Using Spss For Windows and Macintosh 8th Edition Ebook PDF

Using SPSS for Windows and
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Brief Contents
Unit 1 Getting Started with SPSS 1 Unit 6 t Test Procedures 116
Unit 2 Creating and Working with Unit 7 Univariate and Multivariate

Data Files 21 Analysis-of-Variance
Techniques 130
Unit 3 Working with Data 45
Unit 8 Correlation, Regression,
Unit 4 Working with SPSS Graphs and Discriminant Analysis
and Output for Windows 59 Procedures 186
Unit 5 Creating Variables and Unit 9 Scaling Procedures 226

Computing Descriptive
Statistics 86 Unit 10 Nonparametric Procedures 252
vii
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Contents
Preface xiii 10.2: Exporting Data 37
Acknowledgments xvi 10.3: Importing Data 40
About the Authors xvii Lesson 11 Validating SPSS Data 41
Unit 1 Getting Started with SPSS 1 11.1: Validating a Data Set

11.2: Loading the Predefined Rules
41
41
Lesson 1 Starting SPSS 2 11.3: Using a Single-Variable Rule 43
1.1: The SPSS Opening Window 2
Lesson 2 The SPSS Main Menus and Toolbar 5
Unit 3 Working with Data 45
2.1: The SPSS Main Menus 5 Lesson 12 Finding Values, Variables, and Cases 45
2.2: The Data Files 10 12.1: Finding Things 45
Lesson 3 Using SPSS Help 13 Lesson 13 Recoding Data and Computing Values 48
3.1: How to Get Help 13 13.1: Recoding Data 48
3.2: Using Contents 14 13.2: Computing Values 49
Lesson 4 A Brief SPSS Tour 17 Lesson 14 Sorting, Transposing, and Ranking Data 52
4.1: Opening a File 17 14.1: Sorting Data 52
4.2: Working with Appearance 17 14.2: Transposing Cases and Variables 53
4.3: Creating a New Variable 18 14.3: Assigning Ranks to Data 54
4.4: A Simple Table 18 Lesson 15 Splitting and Merging Files 55
4.5: A Simple Analysis 18 15.1: Splitting Files 55
Unit 2 Creating and Working with

15.2: Merging Files 55
Data Files 21 Unit 4 Working with SPSS Graphs

Lesson 5 Defining Variables 22 and Output for Windows 59
5.1: Having SPSS Define Variables 22 Lesson 16A Creating an SPSS Graph 60
5.2: Custom Defining Variables: Using the 16A.1: Creating a Simple Graph 60
Variable View Window 22
16A.2: Different SPSS Graphs 62
Lesson 6 Entering and Editing Data 26
Lesson 16B Creating an SPSS Chart 63
6.1: Getting Ready for Data 26
16B.1: Creating a Simple Chart 63
6.2: Entering Data 26
16B.2: Different SPSS Charts 65
6.3: Editing Data 27
Lesson 17A Enhancing SPSS Graphs 66
6.4: Saving a Data File 28
17A.1: Modifying a Chart 66
Lesson 7 Inserting and Deleting Cases and Variables 30
17A.2: Setting Chart Preferences 71
7.1: Inserting a Case and a Variable 30
17A.3: A Few More Things 72
7.2: Deleting a Case and a Variable 31
17A.4: Using a Chart Template and Creating an
Lesson 8 Selecting, Copying, Cutting, and Pasting Data 32 APA-Style Graph 72
8.1: Copying, Cutting, and Pasting 32 Lesson 17B Enhancing SPSS Charts 73
8.2: Copying and Pasting 34 17B.1: Modifying a Chart 73
8.3: Where Copied or Cut Data Go 35
Lesson 18A Using the Viewer and Pivot Tables 77
Lesson 9 Printing and Exiting an SPSS Data File 35 18A.1: Saving Viewer Output 78
9.1: Printing with SPSS 35 18A.2: To Selectively Show and Hide Results 78
9.2: Creating PDF Documents 36 18A.3: Printing the Contents of the Viewer Window 79
9.3: Exiting SPSS 37 18A.4: Printing a Selection from the Viewer Window 79
Lesson 10 Exporting and Importing SPSS Data 37 18A.5: Deleting Output 79
10.1: Getting Started: Exporting and Importing Data 37 18A.6: Moving Output 79
ix
x Contents
18A.7: An Introduction to Pivot Tables 80 Lesson 23 Paired-Samples t Test 121

18A.8: Changing Table Appearance 81 23.1: Applications of the Paired-Samples t Test 121
Lesson 18B Using the Viewer 83 23.2: Understanding the Paired-Samples t Test 121
18B.1: Saving Viewer Output 83 23.3: The Data Set 122
18B.2: To Selectively Show and Hide Results 84 23.4: The Research Question 122
18B.3: Printing the Contents of the 23.5: Conducting a Paired-Samples t Test 122
Viewer Window 84 23.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 123
18B.4: Deleting Output 85 23.7: An APA Results Section 124
18B.5: Moving Output 85 23.8: Alternative Analyses 124
Lesson 24 Independent-Samples t Test 125
Unit 5 Creating Variables and 24.1: Applications of the Independent-Samples t Test 125
Computing Descriptive 24.2: Understanding the Independent-Samples t Test 125
Statistics 86 24.3: The Data Set 126
24.4: The Research Question 126
Lesson 19 Creating Variables 88 24.5: Conducting an Independent-Samples t Test 127
19.1: Applications for Creating Variables 88 24.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 128
19.2: The Data Set 88 24.7: An APA Results Section 128
19.3: Creating Variables 89 24.8: Alternative Analyses 129
Lesson 20 Univariate Descriptive Statistics for
Qualitative Variables 99
20.1: Applications for Describing Unit 7 Univariate and Multivariate
Qualitative Variables 99 Analysis-of-Variance
20.2: Understanding Descriptive Statistics Techniques 130
for Qualitative Variables 99
Lesson 25 One-Way Analysis of Variance 131
20.3: The Data Set 99
25.1: Applications of One-Way ANOVA 131
25.2: Understanding One-Way ANOVA 132
20.5: Conducting Descriptive Statistics for
Qualitative Variables 100 25.3: The Data Set 133
20.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 100 25.4: The Research Question 133
20.7: An APA Participants Section 102 25.5: Conducting a One-Way ANOVA 133
25.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display
Lesson 21 Univariate Descriptive Statistics for
the Results 136
Quantitative Variables 104
25.7: An APA Results Section 136
21.1: Applications for Describing
25.8: Writing an APA Results Section 136
Quantitative Variables 105
25.9: Alternative Analyses 137
21.2: Understanding Descriptive Statistics for
Quantitative Variables 105 Lesson 26 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 138
21.3: The Data Set 106 26.1: Applications of Two-Way ANOVA 138
21.4: Conducting Descriptive Statistics for 26.2: Understanding Two-Way ANOVA 139
Quantitative Variables 106 26.3: The Data Set 140
21.6: An APA Participants Section 113 26.5: Conducting a Two-Way ANOVA 140
21.7: Creating Figures in APA Format 113 26.6: Conducting Follow-up Analyses to a
21.8: Creating Tables in APA Format 114 Significant Main Effect 142
26.7: Conducting Follow-up Analyses to a
Unit 6 t Test Procedures 116 Significant Interaction
26.8: Using SPSS Graphs to Display Results
143
148
Lesson 22 One-Sample t Test 116 26.9: Two APA Results Sections 148
22.1: Applications of the One-Sample t Test 117 26.10: A Word of Caution: Additional Complexities
22.2: Understanding the One-Sample t Test 117 Occur with Unequal Sample Sizes
22.3: The Data Set 118 across Cells 149
22.4: The Research Question 118 Lesson 27 One-Way Analysis of Covariance 151
22.5: Conducting a One-Sample t Test 118 27.1: Applications of the One-Way ANCOVA 151
22.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 119 27.2: Understanding One-Way ANCOVA 152
22.7: An APA Results Section 119 27.3: The Data Set 154
22.8: Writing an APA Results Section 119 27.4: The Research Question 154
Contents xi
27.5: Conducting a One-Way ANCOVA and 31.7: An APA Results Section 192
Related Analyses 154 31.8: Alternative Analyses 192
27.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 158
Lesson 32 Partial Correlations 193
32.1: Applications of Partial Correlations 193
32.2: Partial Correlation between Two Variables 193
Lesson 28 One-Way Multivariate Analysis 32.3: Understanding Partial Correlations 194
of Variance 161 32.4: The Data Set 195
28.1: Applications of One-Way MANOVA 161 32.5: The Research Question 195
28.2: Understanding One-Way MANOVA 161 32.6: Conducting Partial Correlations 195
28.3: The Data Set 162 32.7: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 197
28.4: The Research Question 163 32.8: An APA Results Section 198
28.5: Conducting a One-Way MANOVA 163 32.9: Alternative Analyses 198
Lesson 33 Bivariate Linear Regression 199
33.1: Applications of Bivariate Linear Regression 200
Lesson 29 One-Way Repeated-Measures 33.2: Understanding Bivariate Linear Regression 200
Analysis of Variance 168 33.3: The Data Set 201
29.1: Applications of One-Way Repeated Measures 33.4: The Research Question 202
ANOVA 168
33.5: Conducting a Bivariate Linear
29.2: Understanding One-Way Repeated-Measures Regression Analysis 202
ANOVA 169
33.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display
29.3: The Data Set 170 the Results 203
29.4: The Research Question 171 33.7: An APA Results Section 204
29.5: Conducting a One-Way Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 171 Lesson 34 Multiple Linear Regression 206
29.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 174 34.1: Applications of Multiple Regression 207
29.7: An APA Results Section 174 34.2: Understanding Multiple Regression 208
Lesson 30 Two-Way Repeated-Measures
Analysis of Variance 176
34.5: Conducting a Multiple Regression 210
30.1: Applications of Two-Way Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 176 34.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display
the Results 214
30.2: Understanding Two-Way Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 177 34.7: Three APA Results Sections 214
30.3: The Data Set 180 34.8: Tips for Writing an APA Results Section
for Multiple Regression 215
30.5: Conducting a Two-Way Repeated-Measures Lesson 35 Discriminant Analysis 216
ANOVA 180 35.1: Applications of Discriminant Analysis 217
30.6: Conducting Tests of Main and Interaction 35.2: Understanding Discriminant Analysis 217
Effects 181 35.3: The Data Set 218
30.8: An APA Results Section 184 35.5: Conducting a Discriminant Analysis 218
35.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display t
Unit 8
he Results 223
Correlation, Regression, 35.7: An APA Results Section 223
and Discriminant Analysis 35.8: Alternative Analyses 224
Procedures 186
Lesson 31 Pearson Product-Moment Unit 9 Scaling Procedures 226
Correlation Coefficient 187
31.1: Applications of the Pearson Correlation Lesson 36 Factor Analysis 227
Coefficient 187 36.1: Applications of Factor Analysis 227
31.2: Understanding the Pearson Correlation 36.2: Understanding Factor Analysis 227
Coefficient 188 36.3: The Data Set 228
31.3: The Data Set 188 36.4: The Research Question 229
31.4: The Research Question 188 36.5: Conducting Factor Analysis 229
31.5: Conducting Pearson Correlation Coefficients 189 36.6: An APA Results Section 233
31.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 190 36.7: Alternative Analyses 233
xii Contents
Lesson 37 Internal Consistency Estimates Lesson 42 Two Independent-Samples Test:

of Reliability 235 The Mann-Whitney U Test 270
37.1: Applications of Internal Consistency Estimates 42.1: Applications of the Mann-Whitney U Test 270
of Reliability 235 42.2: Understanding the Mann-Whitney U Test 270
37.2: Understanding Internal Consistency Estimates 42.3: The Data Set 271
of Reliability 236 42.4: The Research Question 272
37.3: The Data Set 237 42.5: Conducting a Mann-Whitney U Test 272
37.4: The Research Question 237 42.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 272
37.5: Conducting a Reliability Analysis 237 42.7: An APA Results Section 273
37.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 239 42.8: Alternative Analyses 273
Lesson 43 K Independent-Samples Tests:
Lesson 38 Item Analysis Using the Reliability The Kruskal-Wallis and the Median Tests 274
Procedure 241 43.1: Applications of the Kruskal-Wallis and the
38.1: Applications of Item Analysis 241 Median Tests 274
38.2: Understanding Item Analysis 242 43.2: Understanding the Kruskal-Wallis and
38.3: The Data Set 242 Median Test 274
38.4: The Research Question 243 43.3: The Data Set 276
38.5: Conducting Item Analyses 243 43.4: The Research Question 276
38.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 247 43.5: Conducting a K Independent-Samples Test 276
38.7: Two APA Results Sections 247 43.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display the Results 280
38.8: Alternative Analyses 250 43.7: Two APA Results Sections 280
Unit 10 Nonparametric Procedures 252

Lesson 44 Two Related-Samples Tests: The McNemar,
the Sign, and the Wilcoxon Tests 282
Lesson 39 Binomial Test 253 44.1: Applications of the McNemar, Sign, and
39.1: Applications of the Binomial Test 254 Wilcoxon Tests 282
39.2: Understanding the Binomial Test 254 44.2: Understanding the McNemar, Sign, and
Wilcoxon Tests 283
39.5: Conducting a Binomial Test 255
44.5: Conducting Tests for Two Related Samples 285
44.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display Results 286
44.7: Three APA Results Sections 286
Lesson 40 One-Sample Chi-Square Test 257
Lesson 45 K Related-Samples Tests: The Friedman
40.1: Applications of the One-Sample Chi-Square Test 258
and the Cochran Tests 288
40.2: Understanding the One-Sample Chi-Square Test 259
45.1: Applications of the Cochran and Friedman Tests 288
45.2: Understanding the Cochran and Friedman Tests 289
40.5: Conducting a One-Sample Chi-Square Test 260
45.5: Conducting K Related-Samples Tests 290
45.6: Using SPSS Graphs to Display Results 292
45.7: Two APA Results Sections 293
Lesson 41 Two-Way Contingency Table Analysis
Using Crosstabs 263
41.1: Applications of a Two-Way Contingency Appendix A Data for Crab Scale and
Table Analysis 264 Teacher Scale 294
41.2: Understanding a Two-Way Contingency
Table Analysis 264 Appendix B Methods for Controlling Type I Error
41.3: The Data Set 265 across Multiple Hypothesis Tests 296
41.4: The Research Question 265 Appendix C Selected Answers to Lesson
41.5: Conducting a Two-Way Contingency Exercises 298
Table Analysis 265
References 314
41.7: An APA Results Section 269 Index 315
Preface
I
t’s our pleasure to be part of the eighth edition of about each of the options, so students feel as if they are
Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and making uninformed decisions.
Understanding Data. Our objective has been to make each • Obstacle 3: The amount of output and numbers pro-
revision of our book more accessible and readable, so that duced by any statistical procedure is enough to cower
readers can properly conduct statistical analyses with SPSS
most researchers if they are forced to explain their
and make appropriate interpretations of the obtained results.
meaning. How can students who are taking statistics
The development of easy-to-use statistical software like
for the first time feel confident about interpreting out-
SPSS has changed the way statistics is being taught and
put from an SPSS procedure? In trying to understand
learned. No longer do students have to learn a system of
output, they are likely to face language problems. For
elaborate code to conduct simple or complex analyses.
example, “What is a significant F value? Is it the same
Instead, students simply enter their data into the easy-
to-use Data Editor. They can then select items from a as the p value that the instructor is talking about? No, it
drop-down menu to make appropriate transformations of couldn’t be, or she or he would have told us.”
variables, click options from another menu to create graphs Researchers, graduate students, and more advanced
of distributions of variables, select among various statisti- undergraduate students are going to face additional
cal analyses by clicking on appropriate options, and more. obstacles.
With a minimal amount of time and effort, the output is • Obstacle 4: Users can think of a number of different
displayed, showing the results. ways to analyze their data, but they are unsure about
Researchers also have benefited from applications like which way would yield the most understanding of
SPSS. They do not have to spend time reacquainting them- their results and not violate the assumptions underly-
selves with the ins and outs of a statistical software package ing the analyses.
or learning new programs for conducting analyses that take
hours to master. They also do not have to teach assistants • Obstacle 5: Even if users make all good decisions about
how to write code to produce analyses, or examine and reex- statistical approaches and understand the output, they
amine code that has produced error messages that do not still must write a Results section that conforms to the
really indicate what is wrong. Everyone can just point and American Psychological Association (APA) format.
click. More sophisticated users can use the syntax features. Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and
In general, programs like SPSS have made life easier Understanding Data for Version 23 of SPSS helps readers
for students who are learning statistics, for teachers who overcome all of the obstacles discussed earlier.
are teaching statistics, and for researchers who are applying The book is divided into 10 units, which are as follows:
statistics. Nevertheless, many users of these programs find Units 1 to 4 guide students through the most basic of
“doing statistics” an arduous, unenjoyable task. They still SPSS techniques and use a step-by-step description to mas-
are faced with many potential obstacles, and they feel over- ter such techniques.
whelmed and stressed rather than challenged and excited Unit 1, “Getting Started with SPSS,” shows the student
about the potential for mastering these important skills. how to get started using SPSS, including a survey of the
What are some of the obstacles that students, in particu- main menus, a description of how to use SPSS Help, and a
lar, face when they are trying to conduct statistical analyses brief tour of what SPSS can do.
with SPSS? Unit 2, “Creating and Working with Data Files,” goes
through the steps of defining variables, showing how data
• Obstacle 1: Although SPSS is easy to use, many students
are entered and edited, how to use the Data Editor and the
and first-time users find it very complex. They have
data view screens, how to print SPSS data files, and how to
to learn how to input data into the Data Editor, save
import and export information to and from SPSS.
and retrieve data, make transformations to data, con-
Unit 3, “Working with Data,” describes how to find
duct analyses, manipulate output, create graphs, edit
and replace data, recode and compute values, sort data,
graphs, and so on. and merge and split files.
• Obstacle 2: Students can feel helpless. Although they Unit 4, “Working with SPSS Graphs and Output for
know how to point and click, they are frequently con- Windows,” teaches the student how to create and enhance
fronted with new dialog boxes with many decisions to SPSS charts as well as how to work with SPSS out-
make. Their instructor does not have the time to talk put including pivot tables. SPSS Windows (version 23)
xiii
xiv Preface
and Macintosh (version 23) differ in the way that graphics This eighth edition of Using SPSS for Windows and
are created and edited, and, thus, there is a separate sec- Macintosh includes the following changes:
tion covering each—Lesson 16A for Windows and Lesson
• Revisions to instructions have been made to ensure
16B for the Macintosh. SPSS is becoming increasingly
they are consistent with the latest version of SPSS.
cross-platform, and if you know the Windows version, you
can easily adapt to the Macintosh version (and vice versa). • New exercises have been added to the end of lessons.
Each unit from 5 through 10 presents a set of statis- • Revisions to statistical information have been made to
tical techniques and a step-by-step description of how make it more accessible to readers.
to conduct the statistical analyses. This is not, however, Also, please note the following:
a “cookbook” format. We provide extensive substantive
• While this edition of Using SPSS for Windows and
information about each statistical technique, including a
Macintosh focuses on version 23, the material within the
brief discussion of the statistical technique under consider-
chapters is directly applicable to other versions of SPSS
ation, examples of how the statistic is applied, the assump-
as well. In other words, version 23 is backward compat-
tions underlying the statistic, a description of the effect size
for the statistic, a sample data set that can be analyzed with ible with most earlier versions of SPSS. While there may
the statistic, the research question associated with the data be some slight differences, and earlier versions offer
set, step-by-step instructions for how to complete the anal- fewer features, the user should have no difficulty adapt-
ysis using the sample data set, a discussion of the results ing these materials to the version he or she has available.
of the analysis, a visual display of the results using SPSS Please note that SPSS is developed and owned by
graphic options, a Results section describing the results in IBM and is formally referred to as IBM SPSS Statistics.
APA format, alternative analytical techniques (when avail-
able), and practice exercises. Online Data Files
Unit 5, “Creating Variables and Computing Descriptive
All the data files that you will need to work through the les-
Statistics,” shows how to create new variables from existing
sons in Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh are available
ones and discusses the basic procedures for describing
on the Web through the instructor. You can request your
qualitative and quantitative variables.
instructors for the same who can download and distribute
Unit 6, “t Test Procedures,” focuses on comparing
the data files from the Pearson’s website at http://www.
means and shows how to use a variety of techniques,
pearsonhighered.com. Several data sets—particularly, Crab
including independent and dependent t tests and the one-
Scale Results and Teacher Scale Results—will be intro-
sample t test.
duced as you work through the first 18 lessons. A detailed
Unit 7, “Univariate and Multivariate Analysis-of-
description of these two files is provided in Appendix A.
Variance Techniques,” focuses on the family of analysis-
There are two more types of data sets used in the later
of-variance techniques, including one-way and two-way
units. The first are data files that may be used when learn-
analyses of variance, analysis of covariance, and multivari-
ing particular SPSS procedures, such as paired-samples,
ate analysis of variance.
t test, or factor analysis. Any of these files can be easily
Unit 8, “Correlation, Regression, and Discriminant
identified since they are named, for example, Lesson 23 Data
Analysis Procedures,” includes simple techniques such as
File 1 or Lesson 36 Data File 1. Also used in the second half
bivariate correlational analysis and bivariate regression
of the book are data files for completing exercises at the end
analysis, as well as more complex analyses such as partial
of lessons. These are named, for example, Lesson 23 Exercise
correlational analysis, multiple linear regression, and dis-
File 1 or Lesson 36 Exercise File 2.
criminant analysis.
Please note that the Web site does not contain any execut-
Unit 9, “Scaling Procedures,” focuses on factor analy-
able SPSS data files. You need to have access to SPSS to use
sis, reliability estimation, and item analysis.
these files, as most users of this book will, at the school, com-
Unit 10, “Nonparametric Procedures,” discusses a
pany, or other institution. SPSS (at http://www.ibm.com
variety of nonparametric techniques, including such tests
/analytics/us/en/technology/spss/) offers a wide price
as the binomial, one-sample chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis,
range packages, including those for students.
McNemar, Friedman, and Cochran tests.
Other Features of The Book

New to This Edition LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the beginning of each unit,
Version 23 of SPSS for Windows and the Macintosh offers you will see a list of objectives—skills that you will master
additional features of great value. For more details about when you successfully complete the content of the lesson
these features, refer to the SPSS Web site http://www-01 and work through all of the exercises in the lesson. These
.ibm.com/common/ssi/cgi-bin/ssialias?infotype%3DPM advanced objectives indicate what you can expect, and
%26subtype%3DSP%26htmlfid%3DYTD03023USEN. what is expected of you.
Preface xv
TyPING CONVENTIONS There is only one typing con- • 2 gigabytes of available hard-disk space. If you install
vention you must attend to throughout this book. A sequence more than one help language, each additional language
of actions is represented by what options are selected from requires 60–70 MB of disk space.
what menu, connected by an arrow like this S. • DVD/CD drive (unless downloaded online).
For example, if a certain procedure requires clicking on
the File menu and then clicking the New option, it would • 1024 * 768 or a higher-resolution monitor.
be represented as follows.
1. Click File S New.

System Requirements for SPSS 23
for Mac OS X
ExAMPLES Each lesson includes step-by-step procedures,
with copious illustrations of screen shots, for successfully If you are using SPSS 23 for Macintosh, then your system
completing a technique with sample data. Exercises at the end must meet the following minimal requirements:
of each lesson allow you to practice what you have learned. • Mac OS® X 10.10 or higher (Yosemite).
TIPS Some of the lessons contain tips (in the margins) that • Intel processor.
will help you learn SPSS and will teach you shortcuts that • 4 gigabytes (GB) of RAM or more.
make SPSS easier to use.
• 2 gigabytes of available hard-disk space. If you install
more than one help language, each additional language
System Requirements for SPSS 23 requires 60–70 MB of disk space.
for Windows • DVD/CD drive.
If you are using SPSS 23 for Windows, then your system • 1024 * 768 or a higher-resolution monitor.
must meet the following minimal requirements:
Version 23 for both Windows and the Macintosh are
• Microsoft Windows, Windows 7, and Windows 8 and virtually identical. The same differences in keystrokes that
10 (plus Windows Server) apply between the operating systems also apply for the use
• Intel or AMD processor running at 1 gigahertz (GHz) of SPSS. For example, to select all the files listed in a dialog
or higher. box in the Mac version, use the Command (also known as
the Apple key) + A key combination. For Windows, it’s the
• 4 gigabytes (GB) of RAM or more.
CTRL+A key combination.
Acknowledgments
N
o book is ever the work of only the authors. Thank you for using this book. We hope it makes
Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh was first your SPSS activities easy to learn, fun to use, and helpful.
contracted with Chris Cardone, whom we would Should you have any comments about the book (good,
like to thank for giving us the opportunity to under- bad, or otherwise), feel free to contact us at the e-mail
take the project. Chris remains a good colleague and a addresses listed below.
better friend.
Samuel B. Green
We would like to thank the many instructors and
samgreen@asu.edu
students who have contacted us about the book. We have
very much appreciated your positive comments and your Neil J. Salkind
constructive suggestions. njs@ku.edu
xvi
About the Authors
SAM GREEN is Professor NEIL J. SALkIND received
in the T. Denny Sanford his Ph.D. from the Univer-
School of Social and Family sity of Maryland in Human
Dynamics at the Arizona Development and is Professor
State University. He teaches Emeritus in the Department of
undergraduate and graduate Educational Psychology at the
courses in statistics for stu- University of Kansas. He was
dents in the behavioral sci- a postdoctoral fellow at the
ences. He conducts research University of North Carolina’s
© Marilyn Thompson © Leni Salkind
primarily in the areas of struc- Bush Center for Child and
tural equation modeling, multivariate analyses of means, Family Policy. He has published more than 150 professional
exploratory factory analysis, measurement invariance, anal- papers and presentations, has written more than 100 trade
ysis of item data, and reliability. He is currently on the edito- and textbooks, including Statistics for People Who Think They
rial boards of Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Hate Statistics (Sage), Theories of Human Development (Sage),
Journal, Psychological Methods, Educational and Psychological and Exploring Research (Pearson), and has edited several
Measurement, and Journal of Counseling Psychology. He is also encyclopedias including the Encyclopedia of Human Develop-
a past chair of the Structural Equation Modeling Special ment and the Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics. He
Interest Group of the American Educational Research was the editor of Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography.
Association. Neil has a wonderful wife, Leni, and three terrific chil-
Sam has a wonderful wife, Marilyn Thompson, and dren, Sara, Micah, and Ted. To relax, he likes to letterpress
three terrific daughters, Julie, Sarah, and Leah. He en- print using equipment dating back to Karl Pearson, read,
joys playing with his grandchildren. To relax, he likes to swim with the River City Sharks, bake brownies (see the
run, read novels, eat good food, travel, and get together recipe at www.statisticsforpeople.com), and poke around
with friends. old Volvos and old houses.
xvii
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Unit 1
Getting Started with SPSS
Outline
Lesson 1: Starting SPSS Lesson 4: A Brief SPSS Tour
• The SPSS Opening Window • Opening a File
• Working with Appearance
Lesson 2: The SPSS Main Menus and Toolbar
• Creating a New Variable
• The SPSS Main Menus
• A Simple Table
• The Data Files
• A Simple Analysis
Lesson 3: Using SPSS Help
• How to Get Help
• Using Contents
Learning Objectives
Lesson 1: Identify the steps of using SPSS with Lesson 3: Outline the usefulness of the SPSS
respect to Windows and Mac applications online help
Lesson 2: Describe the features and functions Lesson 4: Recall how to utilize the analytic
of the SPSS menu and its toolbar procedures of the SPSS
You’re probably familiar with how other personal In Lesson 2, “The SPSS Main Menus and Toolbar,” we
computer applications work, and you will find that introduce you to the opening SPSS window, point out the
many SPSS features operate exactly the same way. various elements in the window, and explain what they do.
You probably already know about dragging, clicking, The main menus in the SPSS window are your opening to
double-clicking, and working with files. If you don’t, all the SPSS features you will learn about in Using SPSS for
you can refer to one of the many basic operating systems Windows and the Macintosh. We also introduce you to the
books available for Windows or the Macintosh operat- toolbar, a collection of icons that perform important tasks
ing systems. We assume that you are familiar with basic with a click of the mouse.
operating systems skills, such as clicking with a mouse, Lesson 3, “Using SPSS Help,” introduces you to SPSS
dragging objects, naming and copying files, printing online help. If you’ve ever used another Windows applica-
documents, and the everyday tasks associated with tion, you know how handy it is to have this type of help
using a personal computer. immediately available and how it can get you through
In this first unit, we introduce you to SPSS, begin- even the most difficult procedures.
ning with how to start SPSS, and walk you through a tour In Lesson 4, “A Brief SPSS Tour,” we provide a simple
so that you know some of the most important features example of what SPSS can do, including simple analysis, the
of SPSS. use of Data View and Variable View, and the creation of a
In Lesson 1, “Starting SPSS,” the first of four lessons in chart. Here we’ll whet your appetite for the terrific power
this unit, you will find out how the SPSS Windows group is and features of SPSS and what is in store for you throughout
organized and how you start SPSS. the book.
1
2 Unit 1
Lesson 1: Starting SPSS

Tip
Lesson 1 Identify the steps of using SPSS with respect
to Windows and Mac applications. As SpSS has evolved over 23 versions, new features
have been added along the way and most important,
With this lesson, you will start your journey on learning how
the various versions (Windows, Macintosh, and Linux)
to use SPSS, a powerful and easy to use data analysis package.
have become increasingly similar in their look, feel,
Keep in mind that throughout these lessons we expect
and functionality. Such is the case now where version
you to work along with us. It’s only through hands-on
23 for Windows and the Macintosh are almost identi-
experiences that you will master the basic and advanced
cal in their performance and if you use one version, you
features of this program.
should be able to use the other. Because there is such
SPSS is started by clicking the icon (or, the name rep-
a large proportion of SpSS users who use the Windows
resenting the program) that represents the application on
version (although the Mac portion is increasing), Using
your Windows or Macintosh desktop. You can also access
SPSS will provide examples from the Windows version.
the SPSS icon through whatever file access tool you regularly
However, in these first few lessons, we will provide some
use. Finally, you can always click on any already existing
Mac screens so you can see the high degree of similarity
SPSS file to open the application (and, of course, that file).
between versions.
The file that executes SPSS may be located in a variety
of places on your computer, depending upon how it was
installed. If you are working off a server (e.g., at a college
or university), you may have to ask for some assistance if presents a series of options that allow you to select from
the SPSS icon is not readily visible. running the SPSS tutorial, typing in data, posing an exist-
ing query, or creating a new query. The opening screens
for the Windows and the Mac applications are virtually
1.1: The SPSS Opening Window identical.
As you can see in Figures 1.1 and 1.2, the opening Figure 1.2 shows the highly similar opening screen for
screen for Windows and the Macintosh versions of SPSS the Macintosh version.
Figure 1.1. The iBM® SpSS® Statistics software (“SpSS”) for Windows opening Screen.
SpSS inc. was acquired by iBM in October, 2009.
Getting Started with SpSS 3
Figure 1.2. The SpSS for the Macintosh opening screen.
On either platform, you can do the following: Although you cannot see it when SPSS first opens,
there is another open (but not active) window as well. This
• Create a new file or a database query,
is the Data View where the actual data for the analysis
• Open a file that you have recently worked with, will be entered. This is where you enter data you want to
• Review some of the new features offered by SPSS 23, use with SPSS once that data have been defined. You can
• Learn about the different modules that SPSS 23 switch between the Variable and the Data views by click-
offers, ing on the tab named as such. We will cover both views in
• Use the SPSS Tutorial feature, and Lesson 5 (Unit 2).
The Viewer displays the results of statistical analy-
• Move immediately to the use of several SPSS
sis and charts that you create. An example of the Viewer
features.
window is shown in Figure 1.4 where the results of a
Should you not want to see this screen each time very simple (descriptive) analysis are shown. A data set
you open SPSS, then click on the “Don’t show this dia- is created in the Data Editor, and once the set is analyzed
log in the future” box in the lower left corner of the or graphed, you examine the results of the analysis in
window. the Viewer.
For our purposes, we will click the Using the Data If you think the Data Editor is similar to a spreadsheet
Editor option (and then click OK) since it is likely to be in form and function, you are right. In form, it certainly
the one you first select upon opening and learning SPSS. is, since the Data Editor consists of rows and columns just
Once you do this, the Variable View window you see in like offered, for example, by Excel and Open Office. Values
Figure 1.3 becomes active. This is where you enter the can be entered and then manipulated. In function as well,
names of the variables you want to work with and de- the Data Editor is much like a spreadsheet. Values that are
scribe their parameters or characteristics. entered can be transformed, sorted, rearranged, and more.
4 Unit 1
Figure 1.3. The SpSS Variable View window.
Figure 1.4. The Viewer.

In addition, SPSS can use formulas to compute new vari-

ables and values from existing ones, as you will learn in
Lesson 12 (Unit 3).
Tip
Also, as you will learn in Lesson 10 (Unit 2), one of To place SpSS on the desktop, open the File Explorer
the many conveniences of SPSS is its ability to import in Windows (in this case, version 10), locate the SpSS
data from a spreadsheet accurately and efficiently. This executive file (spss.exe), and drag it on to the desktop or
ability makes SPSS particularly well suited and pow- right-click and pin it to the taskbar. To place it on the Mac
erful for further analysis of data already available in desktop, just locate it on the hard drive (in the Applications
spreadsheet form. folder) and drag it on to the desktop or to the Dock.
Exercises: Lesson 1
1. What are some of the purposes to which you think how it helps them better understand their area
SPSS can be best used? Use examples from your of study.
own field of study.
3. Why do you think that SPSS may be superior to a
2. Talk with a faculty member or a colleague who uses spreadsheet for the recording and analysis of data?
SPSS and ask him or her how this tool is used and
Lesson 2: The SPSS Main ThE FILE anD EDIT MEnUS The purpose of the File
menu (Figure 2.2) is to, obviously, work with files. Using the
Menus and Toolbar options on this menu, you create new files, open existing
ones, save files in a variety of formats, display information
Lesson 2 Describe the features and functions of the about a file, print a file, and exit SPSS. The File menu can also
SPSS menu and its toolbar. list recently used data files (Recently Used Data) and other
Menus are the key to operating any Windows or Mac recently used files (Recently Used Files), so you can quickly
application, and that is certainly the case with SPSS. Its return to a previous document.
main menus include Help menus for the Windows version For example, when it comes time to start working
(11 menus) and the 11 main menus for the Mac version. They with the file named Teacher Scale Results, you would se-
provide access to every tool and feature that SPSS has to offer. lect Open from the File menu and then select the file name
In this lesson, we will review the contents of each of from the Open dialog box. You will learn more about this
these menus and introduce you to the toolbar, a set of icons process in Lesson 7 (Unit 2).
that takes the place of menu commands. The icons make it When it comes time to cut or copy data and paste it
quick and easy to do anything, from saving a file to print- in another location in the current, or another, data file, you
ing a chart. will go to the Edit menu. You will also seek out options on
the Edit menu to search for data or text, replace text, and
2.1: The SPSS Main Menus

SPSS comes to you with 11 main menus, as you can see in the Tip
opening screen in Figure 2.1. Although you think you may
know all about the File menu and what options are available When items on a menu appear dimmed, it means they are
on it, stick with us through the rest of this lesson to see exactly not available.
what the File menu, and the other ten menus, can do for you.
Figure 2.1. The SpSS main menus.

6 Unit 1
Figure 2.2. The File menu.
set SPSS preferences (or default settings). All these activities ThE VIEW anD DaTa MEnUS Here’s a chance to
and more are found on the Edit menu shown in Figure 2.3. customize your SPSS desktop. Using various commands
For example, if you wanted to find what Mary Jones on the View menu, you can choose to show or hide tool-
scored on the variable named test 1, you could use the Find bars, Status Bar, and grid lines in the Data Editor; change
menu command to search for “Mary Jones” and then read fonts; and use Value Labels. You can see these commands
across the file to find her score on the variable named test 1. in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.3. The Edit menu.

Figure 2.4. The View menu.
For example, if we didn’t want to use labels for vari-

Tip ables or grid lines, we would be sure that these options
(Value Labels and Grid Lines) were not selected.
perhaps the most valuable SpSS command (which is Variables and their values are the central element in
available on many Windows-based applications) is the any SPSS analysis, and you need powerful tools to work
CTRL+Z key combination, which reverses the last data with variables. You have them in SPSS. As you can see in
entry you made. Figure 2.5, on the Data menu there are commands that
allow you to define variable properties, sort cases, merge
Figure 2.5. The Data menu.

8 Unit 1
and aggregate files, and assign weight to cases as you lead to almost any statistical analysis technique you
see fit. might want to use. These range from a simple compu-
tation of a mean and standard deviation to time series
analysis and multiple regression to other very complex
Tip analyses as well.
For example, if you wanted to determine if there
You can set all kinds of default values through the Edit -> is a significant difference between the average rat-
Options dialog box. For example, if you always want three ing that Professor 6 received on a teaching evaluation
decimal places for your data entry, then click the Data Tab form versus the average rating received by Professor
and increase the number of decimal places from 2 to 3. 4, you could look to the Compare Means option on the
Analyze menu.
For example, if we want to sort variables or cases, this ThE GraPhS, UTILITIES, anD aDD-OnS MEnUS
is the menu you would use and the Sort Cases option is the Want to see what those numbers really look like? Go to the
menu that would be selected. Graphs menu where you can create a bar, line, area, and
other types of graphs. Graphs make numbers come alive,
ThE TranSFOrM anD anaLyzE MEnUS There will and you should pay special attention to Lessons 16, 17,
be times when a variable value needs to be transformed or and 18, where we show you how to create, edit, and print
converted to another form or another value. That’s where them. Take a look at Figure 2.8 to see what graph options
the commands on the Transform menu you see in Figure 2.6 are available. With version 23, you also have the opportu-
come in handy. On this menu, you will find commands that nity to use the Chart Builder menu command (where SPSS
allow you to compute new values, create a set of random val- walks you through the creation of a graph) or the Legacy
ues, recode values, replace missing values, and do more. Dialogs menu command where the SPSS interface from
For example, using the Compute Variable command earlier versions is accessible.
on the Transform menu, you could easily compute a new For example, if you want to see test scores as a func-
variable that represents the mean of a set of items. tion of gender, a bar graph (on the Graphs menu) could do
The analyze menu is the meat-and-potatoes menu! it quite nicely.
As you can see in Figure 2.7, there are 20 different op- The Utilities menu is where you can find out informa-
tions on the Analyze menu (and many submenus) that tion about variables and files, and you can define and use
Figure 2.6. The Transform menu.

Figure 2.7. The Analyze menu.
Figure 2.8. The Graphs menu.
sets of variables. You can see these options in Figure 2.9 on is information on SPSS Forecasting and SPSS Data Prep-
the Utilities menu. aration as add-ons.
For example, the Variables option tells us the specif-
ics about each variable, including the name, label type, ThE WInDOW MEnU, hELP MEnU, anD ThE SPSS
and more. TOOLBar anD STaTUS Bar The Window menu and
Add-ons is a kind of catchall menu for commands the help menu function much like any other Windows ap-
that do not conveniently fit elsewhere. For example, there plication menus. The Window menu helps you switch from
10 Unit 1
Figure 2.9. The Utilities menu.
Table 2.1 (on page 11) presents each toolbar icon, its
Tip title, and what it does.
Different screens have different toolbars. For example,
if you use labels for your variables, make sure that the Value as you will see in Lesson 15 (Unit 3), when you create a
Labels option is checked in the View menu. Otherwise, they chart, a new set of icons becomes available on the toolbar.
may be in effect, but they will not be visible. Another useful tool is the Status Bar located at the bot-
tom of the SPSS window. Here, you can see a one-line report
as to what activity SPSS is currently involved in. Messages
one window to another and minimize the SPSS Data Editor such as “SPSS Processor is ready” or “Running [name of the
or Viewer. procedure]” tell you that SPSS is ready for your directions
The Help menu provides online help, and we will or input of data. Or, “Running Means” tells you that SPSS
focus on the Help menu in the next lesson. is in the middle of the procedure named Means. Often, the
What’s the easiest way to use SPSS? Clearly, the easi- procedure is so quickly executed that the message flashes
est way is through the use of the toolbar, the set of icons on the screen for a very short period of time.
that are underneath the menus. You can see the Data View
toolbar in Figure 2.1. Click on the icon, and the command
is performed. So, instead of going to the Utilities menu
to select variables, for example, you can just click on the Tip
Variables icon on the toolbar. You can always tell what
if you are performing an analysis and nothing seems to
function an icon on the toolbar serves by moussing over
be happening, look in the Status Bar at the bottom of the
it (placing the mouse pointer on the icon) and a small box
SpSS Data Windows before you conclude that SpSS or
with a description of the icon’s function will appear.
your computer has locked up. You should be able to see a
message in the Status Bar telling you what SpSS is doing.
Tip
You can always find out what a toolbar icon represents by
placing the mouse cursor on top of the icon. A toolbar tip 2.2: The Data Files
(such as Save File) will appear. Throughout Using SPSS, we will use several sets of data to il-
lustrate various SPSS features, such as entering and working
Table 2.1.
Toolbar icons.
Icon Title What it does
Open data document Opens an already created file
Save this document Saves a new or already created file
Print Prints a file
Recall recently used dialogs Recalls recently used dialog boxes
Undo a user action Undoes a change in formatting or data entry
Redo a user action Reenters a previous change
Go To Case Goes to a numbered case
Go To Variable Goes to a named variable
Variables Provides information about a variable
Run descriptive statistics Computes descriptive statistics
Find Finds a record
Insert Cases Inserts a case in the data file
Insert Variables Inserts a new variable into the data file
Split File Splits a file along a defined variable
Weight Cases Weights cases
Select Cases Selects a set of cases by using a certain criterion
Value Labels Turns labels on and off
Use Variable Sets Creates sets of variables
Show All Variables Shows all the variables in the data set
Spell Check Checks spelling
with data. A detailed description of two of these files is The Crab Scale includes the following six items:
shown in Appendix A and a detailed description follows.
1. I generally feel crabby if someone tries to help me.
2. I generally feel happy when I watch the news.
ThE CraB SCaLE FILE The first data set is a collection
of scores on the Crab Scale and some biographical infor- 3. I generally feel crabby when I watch mothers and
mation for 10 college professors who completed a measure fathers talk baby talk to their babies.
of crabbiness. Table 2.2 (on page 12) gives a summary of the 4. I generally feel happy when I am able to make sarcastic
variables, their definition, and their range of values. comments.
12 Unit 1
Table 2.2.
Crab Scale Summary
Variable Definition Range
id_prof professor’s identification number 1 through 10
sex_prof professor’s gender 1 or 2
Age professor’s age 33 through 64
Rank professor’s rank Assistant, Associate, or Full Professor
School professor’s school Liberal Arts, Business School
crab1 score on item 1 on the Crab Scale
5. I generally feel crabby when I am on a family vacation. You can see the actual set of data in Appendix A. This
6. I generally feel happy when I am beating someone at data file is saved on your SPSS as Crab Scale Results.
a game.
ThE TEaChEr SCaLE FILE No teacher escapes being
A teacher responds to each item on the following
rated by students. The second set of data we will deal with
5-point scale:
here is a set of responses by students concerning the perfor-
1. Totally agree mance of these 10 professors.
2. Agree The second data set is a collection of scores on the
3. In a quandary Teacher Scale and some biographical information for
50 students who completed the Teacher Scale. Scores on
4. Disagree
the Teacher Scale that make up this sample file are also
5. Vicious lies
shown in Appendix A.
The Crab Scale yields two scores: Table 2.3 shows the biographical information we col-
1. The Cross-Situational Crab Index: This index tries to as- lected on each student and their responses to the 5-point
sess whether individuals refuse to be happy regardless scale. We will be using them in examples throughout
of the situation. this book.
2. The True Crab Scale: This index attempts to assess

whether an individual is acting in a true crablike fash-
Table 2.3.
ion: crabby when confronted with a pleasant stimu-
Teacher Scale Summary
lus and happy when confronted with an unpleasant
stimulus. Variable Name Range
id_stud student’s identification 1 through 50
Items 1 through 6 are summed to yield a total score. number
For the Cross-Situational Crabbiness Index, all scores are id_prof professor’s identification 1 through 5
summed together. Items 2, 4, and 6 are happiness items, number
and the scores on these items must be reversed so that sex_stud student’s gender 1 or 2
higher scores indicate more crabbiness, as shown below. teacher1 score for item 1 on the 1 through 5
Teacher Scale
teacher2 score for item 2 on the 1 through 5
Original Scoring Recoded Scoring Teacher Scale
1 5 teacher3 score for item 3 on the 1 through 5
Teacher Scale
2 4
3 3
Teacher Scale
4 2
5 1 Teacher Scale
The Teacher Scale contains the following five items: Items 3 and 4 must be reversed so that higher scores
indicate effectiveness as follows.
1. I love that teacher.
2. My teacher says good stuff. Original Scoring Recoded Scoring
1 5
3. The teacher has trouble talking.
2 4
4. The teacher is a jerk.
3 3
5. My teacher made the boring lively, the unthinkable 4 2
thinkable, the undoable doable. 5 1
Exercises: Lesson 2
1. What file and options combination would you 2. What is the difference between the toolbar and the
use to …? Status Bar?
a. Save a file 3. Under what circumstances would you use the
b. Open a file Transform menu?
c. Perform a descriptive analysis
d. Create a line graph
e. Get help on analysis of variance
Lesson 3: Using SPSS Help

Lesson 3 Outline the usefulness of the SPSS
online help.
If you need help, you’ve come to the right place. SPSS offers
help that is only a few mouse clicks away. It is especially
useful when you are in the middle of creating a data file and
need information about a specific SPSS feature. Help is so
comprehensive that even if you’re a novice SPSS user, SPSS
Help can show you the way. However, since SPSS Help is
Web based, you will need an Internet connection to access it.
3.1: How to Get Help

You can get help in SPSS in several ways. The easiest and
most direct is by using the help menu. As you can see in
Figure 3.1, there are 12 options on the Help menu. The easi-
est and most direct way to get help is to open the menu
item you are working with (or a dialog box) and then press
the F1 key. With the Macintosh version of SPSS, it is by Figure 3.1. The F1 Help options.
pressing the Option + ? key combination.
Here is a brief description of each of the 12 Help menu • Tutorial takes you through illustrated step-by-step
items and what you can do by selecting each. tutorials for major SPSS topics.
• Topics list the topics for which you can get help. You can • Case Studies provides scenarios in the form of case
click on any one of these. As you enter the topic, SPSS studies for the various topics that SPSS covers. For ex-
searches its internal database to find what you need. ample, if you access the t-test case study, you’ll find a
14 Unit 1
general example for when this statistical procedure is • Diagnose provides you with information about the
relevant and how it is used. version of SPSS that is installed and assists in any in-
• Working with r R is an open-source statistical pro- stallation difficulties. This option is not available for
gram and this option discusses how to design R the Mac version.
components that are compatible with R.
• Statistics Coach walks you through the steps you need Tip
to determine what type of analysis you want to conduct.
Want help on Help? Click Help -> Topics, and then enter
• Command Syntax Guide or reference provides you
Help in the Search textbox and click Go.
with information on SPSS programming language.
• SPSS Community is a Web site that offers information
for those who would like to develop programs that 3.2: Using Contents
work with SPSS.
The help S Topics key combination opens the Base System
• about tells you the version of SPSS that you are cur- Help dialog box you see in Figure 3.2 listing all the topics
rently using (not available for the Mac version). for which Help is available. Note that Help is not locally
• algorithms introduces the SPSS user to the use of based (on your desktop or computer) but relies upon an
algorithms for conducting specific procedures in Internet connection, so if your connection is slow, help will
SPSS. be slow in coming.
• SPSS Products home uses your Internet connection
to take you to the home page of SPSS on the Internet.
Syntax Guide provides you with help using SPSS’s
Tip
powerful syntax feature. At the bottom of each window of Help, there is usually a
• Programmability provides options for develop- series of related topics. Just click on any one to take you to
ment activities using such languages as Python and that related topic.
Java.
Figure 3.2. The Topics screen under the Help menu.

Contents presents the major headings for Help. if a descriptive analysis is being conducted, the steps to
Clicking on any heading (such as Core System) pro- access Help would be as follows. SPSS assumes that a
vides a list of possible topics that you can consult for data file is already open.
the help you need. For example, if you want help on
how to compare the means of two samples, you would 1. Click Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Descriptives.
follow these steps: 2. Press the F1 key and you will see Help for that SPSS
options as shown in Figure 3.4.
1. Click Help -> Topics.
2. Click the Core System plus sign. Note that the options
under the Topics listing may not be in alphabetical or-
der so you have to search a bit. Tip
3. Click the Statistics Base option plus sign. Remember that most SpSS dialog boxes contain a Help
4. Click the T Tests plus sign and you will see a list of the button which will provide the same Help screen that
topics within this general heading. you eventually get to using the Help main screen and
5. Click (for example) the topic labeled Independent- Search options.
Samples T Test.
6. Then, on the right-hand side of the Help screen, as
shown in Figure 3.3, you will see the Help screen that USInG ThE SEarCh OPTIOn What if you can’t find a
guides you through the procedure. topic for which you need help? The Search option in Help
allows you to enter any words that may be part of a Help
USInG F1—USInG COnTExT SEnSITIVE hELP The screen rather than just a category. In effect, you are search-
F1 key provides in context help when needed. For example, ing all the words in all the topics.
Figure 3.3. Getting help on a specific topic.

16 Unit 1
Figure 3.4. Getting help on a specific topic using the F1 key.
For example, let’s use the Search option and search on

the term variance and see what SPSS delivers. Follow these
steps. If the Help window is open, close it now.
1. Click Help -> Topics.

2. Type variance in the Search box in the upper left-hand
corner of the Help screen, and then click Go and SPSS
returns a list of topics on the left-hand side of the screen
for which the word is relevant. You can then click on
any topic area to display extensive help.
In Figure 3.5, you can see the topics related to the

word variance for which you can get additional help by
double-clicking on any of the items. Note that you can also
produce the results from a previous search, match similar
words, and search for titles only.
Tip
Remember that SpSS Help is Web based so you must
have some type of internet connection to access it.
If you know exactly what you’re looking for, you can

be specific in your search, but be careful because specificity
can cause you to miss what you are looking for if you are
not sure of your topic’s exact terminology. Figure 3.5. Using the Search tool in Help.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Using SPSS for Windows and

Macintosh 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Unit 2 Creating and Working with Unit 7 Univariate and Multivariate

Unit 5 Creating Variables and Unit 9 Scaling Procedures 226

Unit 1 Getting Started with SPSS 1 11.1: Validating a Data Set

Unit 2 Creating and Working with

Data Files 21 Unit 4 Working with SPSS Graphs

18A.7: An Introduction to Pivot Tables 80 Lesson 23 Paired-Samples t Test 121

Lesson 37 Internal Consistency Estimates Lesson 42 Two Independent-Samples Test:

Unit 10 Nonparametric Procedures 252

Other Features of The Book

1. Click File S New.

Lesson 1: Starting SPSS

Figure 1.2. The SpSS for the Macintosh opening screen.

Figure 1.3. The SpSS Variable View window.

Figure 1.4. The Viewer.

In addition, SPSS can use formulas to compute new vari-

2.1: The SPSS Main Menus

Figure 2.1. The SpSS main menus.

Figure 2.2. The File menu.

Figure 2.3. The Edit menu.

Figure 2.4. The View menu.

For example, if we didn’t want to use labels for vari-

Figure 2.5. The Data menu.

Figure 2.6. The Transform menu.

Figure 2.7. The Analyze menu.

Figure 2.8. The Graphs menu.

Figure 2.9. The Utilities menu.

Open data document Opens an already created file

Save this document Saves a new or already created file

Print Prints a file

Recall recently used dialogs Recalls recently used dialog boxes

Undo a user action Undoes a change in formatting or data entry

Redo a user action Reenters a previous change

Go To Case Goes to a numbered case

Go To Variable Goes to a named variable

Variables Provides information about a variable

Run descriptive statistics Computes descriptive statistics

Find Finds a record

Insert Cases Inserts a case in the data file

Insert Variables Inserts a new variable into the data file

Split File Splits a file along a defined variable

Weight Cases Weights cases

Select Cases Selects a set of cases by using a certain criterion

Value Labels Turns labels on and off

Use Variable Sets Creates sets of variables

Spell Check Checks spelling

2. The True Crab Scale: This index attempts to assess

Lesson 3: Using SPSS Help

3.1: How to Get Help

Figure 3.2. The Topics screen under the Help menu.

Figure 3.3. Getting help on a specific topic.

Figure 3.4. Getting help on a specific topic using the F1 key.

For example, let’s use the Search option and search on

1. Click Help -> Topics.

In Figure 3.5, you can see the topics related to the

If you know exactly what you’re looking for, you can

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY