICH TRANSPORT

Q = heat added to system

"1" Fig. 0.2-1 (a) A macro-

Table 0.2-1 Organization of the Topics in This Book

Type of transport Momentum Energy Mass

Transport by 1 Viscosity 9 Thermal 17 Diffusivity

Transport in one 2 Shell momentum 10 Shell energy 18 Shell mass

Transport in 3 Equations of 11 Equations of 19 Equations of

Transport with two 4 Momentum 12 Energy transport 20 Mass transport

Transport in 5 Turbulent 13 Turbulent 21 Turbulent

Transport across 6 Friction factors; 14 Heat-transfer 22 Mass-transfer

Transport in large 7 Macroscopic 15 Macroscopic 23 Macroscopic

Transport by other 8 Momentum 16 Energy 24 Mass transport

§0.3 THE CONSERVATION LAWS: AN EXAMPLE

2 Fig. 0.3-1 A collision

2 Molecule B after collision

mAṙ A mBṙ B mAṙA mBṙB (0.3-4)

(12mAr˙ 2A uA) (12mBr˙ 2B uB) (12mAṙA2 uA) (12mBṙB2 uB) (0.3-6)

([rA mAṙ A] lA) ([rB mBṙ B] lB)

The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be ob-

§0.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Viscosity and the Mechanisms

§1.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY (MOLECULAR

Fig. 1.1-1 The buildup to

Table 1.1-1 Summary of Units for Quantities

yx Pa dyn/cm2 poundals/ft2

Table 1.1-2 Viscosity of Water and Air at 1 atm Pressure

Water (liq.)a Airb

0 1.787 0.01787 0.01716 0.1327

Table 1.1-3 Viscosities of Some Gases and Liquids at Atmospheric Pressurea

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

i-C4H10 23 0.0076c (C2H5)2O 0 0.283

Table 1.1-4 Viscosities of Some Liquid Metals

Data taken from The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, Atomic

§1.2 GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

x ␲x p␦x ␶x xx p xx xy xy xz xz

␶ ( v ( v)†) (3  )( v)␦

Solid cylinder z Solid sphere

Flow Fig. 1.2-3 The ﬂow in a converging duct is an example of a situation

§1.3 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

yx Pa dyn/cm2 poundals/ft2

x ␲x p␦x ␶x xx p xx xy xy xz xz

␶ ( v ( v)†) (3 )( v)␦