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Dynamic Physical
Education
FOR ElEmEntARy
SCHOOl CHIlDREn
EightEEnth Edition

RobERt P. PangRazi
ArizonA StAte UniverSity

aaRon bEighlE
UniverSity of KentUcKy
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pangrazi, robert P.
Dynamic physical education for elementary school children/robert P. Pangrazi, Arizona
State University, Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky.—eighteenth edition.
pages cm.—(Dynamic Physical education for elementary School children)
includes bibliographical references and index.
iSBn 978-0-321-93495-6 (alk. paper)—iSBn 0-321-93495-4 (alk. paper)
1. Physical education and training—curricula—United States. 2. Physical education
and training—Study and teaching (elementary)—United States. 3. Physical education
and training—curricula—canada. 4. Physical education and training—Study and teaching
(elementary)—canada. i. Beighle, Aaron, 1972- ii. title.
Gv365.P36 2015
372'.86—dc23
2014018753

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—V382—18 17 16 15 14

iSBn 10: 0-321-93495-4 (Student edition)

iSBn 13: 978-0-321-93495-6
iSBn 10: 0-13-402381-1 (instructor’s review copy)
www.pearsonhighered.com iSBn 13: 978-0-13-402381-6
 DEDICaTION
to my wife Deb, whom i love and respect.
She is not only a valued professional colleague, but a special
friend and companion who has enriched my life.
i regard Deb as a silent author who has
contributed much to this textbook.
to our son and daughter, charles and connie,
and their wonderful families.
i appreciate the joy and love they deliver on a regular basis.
to Dr. victor P. Dauer, my late co-author, who taught
and mentored me throughout my career and continues
to guide my thinking and writing efforts.

ROBERT P. PaNGRazI

to my girls Heather, faith, Libby, Hope and emily.

your unwavering love, caring heart, humor, spunkiness,
and zest for life make me better.
to my parents, ted and Sheila Beighle. their love
and devotion to family is truly inspirational.
i am fortunate to call them
Mom and Dad.

aaRON BEIGhlE
aBOuT ThE auThORs
ROBERT P. PaNGRazI, Ph.D., taught for 31 years at
Arizona State University, tempe, in the Department of
exercise Science and Physical education, and is now
Professor emeritus. An AAHPerD Honor fellow and
a fellow in the Academy of Kinesiology and Physical
education, he was honored by the national Association for
Sport and Physical education (nASPe) with the Margie
Hanson Distinguished Service Award. He is a best-selling
author of numerous books and texts, including multiple
editions of Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary
School Children and Dynamic Physical Education for
Secondary School Students, with Paul W. Darst (Pearson).
He is a co-author of Promoting Physical Activity and Health
in the Classroom (Pearson, 2009). in addition to numerous
other books and texts, he has written over 100 journal
articles and scholarly papers for publication, and currently
tours and lectures on a national level.
viii
aaRON BEIGhlE, Ph.D., is a university instructor
in Physical education and Physical Activity for youth
courses. in addition to numerous scholarly articles and
academic materials, including chapter contributions to a
number of widely used texts including previous editions
of Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School
Children; he coauthored Pedometer Power (2nd ed.,
2007, Human Kinetics), Physical Activity for Children:
A Statement of Guidelines for Children Ages 5–12 (2nd ed.,
2004, nASPe), and Promoting Physical Activity and Health
in the Classroom (Pearson Benjamin cummings, 2009).
His areas of research include physical activity promo-
tion, specifically examining school-based physical activity
programs, and the use of pedometers to encourage activity
in young people. He is currently an Associate Professor at
the University of Kentucky, Lexington in the department of
Kinesiology and Health Promotion.
BRIEf CONTENTs
PaRT I PaRT II
Instruction and Program Implementation Teaching the Objectives of Physical
Education
sECTION 1
Understanding the Need for Physical Education sECTION 4
Chapter 1 elementary School Physical education 1 Personal Health Skills
Chapter 2 Understanding the Growth and Development Chapter 12 Promoting and Monitoring Physical
of children 20 Activity 230
Chapter 3 Preparing a Quality Lesson 35 Chapter 13 Physical fitness 250
Chapter 14 Active and Healthy Schools 296
sECTION 2 Chapter 15 Movement concepts and themes 311
The Instructional Process
Chapter 16 fundamental Motor Skills and introductory
Chapter 4 curriculum Development 60 Activities 327
Chapter 5 improving instructional effectiveness 77
Chapter 6 Management and Discipline 103 sECTION 5
Motor Skills
Chapter 7 children with Disabilities 129
Chapter 17 Manipulative Skills 348
sECTION 3 Chapter 18 Body Management Skills 394
Program Implementation Chapter 19 rhythmic Movement Skills 412
Chapter 8 evaluation and technology 145 Chapter 20 Gymnastics–related Skills 467
Chapter 9 Legal Liability, Supervision, and Safety 169 Chapter 21 cooperative Skills 521
Chapter 10 facilities, equipment, and Supplies 184
Chapter 11 integrating Academic concepts in Physical sECTION 6
education 206 Specialized Motor Skills
Chapter 22 Game Skills 539

sECTION 7
Lifetime Activities and Sport Skills
Chapter 23 Lifetime Activities 585
Chapter 24 Basketball 612
Chapter 25 football 631
Chapter 26 Hockey 646
Chapter 27 Soccer 657
Chapter 28 Softball 677
Chapter 29 track, field, and cross-country
running 693
Chapter 30 volleyball 705

Glossary 717
General index 725
Activities index 739
Photo credits 746

ix
CONTENTs
case Studies xv integrate Mechanical Principles into instruction 47
featured topics xv Manage the Learning environment 49
Preface xvi choose an instructional formation 51
Design a Lesson Plan 52
PaRT I reflective teaching 57
Applying What you read 58
Instruction and Program Implementation
reflection and review 59
sECTION 1 for More information 59
Understanding the Need for Physical
Education sECTION 2
ChaPTER 1 The Instructional Process
Elementary School Physical Education 1
What is Physical education? 2
ChaPTER 4
Curriculum Development 60
the evolution of elementary School Physical education 2
Designing a Quality curriculum 61
the current Status of Physical education in
the United States 6 Applying What you read 75
the need for Physical education Programs 7 reflection and review 75
Physical educators Promoting Physical Activity 8 for More information 75
the content of Physical education 9
ChaPTER 5
nASPe content Standards for Physical education 9
Improving Instructional Effectiveness 77
essential components of a Quality Physical education
Program 16 characteristics of a Quality Lesson 78

Applying What you read 18 incorporate essential elements of instruction 79

reflection and review 18 Provide instructional feedback 84

for More information 18 consider the Personal needs of Students 86

employ effective communication Skills 90
ChaPTER 2 evaluate your instructional effectiveness 92
Understanding the Growth and Development of Applying What you read 101
Children 20 reflection and review 101
the Growing child 21 for More information 101
Helping children find Success in Sport and recreational
Activities 28 ChaPTER 6
Safety Guidelines for physical activity 30 Management and Discipline 103
Applying What you read 33 effective Management and Discipline: A coordinated
reflection and review 33 Approach 104
for More information 34 Use Proper teaching Behaviors 104
Define class Procedures, rules, and consequences 108
ChaPTER 3 incorporate efficient Management Skills 109
Preparing a Quality Lesson 35 teach Acceptable Student Behavior 114
choose from a variety of teaching Styles 36 Use Behavior Management to increase Acceptable
optimize Skill Learning 43 Behavior 118

x
Decrease Unacceptable Behavior with common Defenses Against negligence 171
Discipline 120 Areas of responsibility 172
Use criticism Sparingly 125 Safety 176
Make Punishment a Last resort 125 equipment and facilities 177
expulsion: Legal considerations 126 Personal Protection: Minimizing the effects
Applying What you read 127 of a Lawsuit 180
reflection and review 127 the After-School Sports Program 182
for More information 127 Applying What you read 182
reflection and review 183
ChaPTER 7 for More information 183
Children with Disabilities 129
Least restrictive environment 131
inclusion 131
ChaPTER 10
Facilities, Equipment, and Supplies 184
Screening and Assessment 132
outdoor facilities 185
Understanding an individualized education
Program (ieP) 133 Safety on the Playground 185
Successful inclusion 136 indoor facilities 187
recruiting Paraeducators and volunteers 142 equipment and Supplies 189
Applying What you read 143 Purchasing Policies 189
reflection and review 144 indoor equipment 189
for More information 144 equipment and Supplies for Physical
education 192
sECTION 3 Storage Plans 192
Program Implementation care, repair, and Marking 192
constructing equipment and Supplies 192
ChaPTER 8 reflection and review 205
Evaluation and Technology 145 for More information 205
components of evaluation Assessment 146
Assessment 146
ChaPTER 11
Assessment of Students 147
Integrating Academic Concepts in Physical
Grading 155 Education 206
Program Accountability 159 integrating Academic concepts into Physical
evaluate your Program 161 education 207
reflection and review 167 Academics and Physical Activity 207
for More information 167 Why integrate Academic concepts? 208
types of integration 208
ChaPTER 9 How to integrate Academic content 209
Legal Liability, Supervision, and Safety 169 Academic integration Activities 210
torts 170 Applying What you read 228
negligence and Liability 170 reflection and review 229
types of negligence 171 for More information 229

xi
PaRT II ChaPTER 15
Movement Concepts and Themes 311
Teaching the Objectives of Physical classification of Human Movement
Education concepts 313
teaching Movement Skills and concepts 314

sECTION 4 Movement Skills and concepts Lesson

Personal Health Skills
ChaPTER 12
Promoting and Monitoring Physical
Activity 230
Physical Activity for children 231
the Physical Activity Pyramid
Monitoring Physical Activity 235
Applying What you read 248
reflection and review 248
for More information 248
Plans 316
teaching Movement themes 316
for More information 326
ChaPTER 16
Fundamental Motor Skills and Introductory
Activities 327
232
fundamental Skills 328
nonlocomotor skills 334
introductory Activities 339
Games and Miscellaneous Activities 346
for More information 347

ChaPTER 13
Physical Fitness 250 sECTION 5
Definitions of Physical fitness 251 Motor Skills
children and fitness testing 253
fitness testing issues 254 ChaPTER 17
create Positive Attitudes toward fitness 259 Manipulative Skills 348
Develop an Understanding of Physical fitness Manipulative Skills 349
Principles 260 Manipulative Skill Activities 354
Avoid Harmful Practices and exercises 261 Activities with Balloons and Beach Balls 354
implement a yearlong fitness Plan 262 Activities with Beanbags 355
implementing fitness routines 262 Activities with Balls 358
fitness Activities for Developmental Juggling 363
Level i 263
Activities with Scoops and Balls 367
fitness Activities for Developmental Levels ii
Bowling Activities 367
and iii 270
Activities with Wands 368
reflection and review 294
Activities with Hoops 372
for More information 294
Activities with Jump ropes 374
Pre–rope-Jumping Skills 375
ChaPTER 14
Active and Healthy Schools 296 Long-rope Jumping 376

components of an Active and Healthy Double Dutch (two-rope) Jumping 380

School 299 individual rope Jumping 382
Getting Started 306 footbag Activities 387
reflection and review 308 rhythmic Gymnastics 388
for More information 308 for More information 393

xii
ChaPTER 18 Activities with Parachutes 532
Body Management Skills 394 for More information 537
Safe and effective Use of Apparatus 395
Activities with climbing ropes 395 sECTION 6
Activities on Balance Beams 399 Specialized Motor Skills
Activities on Benches 402
Activities with Jumping Boxes 405 ChaPTER 22
Activities with individual Mats 406 Game Skills 539
Activities with Magic ropes (Jump Bands) 408 evaluating Games 540
Activities with Partner tug-of-War ropes 409 creating or Modifying Games 540
for More information 411 cooperation and competition 541
Safety 541
ChaPTER 19 teaching Games effectively 541
Rhythmic Movement Skills 412 Selection of Games 542
implementing the rhythmic Movement Program 413 Sport Lead-Up Games 546
creative rhythms 414 Developmental Level i 546
folk Dances 415 Developmental Level ii 561
Progression of folk Dances 418 Developmental Level iii 572
Developmental Level i Dances 420 Miscellaneous Playground Games 581
Developmental Level ii Dances 434 for More information 584
Developmental Level iii Dances 451
introductory Square Dance 463 sECTION 7
culminating events for the rhythms Unit 466 Lifetime Activities and Sport Skills
for More information 466
ChaPTER 23
ChaPTER 20 Lifetime Activities 585
Gymnastics–Related Skills 467 Walking 586
Progression and Developmental Level Placement 468 orienteering 590
instructional Methodology for Gymnastics 469 tennis 594
Safety considerations 470 Badminton 601
instructional Procedures 471 frisbees 604
Developmental Level i Activities 474 Bowling 608
Developmental Level ii Activities 488 for More information 610
Developmental Level iii Activities 505
for More information 520 ChaPTER 24
Basketball 612
ChaPTER 21 instructional emphasis and Sequence 613
Cooperative Skills 521 Basketball Skills 614
the role of cooperative Activities 522 instructional Procedures 617
teaching cooperative Activities 522 Basic Basketball rules 618
Group challenges 523 Basketball Drills 619

xiii
Basketball Activities 625 Basic Softball rules 684
Basketball Skill tests 629 Softball Drills 685
for More information 630 Softball Activities 686
Softball Skill tests 691
ChaPTER 25 for More information 692
Football 631
instructional emphasis and Sequence 632 ChaPTER 29
football Skills 632 Track, Field, and Cross-Country
Running 693
instructional Procedures 636
instructional emphasis and Sequence 694
football Drills 637
track and field Skills 694
football Activities 638
running 696
football Skill tests 643
instructional Procedures 699
flag football formations 643
organizing for instruction 699
for More information 645
track and field Drills and Activities 700

ChaPTER 26 Suggested track facility 701

Hockey 646 conducting track and field Days 701
Hockey Skills 647 cross-country running 702
instructional Procedures 650 cross-country Meets 703
Hockey Drills 651 for More information 704
Hockey Activities 652
Hockey Skill tests 655 ChaPTER 30
Volleyball 705
for More information 656
instructional emphasis and
Sequence 706
ChaPTER 27
Developmental Level ii 706
Soccer 657
volleyball Skills 707
Modifications of Soccer for children 658
instructional Procedures 709
instructional emphasis and Sequence 658
organizing for instruction 709
Soccer Skills 659
Basic volleyball rules 711
Soccer Drills 663
volleyball Activities 712
Basic Soccer rules for Lead-Up Games 668
volleyball Skill tests 715
Soccer Activities 669
for More information 716
Soccer Skill tests 675
for More information 676
Glossary 717
ChaPTER 28 General index 725
Softball 677
instructional emphasis and Sequence 678 Activities index 739
Softball Skills 679
organizing for instruction 684 Photo credits 746

xiv
CasE sTuDIEs
Physical Activity and Physical Education 3
Push-Ups and Sit-Ups: Create a Successful Experience 25
A Written Lesson Plan Protects You! 37
A Common Curriculum leads to a Stronger Profession 63
Accepting Responsibility for becoming a Great Teacher 79
Saving a Child Trumps Everything! 105
Make all Students Count 131
Acquiring PE Equipment Takes Time and Perseverance 187
You Need Other Teachers’ Support 299

fEaTuRED TOPICs
Sports and Specialization 28
Encouraging Physical Activity Beyond the School Day 56
Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool (PECAT) 73
Maximizing Physical Activity 88
Major Factors in Student Achievement 110
Working with Students Who Are Overweight or Obese 142
PE•Metrics 154
Maintaining Student Safety at Recess 174
Use of Technology in Physical Education 190
Integrating Content without Sacrificing Physical Activity Time 211
Fund-Raisers for Purchasing Pedometers 239
Fitness, Physical Activity, and Healthy Eating Habits for Youth 254
Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAPs) 298

xv
PREfaCE
the eighteenth edition of Dynamic Physical Education
for Elementary School Children (DPE) retains a strong
emphasis on physical education for professional physical
educators. Additionally, material has been added to make
the text more useful for classroom teachers. this edition
retains its strong emphasis on skill development, activity
promotion, and physical fitness behaviors. We want
teachers who use this text to be able to teach students to
live a life defined by physical activity and healthy eating.
the concern for unhealthy youth and their sedentary life
styles makes physical education a critical component of
the school curriculum. Physical educators must be will-
ing to become active and healthy school coordinators. in
addition to teaching physical skills and fitness, they must
become physical activity promotion agents. Life style and
environmental changes must become a focus of physi-
cal education programs. this text is designed to broaden
the role and preparation of future and existing physical
educators.
NEw TO ThIs EDITION
this revision received an overall update including new ref-
erences, instructional instruments, and terminology. Some
of the more significant updates and changes include:
• New case study features: these new stories emphasize
real-life situations and are aimed at sparking discus-
sion. these case study features bring to life issues often
faced by new teachers and show that while there are no
easy answers to some dilemmas, they can be successfully
addressed.
• Additional assessment content: new text describes
how to self-evaluate, how to design evaluation forms
and how to choose which elements of a lesson to evalu-
ate. the text discusses commonly-used assessment
techniques, comparing benefits and drawbacks for each
technique.
• Additional technology content: Schools are slowly
adopting technology such as digital whiteboards, and
this new edition of the text describes technology such
as new digital pedometers that instantly upload data,
electronic tablets, digital cameras, and a wide variety of
applications. the assessment section includes tips for
using cameras and tablets for assessment and a number
of apps newly-developed for assessment.
• HOPSports® videos: this new edition includes 38 additional
videos illustrating common classroom activities and play-
ground games. the videos tie to the descriptions of the
activities in the book, showing as well as telling.
xvi
GENERal ORGaNIzaTION
Of ThE TExT
the 30 chapters in DPE are grouped into two major parts—
instruction and Program implementation and teaching the
objectives of Physical education. Part i, instruction and
Program implementation, contains the theory and requisite
knowledge a teacher needs to develop a comprehensive pro-
gram. the chapters in PaRT I are separated into three sections
that help students understand the need for quality physical
education programs in schools, how to be a quality instructor,
and school procedures, including the need for integrating aca-
demic content. When combined with the internet websites in-
cluded at the end of each chapter, the companion website, the
instructional videos, and the Pearson etext, instructors have a
rich tool chest for helping pre-service and in-service teachers
think, reflect, and improve the act of teaching.
Section 1 (chapters 1 and 2) offers a brief history of the
profession and sets the framework for the entire text by list-
ing and explaining the nASPe standards. chapter 2 helps
teachers understand children and their needs in a physical
education setting.
Section 2 (chapters 3–7) focuses on successful instruc-
tion. this section shows how to plan a quality lesson, view
the importance of a curriculum, and teach it effectively.
Management and discipline are always the constructs under
which teachers will succeed or fail, and chapter 6 offers much
practical information for successfully teaching youngsters in
an activity setting. chapter 7 shows teachers how to adapt and
modify activities to ensure inclusion and purpose for all stu-
dents in their classes.
the focus of Section 3 (chapters 8–11) is on examining
ways to successfully implement a physical education pro-
gram, including the challenges faced in evaluating students,
addressing safety issues, and folding academic content into
physical education activities.
PaRT II, teaching the objectives of Physical education,
is filled with instructional activities. no text on the market
offers teachers a greater variety of evidence-based activi-
ties, and even more activities have been added to this edi-
tion. this portion of the text is separated into four sections
that are filled with activities and strategies designed to help
teachers accomplish the nASPe standards that define a
quality physical education program.
Section 4 (chapters 12–14) contains many activities
and techniques for teaching personal health skills, includ-
ing methods for teaching students how to develop and
maintain an active and healthy life style. this section in-
cludes chapters on the need to promote physical activity
among students and how to create an active and healthy
school environment.
 Section 5 (chapters 15–18) brings together methods
and activities for teaching fundamental motor skills.
Movement concepts, fundamental motor skills, and body
management skills encompass the majority of content in
this section. now pre-service and in-service teachers can
identify activities and strategies that will improve student
competencies in this important skill area.
Section 6 (chapters 19–22) is designed to improve
specialized motor skills among students of diverse back-
grounds. chapters on manipulative skills, rhythmic move-
ment skills, gymnastic skills, cooperative skills, and game
skills offer in-depth coverage for the development of a per-
sonalized set of specialized skills.
finally, Section 7 (chapters 23–30) focuses on develop-
ing sport skills including skills for lifetime activities. these
chapters contain many skills, drills, and lead-up activities.
these chapters use the paradigm of teaching the skill prop-
erly, practicing it in a drill, and applying the skill in a lead-
up game that assures success.
As an added organizational aid, each section is color-
coded for ease of reference. each chapter in a section con-
tains a tab in the outside margin that shows the chapter
number and corresponds with the color code for that sec-
tion. this makes it easy to find a desired section or chapter
quickly.
DPE is written for both physical education and class-
room teachers. Material is written and illustrated with many
examples that make it easy to understand. All activities in
the text are listed in progression from the easiest activity to
the most difficult. this enables teachers to plan a lesson that
incorporates proper sequencing of skills. the accompanying
lesson plan book, Dynamic Physical Education Curriculum
Guide: Lesson Plans for Implementation, 18th edition,
organizes the activities listed in DPE into a curriculum
guide that features lesson plans for the academic year.
the Curriculum Guide offers a section that identifies aca-
demic concepts that can be taught within a physical educa-
tion lesson. this makes it easy for the physical educator to
show classroom teachers and administrators how physical
activities contribute to academic outcomes of the school.
the nASPe content standards that are covered in each part
of the lesson plans are included in the 18th edition. the
Curriculum Guide offers three full sets of plans for students
at three developmental levels. DPE and the DPE Curriculum
Guide are used in a large number of schools as the founda-
tion for a curriculum that is supplemented with local dis-
trict materials and activities.
the Curriculum Guide: Lesson Plans for Implementation
ties closely in with the text. the Lesson Plans within
the Curriculum Guide have been numbered (1–119);
these numbers appear within this textbook with relevant
activities. Student can read through the book, see the
Lesson Plan number, and turn to the numbered Lesson
Plan in the Curriculum Guide to more fully understand how
that activity is included in a full lesson plan.
in addition to highlighting the Lesson Plan cross-
references, this 18th edition includes a feature that calls
attention to relevant full Lesson Plans (by developmen-
tal level) as well as to some additional activities included
in the Curriculum Guide, which do not appear in this
textbook.
the close tie-in of these two resources will help stu-
dents immediately begin to understand how the lesson plan
theory and activities they are learning or using relate back
to full physical education curriculum planning.
EssENTIal COMPONENTs Of
QualITy PROGRaMs aND NasPE
NaTIONal sTaNDaRDs fOR
PhysICal EDuCaTION
Across the country, a wide variety of differing areas of
instructional emphasis characterize physical education
programs. Some view these differences as an outcome of
diverse and differing points of view while others think all
programs should follow one model. our point of view is that
difference is part of the American culture. However, even
when large differences exist, similarities mark quality pro-
grams. therefore, in chapter 1 we have identified eight key
essential components of quality programs. including these
components allows programs to maintain their uniqueness
while ensuring a quality program. these essential compo-
nents are printed inside the front cover of the book, and the
components that are particularly relevant to each chapter
are listed at the end of each chapter so it is possible to see
how they contribute to a comprehensive physical education
program.
With the age of accountability upon education, it has
become vitally important to determine what should be
taught and what youngsters should know when they leave
the school environment. SHAPe America and nASPe
have done much to make physical educators aware of the
need for content standards. the five NASPE national
standards for physical education identified in chapter 1
reflect the development of a program that stresses lifetime
activity, competency in a wide variety of physical skills, the
need for strong social and personal responsibility skills,
and the knowledge needed to maintain personal wellness.
Applicable standards are placed at the end of each chapter
to illustrate how they guide the content and development of
this text. the full list of standards is also printed inside the
front cover of the book.
the inclusion and integration of essential components
and content standards are an important feature in this text.
these features are designed to help pre-service and in-service
xvii
teachers understand why they are teaching various skills and
activities. information and instructional activities in DPE are
included only if they contribute to the standards or essential
components found in chapter 1.
aDDITIONal ChaPTER uPDaTEs
the entire text has been edited to make it more concise and
easier to understand. references, terminology, and some
figures have been updated. current topics have been added
to many chapters; these topics are current events that can be
used to stimulate thinking about current issues in physical
education.
the 18th edition of DPE reflects a number of signifi-
cant changes based on feedback from peer reviewers and
users of DPE and changes in the field of physical education.
this edition of Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary
School Children provides teachers with a sound foundation
for establishing a well-rounded, comprehensive physical
education program. What follows is a highlight of addi-
tional key changes and important chapter concepts in this
edition:
• Chapter 4 focuses on developing a curriculum. this chap-
ter is sandwiched between lesson planning (chapter 3) and
improving instructional effectiveness (chapter 5). this
makes it easy for teachers to see how these three chapters
form the basis for planning and implementing a quality
physical education program.
• Chapter 6 maintains the focus on the importance of
knowing how to effectively manage and discipline stu-
dents. this chapter helps teachers understand the dif-
ference between management strategies and the use of
discipline when needed. A section on how to deliver
corrective feedback without negative emotion is empha-
sized. Peer mediation is covered so students can help
each other solve some of their interpersonal problems.
• Chapter 7 makes use of the StePS model (space, task,
equipment, people, safety) of modifying activities for
inclusion. continued emphasis has been placed on
modifying activities to assure success for all students. in
addition, a comprehensive table has been added to help
teachers be more effective with specific needs. common
characteristics and physical education implications for
many special needs will help teachers modify their les-
sons to assure inclusion of all students.
• Chapter 8 contains sections on student logs, peer assess-
ment, and authentic written tests. A new section on pro-
gram accountability and the nASPe standards has been
added to help teachers understand the need for evaluating
standards that are student achievable. the second half of
the chapter focuses on instructional analysis that can be
performed by practicing teachers for self-improvement.
xviii
• Chapter 12 is designed to help teachers learn how to
combat student inactivity. Using pedometers to motivate
students and monitor program outcomes is discussed
in detail. A new section has been added on alternative
methods of evaluating the activity levels of students.
• Chapter 13 on physical fitness includes activities for
students such as Pilates and yoga. evaluating the fitness
levels of students with disabilities is also included in this
edition. in addition, a new section on how to use fitness
tests effectively has been added with special emphasis on
self-testing and a personal fitness record sheet. Both the
fitneSSGrAM and the President’s challenge fitness
tests are included in this chapter.
• Chapter 14, Active and Healthy Schools, shows how to
change the environment of the school so students increase
their activity levels and improve their nutrition and eating
habits. Sun safety skills are also emphasized in this chapter
since the incidence of skin cancer continues to increase.
• cooperative activities appeal to elementary school
youngsters. Chapter 21 explains how to present these
activities to students.
• for many adults, lifetime activities are the skills they use
to stay active. Chapter 23 offers a number of activities that
can be used to maintain an active life style. this activity-
based chapter includes walking, orienteering, tennis,
bowling, badminton, and frisbee units. the coverage of
tennis includes many games that can be taught in the gym.
Bowling offers another opportunity for students to learn
about an activity that is popular throughout the lifespan.
suPPlEMENTaRy MaTERIals
offered with the 18th edition of Dynamic Physical Education
for Elementary School Children is a complete package of sup-
plements that offers an integrated and comprehensive set of
learning and instructional tools.
the Physical Education Curriculum Guide: Lesson
Plans for Implementation, 18th edition (2016) has been
developed concurrently with the text and offers a frame-
work for implementing a developmentally appropriate cur-
riculum. for this edition, the Curriculum Guide is included
with the purchase of each new main text at no additional
charge to students. the lesson plans are presented in
three developmental levels, allowing for a greater range of
activity and ensuring that presentations are closely aligned
to the maturity and experience of students. the plans are
filled with activities and outcomes that enable teachers
to plan and understand why various activities are being
taught. the lesson plans offer a framework for planning
comprehensive lessons rather than preempting teachers
from planning duties. As mentioned above, the curriculum
guide offers sections on academic integration and content
standards for each of the more than 110 individual lesson
plans. the Lesson Plans have also been numbered consec-
utively in this revision for ease of reference between DPE
and the Curriculum Guide.
there are currently 17 lecture and lesson plan videos
available that have been developed for Dynamic Physical
Education for Elementary School Children. the titles of
videos most relevant to a chapter have been listed with the
end-of-chapter content. twelve of the available videos dem-
onstrate how to integrate physical activity in the classroom
setting. the longer videos include helpful content such as:
• Using Pedometers in Physical Education: features how
to use pedometers in a physical education setting, a num-
ber of instructional activities for students, and how the
pedometer can be used to increase program accountability
• Teaching a Four-Part Lesson and Analyzing a Four-
Part Lesson: two four-part lessons taught by a male and
a female master teacher (so students have more than one
model to emulate). emphasis is placed on illustrating
effective management techniques and quality instruc-
tional practices
• Management and Discipline Strategies for Physical
Educators: Shows teachers effective ways to manage and
group students through physical activity. effective man-
agement strategies can increase the amount of activity
students accumulate in physical education classes.
Discipline without negative emotion is also discussed
and illustrated in this video.
HOPSports is an international leader in creating
classroom activity breaks for educators. these videos are
commonly referred to as Brain Breaks because activity
in the classroom setting has been shown to improve aca-
demic performance. the videos illustrate basic movements,
playground activities, and classroom games. each video is
indicated within the text by an icon, showing students when
a video is available to demonstrate the activity. in addition
some of the videos deal with topics on classroom manage-
ment and bullying. this adds up to 35 new videos for stu-
dent and practicing teachers.
the Instructor Resource DVD (2016) includes
PowerPoint lecture outlines for each chapter, showing art
and photos from the book and video clips with discussion
questions. A Quiz Show game is provided for each section
of the text (1–7), as are JPeGs of all photos and illustra-
tions from the book. All of the videos described above
are included, with optional closed-captioning, as is the
instructor’s Manual and test Bank.
the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank (2016) is cor-
related to the text. for each chapter, the instructor’s Manual
provides a chapter summary, desired student outcomes, a
discussion of the main concepts of the chapter, ideas for
presenting the content, discussion topics, suggested writ-
ten assignments, and a cooperative learning project. the
test Bank, also available in a computerized format through
testGen, offers true/false, multiple-choice, and short essay
questions for every chapter. Answers and page references
are provided. Using the 1,500 test questions in the test bank,
instructors can create tests, edit questions, and add their
own material.
online content for students at the companion web-
site (www.pearsonhighered.com/pangrazi) offers students
videos, learning objectives, quizzes, critical thinking
questions based on videos and photos, weblinks, sample les-
son plans covering all developmental levels, activity cards
and a glossary with flashcards. Access to password-protected
content is available by registering with the code provided in
the front of the book.
QualITy CONTROl
aND fIElD TEsTING
A tradition that continues in this edition of DPE is to
assure that all activities have been field-tested with chil-
dren. We continue to teach elementary school children and
evaluate new activities based in part on student reception
and instructional effectiveness. A number of experts have
been involved in evaluating and helping with this text to
ensure the content is accurate and on the cutting edge. Bill
Jones and the physical education staff at the University
School in cleveland, oH have provided feedback on a
variety of activities and developing responsible behavior.
Don Hicks, St. francis episcopal Day School in Houston,
has offered continuing feedback and evaluation of activi-
ties on a regular basis. chapter 19, rhythmic Movement
Skills, was enhanced by Jerry Poppen, an expert physical
educator; Paul James, Wagon Wheel records; Dr. Barbara
cusimano, oregon State University; and Deb Pangrazi,
Supervisor of elementary school physical education for the
Mesa, Arizona, Public Schools. John Spini, current coach of
the women’s gymnastics team at Arizona State University,
evaluated and contributed to chapter 20, Gymnastic Skills.
Dr. carole casten, california State University, Dominguez
Hills, contributed the material for the section on rhythmic
gymnastics. Dr. virginia Atkins chadwick, fresno State
University, and Dr. Julian Stein, George Mason University,
evaluated and contributed to chapter 7, children with
Disabilities. Jim roberts, a Mesa, Arizona, physical educa-
tion specialist, field-tested the materials for developing re-
sponsible behavior. in addition, the authors are indebted to
the Mesa School District elementary school physical edu-
cation specialists in Mesa, Arizona, who have field-tested
the activities and offered numerous suggestions and ideas
for improvement. Deb Pangrazi, Mesa Schools Supervisor
of elementary School Physical education, leads this stel-
lar group of nearly 100 specialists. We would also like to
xix
thank Billy and Monica noble and other physical educa-
tion teachers in fayette county Public Schools (Lexington,
Ky) for their willingness to test new activities and offer
suggestions for the textbook and lesson plans. All these in-
dividuals have unselfishly contributed their energies and
insights to assure that quality activities and teaching strate-
gies are part of this textbook. the result of this continued
field testing is a book filled with activities, strategies, and
techniques that work.
aCkNOwlEDGMENTs
Useful textbooks are the result of cohesive teamwork among
the publishing company, reviewers, and the authors. We
appreciate the professional group at Pearson for their major
contributions to this text. We thank Sandy Lindelof, executive
editor, for her ongoing support and encouragement.
We also appreciate the efficiency and competency of
Alverne Ball, Project Manager, and all the others at integra
did a wonderful job handling the production of the text. to
these and many other individuals at Pearson who go un-
named, please accept a hearty thank you.
Dr. Heather erwin, University of Kentucky, was indis-
pensible in this edition for her work on the supplementary
xx
materials (updating the PowerPoint resources and the
instructor’s Manual and test Bank).
A sincere note of thanks goes to the following review-
ers who provided valuable feedback that helped guide
the author’s efforts throughout the project: tim Meyler,
costal carolina University; Wendy cowan, Athens State
University; David Pusey, Buena vista University; Sandra
cravens, texas Women’s University; Judy Gentry, tennessee
State University; Donna cucunato, chapman University;
and Sally Hope, Purdue University. We would also like to
thank the following reviewers who offered us additional
feedback as we were in the process of revising:
carole DeHaven, Purdue University; Dr. Jamie f.
Harvey, University of tennessee at chattanooga; Arthur
W. Miller, University of Montana; nate Mitchell, Athens
State University; Dr. Johann Murray, Peru State college;
Jen neubauer, coe college; Mary trinidad, University
of texas Pan-American; virginia trummer, University
of texas at San Antonio; vanessa Anton, northeastern
State University; Wendy cowan, Athens State University;
David Daum, University of Southern indiana; Mark Jenks,
University of Arizona; todd Pennington, Brigham young
University—Provo; Mark Urtel, indiana University-Purdue
University indianapolis.
 1
Elementary School
Physical Education
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Justify the need for a quality physical education
program in elementary schools based on the health
benefits it can offer children.
• Cite the NASPE national standards for physical education.
• List program objectives and recognize the distinctive con-
tributions of physical education.
• Describe the educational reasons for including physical
education as part of the elementary school curriculum.
• Define physical education and its role in the elemen-
tary school experience.
• Explain how various pedagogical influences have
changed the course of elementary school physical
education programs.
• Identify essential components of a quality phys-
ical education program.
• Describe how various societal influences and
federal mandates have influenced elemen-
tary school physical education.

P
hysical education programs are a crucial element of the
school curriculum. If the paradigm of “healthy mind,
healthy body” is the path to each child’s total growth and
development, then physical education must be included to as-
sure that healthy body outcomes are reached. Systematic and
properly taught physical education can help achieve major
content standards including movement competence, main-
taining physical fitness, learning personal health and wellness
skills, applying movement concepts and skill mechanics, devel-
oping lifetime activity skills, and demonstrating positive social
skills. Cultural and educational factors have influenced modern
physical education programs with a common theme being
the need for physical activity. Physical educators now see the
importance of focusing physical education on physical activity
promotion. This entails maintaining quality standard-based physi-
cal education programs (i.e. quality instruction and quality curriculum)
coupled with efforts to promote physical activity beyond the gymnasium.
2 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
whAT iS phySicAl educATiOn?
Perspectives on the definition and purpose of physical edu-
cation vary greatly. Physical education professionals often
describe it as essential subject matter providing students
with the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary to remain
active throughout the lifespan. Some equate physical educa-
tion with athletics or competitive sports while others see it
as recess or free-time play. In short, some people view it as
a worthwhile component of school curriculum while others
see it as an unnecessary use of educational time.
Physical education is part of the total educational pro-
gram that contributes, primarily through physical activity,
to the total growth and development of all children. In
most instructional programs it is the only component that
addresses all learning domains: psychomotor, cognitive,
and affective. Further, no other area of the curriculum is
designed to help children learn how to maintain an active
lifestyle. It is insufficient to educate children academically;
they must also graduate from school with wellness skills
that will serve them throughout life. If students, particularly
the inactive and unskilled, receive low-quality instruction
in physical education, they will most likely mature into
inactive and overweight adults. For many children, physical
education may be the only part of the school curriculum
that offers an opportunity to learn active skills they will use
for a lifetime. Thus, a strong physical education program
emphasizes helping all children succeed—regardless of
ability or skill level.
Physical education teachers must do more than teach
skills and physical fitness. They must also keep in mind the
public health implications of quality physical education.
With the current state of public health, the importance of
healthy eating habits, stress reduction, substance abuse,
sun safety, weight management, and active life styles are
outcomes that need to be taught to today’s students. No
longer is it acceptable for physical educators to be viewed
as close cousins of sport coaches. No longer can they isolate
themselves in the gymnasium and be satisfied teaching
exclusively skills, fitness, and sports. If the profession is
to thrive, modern physical educators must be an integral
and important part of the total school environment. They
must immerse themselves in school-wide initiatives and be
viewed by other teachers as teammates and contributors to
academic goals.
The evOluTiOn Of elemenTAry
SchOOl phySicAl educATiOn
Various educational policies, public health concerns, his-
torical events, and pedagogical influences have significantly
affected elementary school physical education programs.
Often these programs are created or modified as a reac-
tion to events publicized by the press and other interested
parties. Certainly, professionals and curriculum must
evolve and in fact, an evolving field is advocated. However,
as you read the following influences, keep in mind that evo-
lutionary changes can be both positive and negative. They
are positive if they result in long-term change that offers
positive identity to the profession. They are negative if they
are emphasized for a few years and then discarded in favor
of a focus on the next popular topic. Too often, many of
the influences listed in this section have been implemented
without adequate research, thought, and planning. But
rather are selected in an attempt to validate the profession.
Years after implementation, research has shown that the
program changes had little or no positive impact on stu-
dent outcomes. Another negative aspect of implementing
ineffective trends is that it leaves the general public (parents
and students alike) wondering what physical education
is and what is to be learned in a physical education class.
Consider that most program trends only last 5–7 years.
This makes it difficult for non-professionals to understand
what constitutes a quality physical education program. In
sum, constant changing is an attempt to validate the profes-
sion, however, more often is serves to marginalize the pro-
fession, confuses others about its purpose, and leaves the
public wondering, “What is physical education?”
The GermAn And SwediSh influence
During the 19th century German and Swedish immigrants
to the United States introduced physical education that
focused on body development. The German system favored
a gymnastics approach, which required a lot of equipment
and special teachers. The Swedish system incorporated an
exercise program into activity presentations. The physical
education program in many of the schools that adopted
these approaches consisted of a series of structured exercises
that children could perform in the classroom. The need for
equipment and gymnasiums posed problems for the schools
that followed these systems, and many economy-minded
citizens questioned the programs. As a result of these con-
cerns, a combination of games and calisthenics evolved
and became the first scheduled physical education activity
offered in some U.S. schools.
The emphASiS On GAmeS And SpOrTS
When about one-third of the American men drafted in
World War I were rejected as physically unfit for military ser-
vice, a new demand emerged for physical education and fit-
ness in the schools. (Little improvement in health status has
occurred since that time however; in 2009, more than 35%
of American men were rejected by the military for physical
health reasons.) In many states, laws requiring minimum
weekly physical activity time resulted in physical education
as part of the school curriculum. The laws were strictly quan-
titative, however, and paid little attention to program quality.
Case Study Physical Activity and Physical Education
“Who ArE WE?” ASkED ThEA, A SECoND yEAr TEAChEr.
In her two years of teaching and undergraduate work, she
had read and learned about several different approaches
to physical education.
“What do you mean? I sense some frustration” replied
Jim, her teaching partner with 25 years of physical educa-
tion teaching experience.
“Should we focus on skills? If so, which ones: sport
skills or fundamental skills? Should we focus on fitness?
Are fit kids a sign of good P.E.? What about the gymnas-
tics skills they used to teach when P.E. started? Should I
integrate math content in my lessons? I read all of this
stuff as I’ve been teaching and I just can’t figure it out.”
Jim listened and then calmly replied, “Listen, I’ve
been doing this as long as you have been alive. And
I have seen lots of approaches come and go, and come
and go. Throughout your career you are going to see
this same phenomenon. one thing I’ve learned is that,
regardless of the approach, the common thread is always
physical activity. from the german-Swedish influence you
learned about in your coursework, to the new physical
literacy push, the bottom line is that we need to get kids
to want to be active. So, in my opinion, your approach
to teaching, the model you use, and the teaching style
Training programs designed for soldiers during World
War I emphasized games and sports and proved more
effective than calisthenics alone. Therefore, school programs
using games and sports for physical development soon fol-
lowed. John Dewey, professor of philosophy at Columbia
University, profoundly influenced educational theory in the
mid-20th century. Interestingly, two of Dewey’s cardinal aims
of education stressed physical activities and gave impetus to
the teaching of games and sports in schools. With the influ-
ence of Dewey and military training, games and sports were
valued and became part of the school curriculum.
Programs stressing sports and games started in second-
ary schools and filtered down to elementary physical educa-
tion. Physical education was often described by answering
the question, “What game are we going to play today?”
During the Great Depression, when equipment was diffi-
cult to obtain and physical education teachers were almost
nonexistent, physical education was relegated to a minor
role, and many schools eliminated it entirely.
nATiOnAl cOncern AbOuT
phySicAl fiTneSS
A renewed emphasis on fitness occurred in the 1950s,
after the publication of comparative studies (based on the
Kraus-Weber tests) of fitness levels of U.S. and European
children. Kraus and Hirschland, (1954) compared the
strength and flexibility of 4,000 New York-area school
children with a comparable sample of Central European
you use, should all focus on what
will get children to enjoy moving.
Don’t worry about the next hot topic.
keep up to date on them and inte-
grate them in your program, but
don’t get consumed and worry so
much. I probably sound like your
dad, but you’re a hard worker,
you are going to be an outstand-
ing teacher. you want kids to
love to move. Don’t forget that.
This renewed focus
on physical activity
leaders in schools
is perfect for you.
Again, physical activity
has always really been
what we are about, and this
role lets us take physical activ-
ity promotion beyond lessons in
the gym and show the school
community that we care about
kids’ health and want everyone
to get and stay active.”
children. The press publicized
the comparative weakness of U.S.
children, which led to the birth of the fitness
movement. The President’s Council on Physical
Fitness and Sports was established to promote physical
fitness among school children and citizens of all ages.
Currently, the council (now known as the President’s
Council on Fitness, Sports & Nutrition) is increasing the
emphasis placed on children’s physical activity and nutri-
tion. These changes are a result of research revealing an
ever-increasing number of overweight and obese children
and adults. In turn, this concern fuelled a renewed focus
on fitness and physical activity in physical education.
pedAGOGicAl influenceS
Teachers and professionals, who identify a need for dif-
ferent instructional methods and physical education pro-
grams, are often motivated by dissatisfaction with the status
quo and a desire to make physical education a more neces-
sary part of the school curriculum. The following are some
approaches that have influenced the course of elementary
school physical education.
movement education
Movement education originated in England and was in-
corporated into U.S. programs in the late 1960s. To some
degree, it was a revolt against structured fitness programs,
which included calisthenics done in a formal, regimented,
4 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
military style. The demanding fitness standards advocated
by the President’s Council led some teachers to teach for
fitness outcomes rather than presenting a balanced physical
education program that included skills and concepts. This
practice created a backlash among some physical educators,
who felt that creativity, exploration, and cognition should
also be focal points of teaching.
Movement education methodology featured problem
solving and exploration, thus shifting some of the respon-
sibility for learning to the children. Adopting movement
education led to the rejection of physical-fitness-oriented
activities, especially calisthenics, which were labelled training
and not education. Controversy arose over applying move-
ment principles to the teaching of specific skills, particularly
athletic skills. Schools tended to apply the exploration meth-
odology to all phases of instruction without examining its
effectiveness. Nevertheless, movement education resulted in
better teaching methodologies and increased emphasis on
instruction focused on the individual. Movement educa-
tion also offered an opportunity for diversity of movement
through creative instructional methods and allowed students
of all ability levels to succeed.
perceptual–motor programs
The focus of perceptual–motor programs was to remedy
learning difficulties attributed to a breakdown in perceptual–
motor development. Theorists held that children progressed
in an orderly way through growth and developmental stages
from head to foot (cephalocaudally) and from the center of
the body outward (proximodistally). When disruptions, lags,
or omissions occurred in this process, certain underlying
perceptual–motor bases failed to develop fully and impaired
the child’s ability to function correctly in both physical and
academic settings.
Perceptual–motor programs flourished due to concern
for slow (or delayed) academic learners. Some children, who
were identified as academically challenged, demonstrated
motor problems involving coordination, balance and pos-
tural control, and relationships involving time and space.
Perceptual–motor programs attempted to remediate these
shortcomings and gave physical education teachers hope
that their profession would be viewed as integral to a child’s
academic success. However, when researchers examined
the effectiveness of such programs, they discovered that
perceptual–motor activities did not improve academic
achievement. Today, few perceptual–motor-based physical
education programs still exist, but they continue to contrib-
ute to today’s programs with the integration of perceptual–
motor principles into skill-learning sequences, such as using
both sides of the body, practicing balance skills, and so forth.
conceptual learning
Conceptual understanding (i.e., applying abstract ideas
drawn from experience) plays an important part in physical
education. In the process of movement, children learn to
distinguish between near and far, strong and weak, light
and heavy, and high and low. Physical education gives chil-
dren the opportunity to understand and experiment with
such movement concepts.
The Fitness for Life program (Corbin and Lindsey,
2007) takes a conceptual approach to physical education.
Students receive information associated with physical
activity and health in a lecture and then use the information
on themselves or on peers in a laboratory (i.e., physical
education) setting. This program emphasizes information,
appraisal procedures, and program planning. Students are
expected to understand the “how, what, and why” of physi-
cal activity and exercise. They learn to use diagnostic
tests in areas such as cardiovascular endurance, muscular
strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, and
motor ability.
Some teachers believe that taking an academic
approach focused solely on knowledge and cognitive
growth instead of physical skills and activity will place
physical education on par with other academic disciplines.
Others believe that increasing student knowledge changes
students’ attitudes and behavior, thus encouraging them to
incorporate physical activity into their life styles. However,
research supports neither of these beliefs. Increasing a
person’s knowledge does not ensure a change in behavior.
Most individuals who smoke know that smoking is det-
rimental to one’s health, yet still smoke. Students must
experience and learn physical skills and understand their
conceptual components. Because it is the only place in the
curriculum where physical skills are taught and learned,
physical activity is—and must remain—the core compo-
nent of physical education.
federAl mAndATeS
Occasionally, legislation is passed that affects physical edu-
cation curriculum and instruction. The following legisla-
tive mandates, in particular, continue to influence physical
education programs throughout the United States.
Title iX: equal Opportunity for the Sexes
Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972
has significantly affected most secondary school physi-
cal education programs. This federal law has less effect
on elementary school physical education because most
programs at this level have long been coeducational. Title
IX rules out separation of the sexes and requires all offer-
ings to be coeducational. The law is based on the principle
that school activities and programs are of equal value for
both sexes and that students should not be denied access to
participation on the basis of gender. The legal ramifications
of Title IX have forced schools to provide equal access to
physical education activities for boys and girls. Organizing
separate competitions for the sexes is permissible, provided
 ChAPTEr 1 • ELEmENTAry SChooL PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
that mixed participation in an activity would be hazardous.
In principle, the law also dictates that the most qualified
teacher—regardless of gender—provides instruction.
Title IX also tries to eliminate sexism and sex-role
typing. Human needs and opportunities must prevail over
traditional sexual stereotypes of masculinity and feminin-
ity. Segregating children by sex in elementary school physi-
cal education classes is indefensible because it eliminates
the opportunity for children to learn at an early age that
gender differences are negligible when it comes to the
desire to perform well athletically.
pl 94–142: equal rights for Students
with disabilities
Public Law 94–142 mandates that all children have the
right to a free and public education and that they must be
educated in the least restrictive educational environment
possible. No longer can the 3.5 to 4 million U.S. children
with disabilities be assigned to segregated classes or schools
unless a separate environment is determined by due pro-
cess to be in the child’s best interest. A 1990 amendment,
Public Law 101–476 (also known as IDEA—Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act), continues with the objec-
tive of providing handicapped individuals with the least
restrictive environment in the school setting.
Inclusion (mainstreaming) is the term used for the
practice of placing children with unique needs into regular
classroom settings. These laws have allowed many children
with unique needs (special needs) to participate in regular
physical education classes. PL 101–476 often necessitates
changing the school’s structure and educational procedures
as well as the viewpoints and attitudes of its personnel.
Many teachers lack the educational background, experi-
ence, or inclination to handle children with disabilities.
The answer is not to ignore the problem, but to provide
teachers with the knowledge and constructive approaches
that allow them to successfully teach children with all
levels of ability.
Besides the inclusion of students with unique needs
into regular education classes, PL 101–476 also mandates
that each such student receive a specific learning pro-
gram, called an individualized educational program (IEP).
Establishing the child’s due process committee, developing
the IEP, and monitoring the program to ensure it is in the
student’s best interest is a considerable challenge. IEPs,
which help make education more personal and individual,
can be used for able children as well.
child nutrition and wic reauthorization
Act of 2004
Nationally, widespread concern exists about the health sta-
tus of American, sparticularly physical activity and nutri-
tion. The number of overweight Americans has increased
rapidly in the past 15 years. Today, more than 65% of
5
Americans are overweight or obese (National Center for
Health Statistics, 2011). Much of this increase is attributed
to a decrease in physical activity and an increase in the
number of calories consumed. 1
Physical education programs must focus on improv-
ing students’ health status, particularly their eating hab-
its and physical activity. The Child Nutrition and WIC
(Women, Infants, and Children) Reauthorization Act
of 2004 required that all school districts with a feder-
ally funded school meal program develop and imple-
ment wellness policies addressing nutrition and physical
activity. This act offers physical educators an excellent
opportunity to provide physical activity and eating behav-
ior programs in their classes. In doing so, this becomes
an opportunity to change the entire school environment
rather than merely implement a minor curriculum change.
Changing the school environment requires the efforts of
the entire school community—namely, parents, classroom
teachers, administrators, and students. Some hope exists
that, if implemented correctly, this mandate could elevate
physical education programs and physical educators to a
prominent role in the total school curriculum and school
environment.
cOnTempOrAry SOciAl influenceS
A nationwide concern for health
and physical Activity
Every decade, the United States sets goals and objectives
with 10-year targets designed to guide national health
promotion and disease prevention to improve the health of
Americans.
The most recent document Healthy People 2020 (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2010) emphasizes
a commitment that all people live long and healthy lives. Four
major goals are listed in this document: (1) attain high quality,
longer lives free of preventable disease, disability, injury, and pre-
mature death; (2) achieve health equity, eliminate disparities, and
improve the health of all groups; (3) create social and physical
environments that promote good health for all; and (4) pro-
mote quality of life, healthy development,
and healthy behaviors across
all life stages. The Heal­
thy People document
is massive and in-
cludes many topics
of particular rele-
vance to health and
physical educators.
Some topics of inter-
est include adolescent health,
early and middle childhood health, nutrition and weight con-
trol, physical activity, and social determinants of health. This
document can be an excellent resource for teachers who want
to design a program that will help meet the 2020 goals.
6 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
The problem of weight control merits special atten-
tion in elementary school. Unless their lifestyle changes at
an early age, obese children usually become obese adults.
Activity levels track into adulthood—active children become
active adults, whereas inactive children become inactive
adults (Raitakari et al., 1994).
Human wellness for children is most effectively en-
hanced when classroom teachers, physical education spe-
cialists, parents, administrators, and the entire community
work together. Identifying wellness as a common goal for
all school children makes physical education an integral
part of the total school curriculum. Wellness instruction
teaches concepts that help students develop and maintain
an active lifestyle. Understanding the importance of daily
physical activity and providing students an environment
conducive to physical activity increases the odds that stu-
dents will stay active throughout their lives (Dale, Corbin,
& Cuddihy, 1998).
The Surgeon General’s report on Physical Activity
and Health (USDHHS, 1996) clearly outlined the health
and wellness benefits of physical activity for all ages. As a
result, efforts are underway to promote physical activity
among all segments of the population. Today’s educators
are increasingly focused on integrating physical activity
into a healthful lifestyle. This focus is pushing physical
educators to develop programs that teach more than fit-
ness, skill activities, and games.
The currenT STATuS Of
phySicAl educATiOn in
The uniTed STATeS
Physical education has changed its instructional focus so
often that teachers, parents, and students wonder what a
quality program should deliver to students. The changes
are usually trends that last 5 to 7 years and then, when
interest wanes, a new trend replaces it. For example, there
has been a fitness push three times in the last 50 years.
When this effort to justify physical education was not
found effective, programs disappeared and focused on the
next topic that could potentially justify the existence of
physical education. Physical education’s focus has changed
so often that many people are unsure what physical educa-
tion represents. When you say you are a physical education
teacher, most people ask, “What sport do you coach?”
Colleges and universities have compounded the problem
by renaming their physical education departments kinesi-
ology, exercise science, sport studies, movement education,
and so on. Despite these barriers, we believe that promot-
ing physical activity and healthy eating are outcomes that
really matter for our inactive, overweight society. To this
end, physical education can have a strong impact on the
public health of our society. It’s time for the profession
to stop being a moving target and to encourage others to
see the value of a quality physical education program that
improves the health and welfare of students and ultimately
mature citizens.
On the other hand, it is important to acknowledge
that outside influences impact what we do in physical
education. In recent years, legislation emphasizing the
use of standardized testing to measure student academic
achievement and thus school effectiveness has impacted
physical education. Responding to a perceived decline
in academic performance, many school curricula focus
heavily, if not entirely, on teaching students math and
reading. To increase academic time in these areas, less
time is allocated to special areas, including physical
education. The demand for uninterrupted academic time
often makes it difficult to schedule physical education
time for children beyond one, or maybe two, days per
week. In some regions, so-called “back to basic” schools
eliminated all curricular content not focused on math
and reading.
According to the School Health Policies and Practices
Study (SHPPS) 2006 report, the number of students
receiving physical education declines from about 50% in
grades 1–5 to about 20% in grade 12 (Lee et al., 2007).
Because many states and schools allow exemptions from
physical education classes, the actual percentage of stu-
dents receiving instruction is even lower. Only about 4%
of elementary schools provide daily physical education all
year for their students (Lee et al., 2007). When physical
education is provided at these grade levels, a “specialist”
often teaches it—though many people with this title lack
valid credentials.
In most schools, children receive about 25 hours of
overall instruction weekly. Physical education may be
scheduled for 30–60 minutes a week in a school that cares
about physical education, meaning that only 2–4% of the
total instructional time is devoted to the health and well-
ness of students. How can we expect children to value
physical activity if physical education does not receive
adequate time for instruction? Instruction may be carried
out by a classroom teacher or paraprofessional with little
concern for the quality of the experience. Often, up to four
classrooms are sent to physical education at one time, so
the student–teacher ratio is 120 to 1 (sometimes one or two
paraprofessionals are available to help). When class sizes
are large, more time is spent on management and discipline
making the experience less than satisfactory. Often, for
young children, how they are taught is more important than
what they are taught. Physical education teachers deserve
the same respect and class sizes as classroom teachers.
While these facts seem to paint a dim picture of physical
education, we believe the future of physical education is
bright and these barriers can be overcome to allow physical
education to prosper.
 ChAPTEr 1 • ELEmENTAry SChooL PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
The need fOr phySicAl
educATiOn prOGrAmS
In the past decade, interest in the benefits of an active
lifestyle has spawned a wide assortment of health clubs
and exercise and fitness books and magazines, a weekly
smorgasbord of distance runs and triathlons, streamlined
exercise equipment, and apparel for virtually any type of
physical activity. Unfortunately, most of this interest and
lifestyle change has occurred among middle- and upper-
class Americans. Little change in activity patterns has
occurred in lower-middle- and lower-class families.
A 2010 national survey of children, sponsored by the
Kaiser Family Foundation, showed that on average 8- to
18-year-olds spent 7 hours and 38 minutes using media daily
(Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010). Further, excessive screen
time in youth has been associated with numerous cardiovascu-
lar risk factors in young adulthood. Early research in this area,
found children who watched 4 or more
hours of television per day had sig-
nificantly higher body mass index
(BMI) than children who watched
less than 2 hours per day
(Anderson et al., 1998).
Health goals for
the nation for the year
2020 (USDHHS, 2010)
are based on increasing daily levels of physical activity. Many
of the goals directly target schools or programs that can take
place within the school setting. These goals emphasize reduc-
ing inactivity and increasing light to moderate physical activ-
ity. How, then, can implementing a quality physical education
program teach students how to live an active and healthy
lifestyle?
1. The prevalence of obesity among children 6 to 11 years
of age has increased from 7% in 1980 to 18% in 2010
(Ogden et al., 2012). Increased obesity is a function
of children consuming more calories through their
diet than they are expending through physical activity.
The school environment typically discourages physical
activity. Everywhere they go, students are ordered to
move slowly, sit still, and walk rather than run, result-
ing in decreased energy expenditure. A 30-minute
physical education class can offer 1,200 to 2,000 steps
of moderate to vigorous physical activity to counter-
act the effects of an inactive day (Beighle & Pangrazi,
2000; Morgan, Pangrazi, & Beighle, 2003). Thus, for a
student who averages 8,000 steps a day, a quality physi-
cal education class could increase the total number of
steps by 25% and the accumulated steps to 10,000—a
substantial increase in physical activity
2. A positive experience in physical education encourages
children to be active as adults. In a survey sponsored
7
by the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association
(2000), 60% of respondents ages 18 to 34 reported
that a positive experience in physical education classes
encouraged them to be active later in life. On the other
hand, of those respondents who said they were sed-
1
entary, only 10% said their physical education classes
encouraged them to be active. Other surveys have
found that simply having physical education and hav-
ing physical education more frequently is an avenue
for physical activity in adulthood (Physical Activity
Council, 2012).
3. Obese youth are more likely than youth of normal
weight to become overweight or obese adults and
therefore more at risk for associated adult health prob-
lems, including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke,
several types of cancer, and osteoarthritis (Dixon, 2010).
Thus, we must address obesity in elementary school—
before the problem becomes
more difficult to rectify.
4. A quality physical
education program ed-
ucates students physi-
cally and can contribute
to academic learning. It
has long been argued that
spending time on physical
education and recess lowers the academic performance
of students because they have less time to study and
learn. A review of research examining the relationship
between physical activity in school and academic perfor-
mance found that increasing time during the school day
for physical activity does not negatively impact school
performance and in fact can improve student academic
performance.
5. Physical education gives students the skills they need
to be active as adults. Adults rarely learn new physical
activities because they are too busy and are unwill-
ing to start as beginners. Instead, they often practice
and use skills they learned in childhood. Since many
adults like to participate in activities having a requisite
skill level (e.g., golf, tennis, and racquetball), learning
such skills during their school years makes them more
likely to feel competent enough to participate in these
activities later in life.
6. It has been thought for quite some time that physical
activity (most often during physical education classes)
gives children immediate and long-term health ben-
efits (Bar-Or, 1995). For obese children, increased
physical activity reduces the percentage of body
fat. For high health-risk children, increased activity
reduces blood pressure and improves their blood lipid
profiles. Finally, evidence shows that weight-bearing
8 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
activities performed during the school years offer
bone mineral density benefits (i.e., the prevention of
osteoporosis) that carry over into adulthood (Bailey,
Faulkner, & McKay, 1996).
7. Active children are more likely to become active adults.
Telama et al. (1997) looked at retrospective and longi-
tudinal tracking studies and concluded that the results
“indicate that physical activity and sport participation
in childhood and adolescence represent a significant
prediction for physical activity in adulthood.” Raitakari
et al. (1994) showed how strongly inactivity patterns
track. In that study, the probability of an inactive
12-year-old remaining sedentary at age 18 was 51 to
63% for girls and 54 to 61% for boys. Thus, an inac-
tive family and school environment contributes to new
generations of inactive adults.
phySicAl educATOrS
prOmOTinG phySicAl AcTiviTy
Despite the many acknowledged benefits of physical edu-
cation and a national call for more physical education
(Institute of Medicine, 2012), the field continues to be
marginalized. To combat this trend, physical education pro-
grams must demonstrate that they are instructional, of high
quality, and contribute uniquely to the school curriculum
and environment. Since 2007, many national programs and
organizations—the most recent being Let’s Move Active
Schools (www.letsmoveschools.org)—have charged physi-
cal educators and schools to take on a larger role in physical
education (Pate et al, 2006; NASPE, 2008; National Physical
Activity Plan for the United States, 2010). Some have ques-
tioned this approach as abandoning the basis of physi-
cal education and see it as a threat to the field of physical
education. We feel this approach is essential. First, all the
approaches used throughout the history of physical educa-
tion continue to have one common denominator, physical
activity. While new trends come and go, at the root of these
approaches is to provide physical activity for youth. Second,
to maintain the profession’s existence, it is essential that the
field of physical education evolve to meet the desires and
needs of society. Taking on a focus of physical education
allows us to address what we know is a major public health
concern, physical inactivity. This does not suggest physical
educators discard current curricular models and approaches
to teaching, nor does it suggest that skills, fitness, and
knowledge no longer be taught. We must continue to incor-
porate quality instruction in physical education. However,
we must place more focus and emphasis on the public health
concern of physical activity promotion.
To meet this goal of establishing physical education as
a tool for improving public health, physical educators must
take on a larger, more prominent role in schools. Serving as
a school-based physical activity champion allows the physi-
cal educator to maintain relevance and position themselves
as an essential part of the school. The following section
describes more in-depth what this role might look like for a
physical educator.
The chAnGinG fAce Of The phySicAl
educATiOn TeAcher
Due to many factors physical activity and other healthy
behaviors in school settings are often restricted. More
time is being devoted to core content while time for physi-
cal education and other “frill” subjects is often reduced.
Schools can serve as a cost-effective resource for bat-
tling poor health and physical inactivity of Americans.
Unfortunately, schools and teachers do not deem that
a priority and are not trained or equipped to carry out
such a task. The physical educator in the school is the
most appropriate and qualified person to lead this charge.
Potential responsibilities of the physical activity leader
include organizing staff wellness programs, providing
nutrition education, coordinating with food service direc-
tors, and helping teachers integrate physical activity and
health in the classroom. For the physical activity leader
to work most effectively, a shift in job responsibility must
occur. Aside from planning and other duties as assigned
(e.g., bus duty), most physical educators teach 100% of
their time in the schools. Within this “shift,” schools need
to allocate time for collaboration with others in the school
and in the community to advocate for healthier behaviors
for the entire school community.
The physical activity leader spearheads environmental
change, thus positively influencing the physical environment
of the school by working with staff to post bulletin boards as
well as point-of-decision prompts promoting physical activity
and healthy behavior. These serve as reminders to make good
food selections at lunch, wash hands in the restroom, and
invite a friend to participate in a recess game. The physical
activity leader can promote these behaviors by addressing
them during physical education lessons.
The notion of a fitness room or health club is another
possibility for promoting healthy behavior with students
and teachers. Providing physical activity DVDs, resistance
bands, stability balls, and other equipment in a classroom
or unused stage creates a place for staff to be active after
school, and the teachers can use that space as a reward for
student effort in academic work during the school day.
To make favorable changes to the social environment
of the school, classroom teachers can be trained to pro-
vide activity breaks for their students throughout the day.
Another classroom policy that can be endorsed is to limit
the amount of “sit time” teachers allow their students. For
example, teachers should be encouraged to get their stu-
dents up and moving at least once every hour, which may
be prompted by a school-wide announcement or signal
 ChAPTEr 1 • ELEmENTAry SChooL PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
over the intercom. The physical activity leader may pres-
ent stress relief breaks for staff during faculty meetings or
provide informational health-related sessions during lunch-
time in the faculty lounge.
The cOnTenT Of phySicAl
educATiOn
Following agreed-upon guidelines or standards that have
been proven to ensure children obtain a quality education
are just as important for physical education as they are for
traditional academic classes. Content standards are the
framework of any program because they determine the
focus and direction of instruction. Standards specify what
students should know and be able to do before advancing
to the next developmental level. Established standards can
significantly contribute to the overall goal of school and
U.S. society—namely, to develop well-rounded individuals
capable of contributing to society. Quality programs are
driven by standards that motivate children toward high-
level achievement.
Physical education content standards are taught no-
where else in the school curriculum. If these standards
are not achieved in physical education classes, children
will leave school without a well-developed set of physi-
cal skills. The National Association for Sport and Physical
Education (NASPE, 2013) has identified five major con-
tent standards for physical education. The NASPE website
(www.aahperd.org/naspe/index.cfm) also provides a series
of assessment publications that offer a wide range of strate-
gies for identifying student progress toward the standards.
The assessment series recommends a range of strategies,
including teacher observations, written tests, student logs,
student projects, student journals, class projects, and port-
folios. Assessment strategies offer teachers examples of
many assessment styles, with the expectation that teachers
will modify and select assessment tools appropriate to their
own setting.
To conform to the concepts of standards-based educa-
tion, this text presents fundamental content standards that
must be accomplished in physical education. Content stan-
dards are presented in measurable terms so teachers and
schools can be held accountable for helping students reach a
predetermined level of achievement. Though accountability
is important, abuse can occur when teachers are rewarded
based solely on student achievement levels. Some teachers
may turn to memorization, drill, and rote learning and
may encourage practice solely in areas where students will
be tested. In physical education, this often means teach-
ing only fitness test activities so students score well on a
mandated physical fitness test. This approach can result in
a program that satisfies the school’s accountability concerns
but does little to give students a well-rounded physical
education.
9
nASpe cOnTenT STAndArdS
fOr phySicAl educATiOn
This section reviews each of the five NASPE national
standards and refers to the chapters that offer instruc-
1
tional activities and strategies designed to reach these
standards. Each chapter in this text also ends with a table
showing how activities in the chapter contribute to the
desired standards. A detailed discussion of what teachers
can expect students to learn follows each standard. Also
included are two levels of outcomes for each standard:
a set for children at Developmental Level I (see pages
11–16 for an in-depth discussion of developmental levels)
and a set for youth at Developmental Levels II and III
(grades 3–6).
The 2013 NASPE standards include the term “physi-
cally literate individuals.” Physical literacy refers to the
disposition that enables an individual to be active as a way
of life (Whitehead, 2001). A physically literate individual
is one who is motivated to be active and has the physi-
cal competence to engage in physical activity throughout
life. In essence, this new terminology does not change the
focus of physical education, that is, to provide students
with the skills, knowledge, and attitude to be active for a
lifetime. The most significant change in the new standards
is the combination of the physical activity and fitness
standards.
STAndArd 1: The physically literate individual
demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills
and movement patterns.
Standard 1 focuses on skill competency. All people want
to be skilled and competent performers. The elementary
school years are an excellent time to teach motor skills
because children have the time and predisposition to learn
them. The range of skills presented in physical education
should be unlimited; children need to encounter and learn
as many different physical skills as possible. Because chil-
dren vary in genetic endowment and interest, they should
have the opportunity to learn about their personal abilities
in many types of skills and settings.
movement concepts Skills
The classification of movement concepts (Chapter 15)
includes body and space awareness, qualities of movement,
and relationships. Learning the skills is insufficient; chil-
dren need to explore them in a variety of settings, too. This
standard ensures children will be taught how movement
concepts are classified and is designed to give children an
increased awareness and understanding of the body as a
vehicle for movement while acquiring a personal vocabu-
lary of movement skills.
10 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
fundamental motor Skills
Fundamental skills enhance quality of life. This group of
skills is sometimes referred to as “basic” or “functional”
skills. These are the skills children need to function fully
in the environment. Fundamental skills are categorized as
locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative skills.
locomotor Skills
Locomotor skills (Chapter 16) are used to move the body
from one place to another or to project the body upward, as
in jumping and hopping. These skills also include walking,
running, skipping, leaping, sliding, and galloping.
nonlocomotor Skills
Nonlocomotor skills (Chapter 16) are done in place, with
little spatial movement. These skills, which are not as well
defined as locomotor skills, include bending and stretching,
pushing and pulling, balancing, rolling, curling, twisting,
turning, and bouncing.
manipulative Skills
Manipulative skills (Chapter 17) are developed by han-
dling some type of object (Figure 1.1). Most of these skills
involve the hands and feet, but other parts of the body
also are used. The manipulation of objects leads to better
hand–eye and foot–eye coordination, which are particu-
larly important for tracking items in space. Manipulative
skills are basic to many games. Propelling (throwing, strik-
ing, striking with an implement, kicking) and receiving
(catching) objects are important skills that can be taught by
using beanbags and various balls. Rebounding or redirect-
ing an object in flight (e.g., a volleyball) and continuous
control of an object, such as a wand or a hoop, are also
manipulative activities.
fiGure 1.1 Developing manipulative skills.
fiGure 1.2 Learning body management skills.
Specialized motor Skills
Specialized skills are used in various sports and other areas of
physical education, including apparatus activities, tumbling,
dance, and specific games. Specialized skills receive increased
emphasis beginning with Developmental Level II activi-
ties. In developing specialized skills, progression is attained
through planned instruction and drills. Many of these skills
depend on specific techniques, so teaching emphasizes cor-
rect form and procedures.
body management Skills
Efficient movement of the body (Chapter 18) requires the
integration of various physical traits, including agility, bal-
ance, flexibility, and coordination (Figure 1.2). Students
also need to learn how to control their bodies while on
large apparatus such as beams, benches, and jumping
boxes.
rhythmic movement Skills
Rhythmic movement (Chapter 19) involves moving in a
regular, predictable pattern. The ability to move rhyth-
mically is basic to the performance of skills in all areas.
A rhythmic program that includes dance, rope jumping,
and rhythmic gymnastics offers a variety of activities
to help students attain this objective. Early experiences
center on functional and creative movement forms.
Instruction begins with and capitalizes on locomotor
skills that children already have—walking, running, hop-
ping, and jumping. Rhythmic activities are a vehicle for
expressive movement.
Gymnastic Skills
Gymnastic activities (Chapter 20) contribute significantly to
children’s overall physical education experience in elementary
schools. Gymnastic activities develop body management skills
 ChAPTEr 1 • ELEmENTAry SChooL PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
without the need for equipment and apparatus. Flexibility,
agility, balance, strength, and body control are enhanced by
participating in gymnastics. Students learn basic gymnastic
skills, such as rolling, balancing, inverted balancing, and tum-
bling, in a safe and gradual way.
Game Skills
Games (Chapter 22) provide children with the opportunity
to apply newly learned skills in a meaningful way. Many
games develop large muscle groups and enhance the ability
to run, dodge, start, and stop under control while sharing
space with others. Through games, children experience
success and accomplishment. Social objectives that can be
achieved through games include developing interpersonal
skills, conflict resolution, accepting rule parameters, and
increasing self-knowledge in a competitive and cooperative
situation.
Sport Skills
Students learn basic sport skills (Chapters 24–30) and then
practice them in various drills. After learning and practicing
the skills, students apply them in lead-up activities. Lead-up
activities reduce the number of skills children must use to
succeed, thus leading to more successful participation. Sport
skills require proper techniques, so cognitive learning is also
important.
Outcomes for developmental level i
Students
A. Apply movement concepts—such as body and space
awareness, relationships, and qualities of movement—
to various locomotor and body management skills.
b. Move efficiently using various locomotor skills, such as
walking, running, skipping, and hopping.
c. Combine locomotor and nonlocomotor skills into move-
ment themes (e.g., supporting body weight, forming
bridges, and receiving and transferring weight).
d. Perform body management skills on the floor and on
apparatus, including benches, balance beams, individual
mats, and jumping boxes.
e. Use various manipulative skills, such as tossing, throw-
ing, catching, and kicking.
f. Move rhythmically in various settings, including fun-
damental rhythms, creative rhythms, and simple folk
dances.
G. Perform simple gymnastic skills, such as animal walks,
body rolling, simple balances, and inverted balances.
h. Use various locomotor skills in minimally organized
game settings, such as running, dodging, evading, and
stopping.
11
Outcomes for developmental levels ii
and iii Students
A. Perform specialized sport skills with mature form
1
(e.g., throwing, catching, dribbling with foot and hand,
kicking and striking, batting, punting, and passing).
b. Use sport skills in various activities, such as pass-
ing a volleyball, dribbling a basketball, and batting a
softball.
c. Perform a wide variety of gymnastic skills, including
tumbling, inverted balances, individual stunts, and
partner stunts.
d. Perform body management skills on a variety of appa-
ratus, including benches, balance beams, and climbing
ropes.
e. Move rhythmically in various settings, including folk,
square, and line dances; rope jumping; and rhythmic
gymnastics.
f. Apply a wide variety of locomotor and manipulative
game skills in minimally organized game settings.
G. Incorporate specialized sport skills in a variety of sport
lead-up games.
STAndArd 2: The physically literate
individual applies knowledge of concepts, principles,
strategies, and tactics related to movement and
performance.
The school years are a time to experience and learn many
different types of physical activities and skills. Standard 2
gives students the opportunity to learn the basic concepts
of movement (Chapter 15), which can help them under-
stand what, where, and how the body can move. Again,
the emphasis is on experiencing the diversity of human
movement. By learning the correct mechanics of skill per-
formance (Chapter 3), students leave school knowing about
stability, force, leverage, and other factors related to effi-
cient movement.
Instruction is focused on teaching students to be self-
directed learners who can evaluate their performance and
self-correct their skill technique. To become competent per-
formers, they must understand that motor skills are learned
only through repetition and refinement (two of the three
R’s of physical education). Because many adult activities are
done alone, students need to learn how to warm up before
an activity and cool down when finished. Understanding
simple principles of motor learning (Chapter 3), such as
practice, arousal, and skill refinement, can be applied to
future experiences.
12 SECTIoN 1 • uNDErSTANDINg ThE NEED for PhySICAL EDuCATIoN
Outcomes for developmental level i
Students
A. Understand basic movement concepts, such as personal
space, qualities of movement, body awareness, and the
relationship of movements.
b. Understand words that describe various relationships
with objects such as around, behind, over, through, and
parallel.
c. Be spatially aware and in control of your movements
when performing locomotor movements in a group
setting.
d. Understand the basic mechanics behind specialized
skills, such as throwing, kicking, striking, and catching.
e. Appreciate the value of practice in learning motor skills.
Outcomes for developmental levels ii
and iii Students
A. Learn how to gather information to improve skill
performance, including asking friends and coaches,
doing self-evaluation, and also monitoring personal
accomplishments.
b. Understand the importance of repetition and refine-
ment in learning specialized motor skills.
c. Understand how warm-up and cool-down activities
prevent injuries.
d. Apply the mechanics of skill performance to various
settings.
e. Use simple strategies when participating in various lead-
up games (modified rules, equipment, and numbers of
participants).
STAndArd 3: The physically literate individual
demonstrates the knowledge and skills to achieve and
maintain a health-enhancing level of physical activity
and fitness.
In the 2013 standards, physical activity and physical fit-
ness were combined into one standard for the first time.
Although they are combined, these two concepts are vastly
different. Thus, for the purpose of explanation, while in one
standard, they will be discussed separately.
The conceptual basis of including physical activity
as a standard is that active children mature into active
adults (Raitakari et al., 1994). Specifically, learning how to
monitor personal activity levels, plan meaningful activity
programs, and make informed decisions about physi-
cal activity are important outcomes. The PLAY program
(Arizona Department of Health Services, 2004) and the
(ACTIVITYGRAM, Cooper Institute, 2008) is designed
to reward students for monitoring and participating in
daily physical activity. Children need to learn where they
can participate within their community and how they can
join clubs, YMCAs, and sports programs. (Chapter 12
offers information on these programs and suggests ways to
increase children’s physical activity levels.)
Sallis (1994) classifies the factors that influence people
to be active as psychological, social, physical environmental,
and biological. A major role of physical education is to fos-
ter the determinants of active living. Psychological determi-
nants are among the most powerful. For example, students
must enjoy physical activity if they are expected to par-
ticipate as adults. Enjoyment increases when an adequate
level of proficiency is attained in a favored activity. Since
most adults do not participate in activities unless they feel
competent, learning skills becomes a priority in childhood.
Another psychological factor is the rational basis for play,
which can be established through activities transferable to
other situations (e.g., games suitable for small groups and
sports activities adapted to local situations).
Social factors that influence lifetime activity patterns
include the presence of family and peer role models,
encouragement from a significant other, and opportunities
to participate in activities with others in one’s social group.
Physical environmental factors include adequate programs
and facilities, adequate equipment and supplies, safe out-
door environments, and available opportunities near home
and at school. These also include adequate school opportu-
nities, such as recess, physical education classes, intramural
games, recreation programs, and organized sports. Finally,
biological factors include age, gender, and ethnic and/or
socioeconomic status. For more details about the determi-
nants of physical activity, refer to Sallis (1994).
The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans
explains why children need daily physical activity. It is the
first report to recommend how much activity children need
(at least 60 minutes per day). The importance of participat-
ing in different types of physical activity, including lifestyle
activity, active aerobics, active sports and recreation, flex-
ibility, and muscle fitness exercises is also discussed. The
guidelines offer support and direction for teachers who need
to justify increasing their students’ daily physical activity.
Outcomes for developmental level i
Students
A. Show a willingness to try different physical activities.
b. Understand that activities must be enjoyable for each
individual if they are to be used throughout life.
c. Monitor the amount of time spent in short bouts of
activity (e.g., “I played tag for 5 minutes”).
d. Set aside time for play outside of school each day.
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN